ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
Dr.PARKAVI KATHIRVELU
Course Objective:
This course enables the learners to acquire knowledge on Electric Vehicle technology and its
Operations
UNIT – I 10 Periods
Introduction and Dynamics of Electric Vehicles
History of Transportation system – Types of Vehicles – Internal combustion engine vehicle,
Battery electric vehicle, Hybrid electric vehicle, Plug–in hybrid electric vehicle and Fuel cell
vehicle – Architecture and power flow – Vehicle movement – Vehicle resistance –
Aerodynamic drag, Rolling resistance and Uphill resistance – Dynamic equation– Power,
Energy and Speed Relationships – well–to–wheel analysis.
UNIT – II
12 Periods
Energy Storage and Charging Schemes of EV
Introduction to Energy storage systems – Types – Batteries– Super capacitor– Flywheel – BEV
Range Estimation – Simple drive cycle for vehicle comparisons – Charging standards and
technologies– Level I, Level II and Level III – Charging Methods – Constant current, Constant
voltage and Constant current and voltage– Basics of Wireless charging scheme.
UNIT – III
11 Periods
Challenges and impacts of EV
Power electronics converters for Grid to Vehicle and Vehicle to Grid operations – Battery
management system – Identification of EV demand–EV penetration level – EV impacts on
power systems – Energy consumption in Braking – Braking power and energy on front and
rear wheels – Brake system of EVs and HEVs – Antilock brake system.
UNIT–IV
12 Periods
Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Classification of electric motor drives for EV and HEV applications–Design criteria for EV
drives– DC motor – Induction motor – BLDC motor– SRM motor–Hub motors – Power Converter
design – Sizing of Energy storage system – Energy Management – Solar powered EV.
TEXTBOOKS
1. John G Hayes , A. Goodarzi, Electric Powertrain – Energy Systems, Power electronics and
drives for Hybrid, electric and fuel cell vehicles, Wiley Publication, 2018.
2. Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, Hybrid Electric Vehicles Principles and Applications with
Practical Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2018.
3. Mehrdad Ehsani, Yimin Gao, Sebastien E. Gay, Ali Emadi, Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric
and Fuel Cell Vehicles, CRC Press, 2010.
REFERENCES
1. K. T. Chau, Electric Vehicle Machines & Drives, IEEE Press & Wiley, 2015.
2. Rodrigo Garcia–Valle, Joao A. Pecas Lopes, Electric Vehicle Integration into Modern
Power Networks, Springer, 2013.
3. Iqbal Husain, Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:Design Fundamentals, CRC Press, 2003.
4. James Larminie & John Lowry, Electric Vehicle Technology Explained, John Wiley &
Sons, 2003.
Why so much interest in EV?
• of 20 most polluted world cities are in India
14
• Nox emissions due to vehicles.
• Nitrogen Oxides are a family of poisonous, highly reactive gases. These gases form
36% when fuel is burned at high temperatures. NOx pollution is emitted by automobiles,
trucks and various non-road vehicles
• PM 2.5 emissions in Delhi due to vehicles
• (Particle pollution from fine particulates (PM2.5) is a concern when
levels in air are unhealthy. Breathing in unhealthy levels of
20% PM2.5 can increase the risk of health problems like heart disease,
asthma, and low birth weight.)
Point of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle Electric Vehicle
Comparison
Source of power The source of power for ICEV is different types of Electricity obtained from charged
fuels such as diesel or petrol. batteries, ultra-capacitors, etc. is the
source of power in electric vehicles.
Prime mover Internal combustion engine (ICE) is the prime Electric motor is the prime mover
mover or powertrain. in the electric vehicles.
Specific energy There is high specific energy of fuel. In electric vehicles, low specific
energy of battery.
Power density Fuels used in ICEV have high power density. In power density of power source is
low.
Impact on ICEV emits green-house gases which have adverse EV does not have adverse effect on
Environment effect on environment. environment.
Travelling ICEV can travel more than around 300 miles per EV travels less than around 100
distance fill. miles per charge.
Refilling time ICEV requires less refilling time (approx. less than EV has long charging time, about
5 min.). 0.5 to 8 hours.
Space & weight fuel tank In ICEV, fuel tank takes less space and the weight of In EV, batter bank takes large. Also, the
fuel is very less. batteries are very heavy.
Maintenance & running The maintenance and running costs of internal The electric vehicles require low
costs combustion engine vehicles are high. running and maintenance costs.
Efficiency The efficiency of IC engines is about 30%. The electric motors used in electric
vehicles have approximately 80%
efficiency.
Noise production IC engine vehicles produces noise. Electric vehicles have noise free
operation.
Recovery of braking energy In case of IC engine vehicles, the braking energy In case of EVs, the braking energy can
cannot be recovered. be recovered by using regenerative
braking.
Time required for IC engine vehicles require to pick up some speed to Electric vehicles produce maximum
maximum torque deliver maximum torque. torque instantly after starting of motor.
Capital cost IC engine vehicles have average initial cost. The initial cost of electric vehicles is
high.
Power transmission In IC engine vehicles, the system of power Electric vehicles have both mechanical
transmission from source to load is mechanical only. as well as electrical power transmission
system.
UNIT – I 10 Periods
Introduction and Dynamics of Electric Vehicles
History of Transportation system – Types of Vehicles – Internal combustion engine vehicle,
Battery electric vehicle, Hybrid electric vehicle, Plug–in hybrid electric vehicle and Fuel cell
vehicle – Architecture and power flow – Vehicle movement – Vehicle resistance –
Aerodynamic drag, Rolling resistance and Uphill resistance – Dynamic equation– Power,
Energy and Speed Relationships – well–to–wheel analysis.
Cont.…
EVS are four times
energy efficient than ICE
ICE efficiency-22 to 23% Has 50 times less moving
part
EV Efficiency- 90%
What is the real
problem in the
development of
EV?
Energy density
energy density refers to the quantity of energy in a material per unit of volume. We also talk about power density.
there are 2 types of energy density:
1. mass energy density, that is to say the quantity of energy stored by unit of mass: this is expressed in watt-hours per
kilogram (Wh/kg): 1 Wh/kg corresponds to 3600 J/kg ;
2. volumetric energy density, that is to say the quantity of energy stored by unit of volume: this is expressed in watt-
hours per litre (Wh/L) or watt-hours per cubic metre (Wh/m3). The unit of volumetric density expressed in Wh/L is
generally used to measure the volumetric energy density of combustible liquids (such as fuels), in contrast to solid
combustibles such as wood or coal.
• the combustion of petrol hydrocarbons (13.1 kWh/kg) or diesel hydrocarbons (12.6 kWh/kg) and fuels such as
hydrogen (34.1 kWh/kg) ;
• an electrochemical reaction produced within lead batteries (0.027 7 kWh/kg) or lithium-ion batteries (0.5 kWh/kg)
• the use of capacitors (0.001 kWh/kg) or supercapacitors (0.155 kWh/kg) to capture kinetic energy and store it in
electrostatic form to be subsequently restored...
The history of the EV
Cont…
Electric Vehicle (EVs) or Electrically Chargeable Vehicles (ECVs)
➢ usually refers to any vehicle that is powered, in part or in full, by a battery that can be directly
plugged into the mains.
Pure-Electric Vehicles (Pure-EVs)
➢ electric vehicles powered only by a battery. At present, most manufacturers of standard
performance cars offer pure-electric cars with a range up to about 100 miles
Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
➢ have an internal combustion engine (ICE) but also a battery range in excess of 10 miles.After
the battery range is utilized, the vehicle reverts to the benefits of full hybrid capability
(utilizing both battery and ICE power) without compromising the range
Extended-Range Electric Vehicles (E-REVs)
➢ are similar to pure-EVs but with a shorter battery range of 50 miles. However, range is extended
by an ICE-driven generator providing many additional miles of mobility. With an E-REV, the
propulsion is always electric, unlike a PHEV where the propulsion can be electric or full hybrid
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
➢ A hybrid vehicle is powered by a battery and/or
an ICE
Summary of EVs and HEVs and their alternative names
Top-level perspective of an EV system
An EV has the following two features:
1. The energy source is portable and chemical or electromechanical in nature.
2. Traction effort is supplied only by an electric motor
Major electrical components and choices for an EV
system
Vehicle Dynamics
How much power is required to drive a Vehicle?
How much energy is required to carry out a road trip?
Aerodynamic Drag
Rolling resistance
Acceleration force
Gradient Resistance
Ptrac Applied to the vehicle to move
➢ Vehicle needs traction power, Ptrac applied for it to move and accelerate
❖ Traction power in internal combustion engine comes form petrol/diesel
❖ Traction power in Ev’s comes from battery through motor and its controllers
❖ The traction power creates a Force Ftrac on the vehicle to move forward
❖ Ptrac= Ftrac*V where V is the velocity of the Vehicle
❖ T= Ftrac * rwheel where rwheel is the radius of the vehicle
Aerodynamic Drag
Aerodynamic Drag
➢ A vehicle traveling at a particular speed in air encounters a force resisting its motion.
➢ This force is referred to as aerodynamic drag. It mainly results from two components: shape
drag and skin friction
Shape drag: The forward motion of the vehicle pushes the air in front of it.
However, the air cannot instantaneously move out of the way and its pressure is thus increased,
resulting in high air pressure. In addition, the air behind the vehicle cannot instantaneously fill
the space left by the forward motion of the vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. The
motion has therefore created two zones of pressure that oppose the motion of a vehicle
by pushing it forward (high pressure in front) and pulling it backward (low
pressure in the back) as shown in Figure . The resulting force on the vehicle is the shape drag.
➢ Aerodynamic drag is a function of vehicle speed V, vehicle frontal area Af, shape of the vehicle,
and air density ρ. Aerodynamic drag is expressed as
Indicative drag coefficients for different body shapes
Architecture of HEV
The key components in an HEV consist of an electric motor (EM), battery, convertor, ICE,
fuel tank and control board. These components can be categorized into three groups:
1.Drivetrains—physically integrate the ICE power source and electric drive.
2.Battery/energy storage system (ESS)—emphasizes large or modest energy storage and
power capabilities.
3.Control system—instructs electric systems/ICE and manages the HESS.
Hybrid Electric vehicle system
Fuel cell Hybrid Vehicle System
Aerodynamic Drag
➢ Aerodynamic drag force is defined as the force which is faced by the vehicle as it moves through the air. This
drag force depends mainly on the front area of the vehicle, side mirrors, ducts, and many other factors.
where ρ is the density of the air, A is the front area of the vehicle, Cd is the drag coefficient constant, and v is
the wind velocity crossing the vehicle. The drag coefficient depends upon the shape of the object and is always
associated with the surface area. A lower value of drag coefficient indicated low aerodynamics of the object.
➢ The aerodynamic drag coefficient is a measure of the effectiveness of a streamline aerodynamic body shape
in reducing the air resistance to the forward motion of a vehicle.
➢ A low drag coefficient implies that the streamline shape of the vehicle's body is such as to enable it to move
easily through the surrounding viscous air with the minimum of resistance;
➢ a high drag coefficient is caused by poor streamlining of the body profile so that there is a high air resistance
when the vehicle is in motion.
Rolling resistance
➢ Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a
body (such as a tire or wheel) rolls on a surface.
➢ There is resistance to the rolling of wheels. Rolling resistance depends on air pressure in tires, the wear and
tear of tires, and road roughness.
Where m [kg] is the vehicle
mass and g = 9.81 m/s2 is the
gravitational acceleration.
Gradient resistance
Forces acting on a vehicle
In the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
1. Electric propulsion
2. Energy source
3. Auxiliary system
➢ The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
1. The electronic controller
2. Power converter
3. Electric Motor
4. Mechanical Transmission
5. Driving Wheels
➢ The energy source subsystem consists of
1. The Energy source
2. Energy Management Unit
3. Energy Refueling Unit
➢ The auxiliary subsystem consists of
1. Power steering unit
2. Temperature control unit
3. Auxiliary Power unit
Types of Batteries Used In Electric
Vehicles & Their Parameters
➢ Lithium-ion batteries are the most commonly used electric car batteries.
➢ Hybrid nickel-metal batteries are only used for hybrid cars yet.
➢ SLA or Lead-Acid batteries have a life span of only 3 years.
Lithium-ion Battery
➢ This is the most widely used electric car battery in the industry
➢ Lithium-ion batteries have an immensely high power-to-weight ratio, making the cars highly energy efficient.
The battery performs quite better than others at high temperatures as well.
Parameters:
Mass energy Density: 100-180 Wh/kg
Volume Energy density: 200-300 Wh/L
Power Density: 1000-1500 W/kg
Self-Discharge rate: 1-5% per month
Hybrid Nickel-Metal (NIMH) battery
Another variant of electric cars is hybrid cars which contain both battery-powered and fuel-powered engines.
These kinds of batteries do not require any outer power source to charge.
The charging of the battery mainly depends on the regenerative braking, speed, and wheels of the car. When
compared to Li-ion batteries, NIMH batteries have a better life cycle and are safer in case of intolerant use.
these batteries have a higher self-discharge rate
Parameters:
Mass energy Density: 40-120 Wh/kg
Volume Energy density: 140-400 Wh/L
Power Density: 300-1000 W/kg
Self-Discharge Rate: ~30% per month
Lead-Acid Battery
SLA or lead-acid is one of the oldest kinds of rechargeable batteries
The main use for this kind of battery is as a secondary storage system for
commercial vehicles
Parameters:
• Mass energy Density:30-40 Wh/kg
• Volume Energy density:60-75 Wh/L
• Power Density:180 W/kg
• Self-Discharge rate:3-20% per month
Lithium-Ion Battery
EV battery
Lithium-Sulfur Solid-State Battery
Solid-State Battery
Solid-state batteries are currently in development, and they've not yet been used in electric
vehicles. According to Toyota, the first electric vehicles with solid-state batteries could be on
the road by 2025.
Lithium-Sulfur
➢ Lithium-sulfur batteries are another alternative to lithium-ion batteries. Similar to solid-state
batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries can deliver more range than lithium-ion batteries.
➢ They're also cheaper to produce with less impact on the environment compared to lithium-ion
batteries
Energy management
➢ Electrical Management: Charging and discharging processes to avoid imbalances
between individual cells and control charging voltage and current based on battery
parameters
➢ Thermal Management: Equalizing temperature between cells/ keep all components at
operating temperature, minimizing power losses
➢ Safety Management: Correct evaluation of sensor outputs and shutdown of elements
found in a high-risk situation, like a crash
Battery Balancing
The purpose of battery balancing is to distribute charge among cells in a battery pack such
that the state of charge (SOC) is very similar across all batteries.
Battery cells are typically arranged in series and parallel configurations to provide higher
voltage and total discharge current respectively.
Review of Power Electronic Converters
in Electric Vehicle Applications
EV charging
Onboard Charging
Isolated full-bridge phase shift converter Isolated full-bridge LLC resonant converter.
Off board Charging
AC bus architecture DC bus architecture
Three-phase bridgeless boost rectifier
Three-phase Vienna rectifier
Wireless Charging
Bi-Directional Converter Topology
Electric Motors used in Electric
Vehicles
DC Series Motor
Brushless DC Motor
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
Three Phase AC Induction Motors
Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM)
DC Series Motor
High starting torque capability of the DC Series motor makes it a suitable option for
traction application.
It was the most widely used motor for traction application in the early 1900s.
The advantages of this motor are easy speed control and it can also withstand a
sudden increase in load.
Brushed DC motors are relatively inexpensive and have a simple design, making
them an attractive option for low-cost Evs.
The main drawback of DC series motor is high maintenance due to brushes and
commutators. These motors are used in Indian railways.
Brushless DC Motors
It is similar to DC motors with Permanent Magnets. It is called brushless because it does not
have the commutator and brush arrangement.
The commutation is done electronically in this motor because of this BLDC motors are
maintenance free.
BLDC motors have traction characteristics like high starting torque, high efficiency around
95-98%, etc.
BLDC motors are suitable for high power density design approach.
Out-runner type BLDC Motor
In this type, the rotor of the motor is present outside and the stator
is present inside.
It is also called as Hub motors because the wheel is directly
connected to the exterior rotor.
This type of motors does not require external gear system. In a few
cases, the motor itself has inbuilt planetary gears.
This motor makes the overall vehicle less bulky as it does not
require any gear system.
It also eliminates the space required for mounting the motor.
There is a restriction on the motor dimensions which limits the
power output in the in-runner configuration.
This motor is widely preferred by electric cycle manufacturers like
Hullikal, Tronx, Spero, light speed bicycles, etc.
It is also used by two-wheeler manufacturers like 22 Motors, NDS
Eco Motors, etc.
In-runner type BLDC Motor
In this type, the rotor of the motor is present inside and the stator is
outside like conventional motors.
These motor require an external transmission system to transfer the
power to the wheels, because of this the out-runner configuration is
little bulky when compared to the in-runner configuration.
Many three- wheeler manufacturers like Goenka Electric Motors,
Speego Vehicles, Kinetic Green, Volta Automotive use BLDC motors.
Low and medium performance scooter manufacturers also use BLDC
motors for propulsion.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motor (PMSM)
This motor is also similar to BLDC motor which has permanent magnets on
the rotor.
Similar to BLDC motors these motors also have traction characteristics like
high power density and high efficiency.
The difference is that PMSM has sinusoidal back EMF whereas BLDC has
trapezoidal back EMF.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous motors are available for higher power
ratings.
PMSM is the best choice for high performance applications like cars, buses.
Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motor (PMSM)
Despite the high cost, PMSM is providing stiff competition to induction motors due to
increased efficiency than the latter.
PMSM is also costlier than BLDC motors.
Most of the automotive manufacturers use PMSM motors for their hybrid and electric
vehicles.
For example, Toyota Prius, Chevrolet Bolt EV, Ford Focus Electric, zero motorcycles S/SR,
Nissan Leaf, Hinda Accord, BMW i3, etc use PMSM motor for propulsion.
Three Phase AC Induction Motors
The induction motors do not have a high starting toque like DC series
motors under fixed voltage and fixed frequency operation.
But this characteristic can be altered by using various control techniques
like FOC or v/f methods.
By using these control methods, the maximum torque is made available at
the starting of the motor which is suitable for traction application.
Squirrel cage induction motors have a long life due to less maintenance.
Induction motors can be designed up to an efficiency of 92-95%.
The drawback of an induction motor is that it requires complex inverter
circuit and control of the motor is difficult.
The induction motors
Tesla Model S is the best example to prove the high performance capability of induction motors compared to its
counterparts.
By opting for induction motors, Tesla might have wanted to eliminate the dependency on permanent magnets.
Mahindra Reva e2o uses a three phase induction motor for its propulsion.
Major automotive manufacturers like TATA motors have planned to use Induction motors in their cars and buses.
The two-wheeler manufacturer TVS motors will be launching an electric scooter which uses induction motor for its
propulsion.
Induction motors are the preferred choice for performance oriented electric vehicles due to its cheap cost. The
other advantage is that it can withstand rugged environmental conditions.
Due to these advantages, the Indian railways has started replacing its DC motors with AC induction motors.
Switched Reluctance Motors (SRM)
Switched Reluctance Motors is a category of variable reluctance motor with double saliency.
Switched Reluctance motors are simple in construction and robust.
The rotor of the SRM is a piece of laminated steel with no windings or permanent magnets on it. This
makes the inertia of the rotor less which helps in high acceleration.
The robust nature of SRM makes it suitable for the high speed application.
SRM also offers high power density which are some required characteristics of Electric Vehicles.
Since the heat generated is mostly confined to the stator, it is easier to cool the motor.
The biggest drawback of the SRM is the complexity in control and increase in the switching circuit.
It also has some noise issues.
Once SRM enters the commercial market, it can replace the PMSM and Induction motors in the
future.
Well-to-wheel analysis
The well-to-wheel analysis is a non standardized method to quantify the impact of
transportation fuels and vehicles regarding energy and climate change.
Usually carbon dioxide or GHG emissions (according to IPCC, 2007), as well as
other emissions, energy demand and efficiency, are investigated within such an
analysis.
A well-to-wheel analysis can be subdivided into two parts
1. the well-to-tank (energy provision)
2. the tank-to-wheel (vehicle efficiency) analysis.
The term “well-to-wheel” refers to the entire process of energy flow, from the
mining of the energy source to a vehicle being driven
the well-to-wheel process of BEVs includes nine steps: 1) extraction (well), 2)
transport, 3) refining, 4) distribution, 5) power generation, 6) power transmission
and distribution, 7) charging, 8) motor, and 9) wheel.
Energy flow in BEV
Well-wheel efficiencies
A Comparison by Efficiency of Conventional, Hybrid,
Battery, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
