Structures 68 (2024) 107238

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Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/structures

Experimental study on the in-plane behavior of mud brick walls

strengthened with bamboo strip mesh and dried jute thread
Mohammad Aizaz * , Khan Shahzada *, Akhtar Gul , Muhammad Saqib
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Peshawar, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Despite advancements in modern structural engineering, adobe and mud brick constructions persisted as
Mud-brick walls important housing options for a significant percentage of the world’s population. However, because of their low
Strengthening strength and brittle nature, they are susceptible to natural disasters, especially earthquakes, which is a concern
Bamboo strips
for many mud-brick buildings found in seismically active areas. To address this issue, this research investigated
Dried jute thread
Diagonal shear loading
the in-plane behavior of 4 ft x 4 ft mud-brick walls strengthened with locally available materials i.e. Bamboo
Strips and Dried Jute Thread in mesh format with various spacing. The specimens were subjected to compressive
and diagonal shear loading separately. The data collected was analyzed to determine the important mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, shear strength, modulus of rigidity, and energy
absorption. Notably, the bamboo strips technique improved these properties by 30 %, 19 %, 96 %, 82 %, and
195 %, respectively. The dried jute thread wrapping technique, on the other hand, demonstrated even greater
improvements with increases of 40 %, 69 %, 102 %, 110 %, and 314 % for the same properties. Based on the
experimental results, the proposed technique can be applied to mud-brick wall in seismically active areas.

1. Introduction if they are not adequately reinforced, as evidenced by recent earth­

quakes that have damaged them [8–10]. The Bam citadel, the largest
Mud-brick is the oldest and most common masonry material used in mud brick structure, was severely damaged during the 2003 Bam
the construction of houses [1]. It is estimated that one-third of the earthquake. During the Bam 2003 earthquake, most adobe buildings
world’s population, as well as 50 % of the population in developing were collapsed, over 26,000 people died, and more than 60,000 were
countries, still live in earthen structures [2–4]. Good adaptability, left homeless [11–13].
cost-effectiveness, feasibility, local viability of materials and speed in To tackle the aforementioned issue, researchers have used experi­
construction are some of the advantages of these materials [5]. Studies mental testing to investigate the effectiveness of various retrofitting
estimate that sun-dried mud can reduce carbon emissions by up to 5907 techniques. Several researchers performed dynamic tests on reduced-
kg CO₂ per 1000 bricks compared to burnt bricks [6]. This is a 90 % scale of adobe masonry dwellings that were reinforced with mesh
reduction in carbon footprint compared to burned clay bricks. Further­ reinforcement embedded in mud-mortar [14,15]. Some of the re­
more, it is expected that earthen structures in developing countries will searchers used horizontal low-cost post-tensioning straps [16], and in­
continue to exist not only for economic reasons, but also for cultural ternal and external interconnected grid systems [17,18]. Similarly, the
tradition and identity [7]. The main issue with these buildings is that use of mud injection and an external rope mesh as reinforcement tech­
they are not designed to withstand earthquake loads. Recent quakes niques was explored [19]. Mud injection involves injecting a fluid
demonstrated that, in general, non-reinforced structures are vulnerable mixture of mud into the cracks and voids of the earthen walls to restore
to earthquakes and are needed to be strengthened. If the traditional their integrity. The external rope mesh is applied to the exterior of the
adobe constructions are not properly designed and strengthened, they buildings, providing additional support and increasing their resistance
may not be able to respond to cyclic actions, such as those brought on by to seismic forces. This combined approach aims to preserve the archi­
earthquakes, suffering significant structural damage and frequently tectural heritage while enhancing the structural stability of these
collapsing. Earthen structures are particularly vulnerable to earthquakes vulnerable constructions in earthquake-prone areas.

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: 17pwciv4784@uetpeshawar.edu.pk (M. Aizaz), khanshahzada@uetpeshawar.edu.pk (K. Shahzada).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2024.107238
Received 18 March 2024; Received in revised form 28 July 2024; Accepted 3 September 2024
Available online 12 September 2024
2352-0124/© 2024 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and
similar technologies.
M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Such techniques have shown great potential in reducing the seismic

vulnerability of mud structures, despite the fact that more detailed and
comprehensive assessments is required. Researchers have been looking
for techniques to enhance the seismic performance of earthen structures
for the past three decades. Reinforcing techniques have been developed
by using both industrial materials like polymer mesh [20] and
mortar-reinforced steel mesh [21] as well as natural materials like wood
and cane [22]. Polypropylene lace and tarpaulin belt were also used as
strengthening materials for enhancing the in-plane behavior of
mud-brick walls [23].
Sassu et al. (2016) [24] explores the effectiveness of using low-cost,
low-technology joints to construct bamboo-framed structures, empha­
sizing their suitability for small buildings in developing countries.
Through experimental tests on full-scale models, the study demonstrates
that using wooden pins and plywood plates for joints enhances ductility, Fig. 1. Bamboo canes.
ease of assembly, and repair. These structures, designed for housing,
schools, chapels, and health centers, exhibit improved seismic perfor­
mance and sustainability, making them ideal for areas with limited re­
sources and high earthquake risks.
Bartolomé et al. (2004) [25] investigated a GTZ-funded project
(1994–1999) managed by CERESIS and carried out by PUCP. The goal is
to economically fortify adobe homes against seismic forces. Seismic tests
on shaking tables were enabled by isolated U-walls and modular houses.
The materials tested were wood, ropes, chicken wire mesh, and welded
wire mesh. The Catholic University of Peru [26] developed seismic
reinforcement techniques for earthen buildings, including external wire
mesh and polymer mesh reinforcements. External wire mesh signifi­
cantly increased adobe model strength in earthquake simulations but is
costly. External polymer mesh is a promising alternative, effectively
preventing collapse during strong earthquakes with minimal material.
The study by Paradiso et al. (2019) examined the flexural perfor­
mance of adobe panels reinforced with bamboo cane frames, focusing on
out-of-plane behavior. They tested scaled walls (1:4 scale, 60 ×60×10
cm) with bricks arranged in rows and mortar made of sieved earth
Fig. 2. Bundle of Dried Jute Thread.
(ASTM 10) mixed with water (2.5 liters per 7 kg of earth). The bamboo
structure consisted of four horizontal and four vertical canes (1 m long),
compromise, while treated one can withstand more than 30 years [29].
joined at 90-degree angles and separated by 19 cm, equivalent to a real
It is strong, lightweight, and renewable material that can be used to
separation of 75–80 cm. Dowling et al. (2005) [27] conducted shake
reinforce mud brick walls. To increase tensile strength and prevent
table tests on U-shaped adobe wall units at a 1:2 scale, utilizing bamboo
cracking, horizontal bamboo strips can be inserted between the layers of
canes for reinforcement. However, their study did not assess in-plane
mud bricks. To add even more stability, vertical bamboo rods can be
behavior, and also mesh format was not employed. Mendis et al.
inserted into the mud walls [30,31]. A typical bamboo canes are shown
(2019) [28] and some others, explored the retrofitting of burnt brick
in Fig. 1.
masonry walls using bamboo strip mesh but did not consider
mud-bricks. The dried jute thread has not been utilized for strengthening
mud-brick walls till date. 1.2. Dried Jute Thread
Keeping in view, the economical and feasibility aspects most of the
aforementioned strengthening technique are difficult to implement in Jute fibers is cheaper, locally available, recyclable and 2nd most
the rural areas. Also, there is no or very little research study on using widely cultivated vegetable fiber [32,33]. The ultimate load carrying
Dried Jute Thread and bamboo strips as a strengthening material for capacity of jute fiber is 1.96 N [34]. Fig. 2 shows a bundle of Dried Jute
mud-brick walls. Therefore, the focus of this study is to assess the in- Thread. Jute is not so much durable, and it decomposes with time.
plane behavior of strengthened mud brick walls using locally available However, by adding mud plaster to jute mesh, it can act as a reinforcing
materials (bamboo strips and jute thread). Consequently, this research fiber and can increase the durability and sustainability of the system.
study will develop an affordable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective Many researchers have studied on the addition of jute fibers in mud
strengthening technique for mud-brick walls. bricks and blocks [35,36].

1.1. Bamboo 2. Material and methods

Bamboo can be one of the most adoptable materials for the rein­ This section deals with the methodology that has been followed
forcement of mud structures. It is the world’s fastest-growing plant, and during this research study, which includes the preparation of mud-
it can grow up to 60 cm (23.62 in) or more in a single day. Bamboos are a bricks, construction of masonry prisms and walls, the preparation of
type of grass and are columnar in shape rather than tapering. In East Asia Bamboo Strips and Dried Jute Thread meshes of the desired spacing, and
and South East Asia, bamboos have significant social, economic, and installation of meshes to masonry prisms and wall.
cultural significance. They are widely used as building materials, source
of food, and an adaptable raw material. A bamboo plant can grow up to 2.1. Mud-bricks preparation
40 m (131.23 ft) tall and still withstand wind pressure [19]. Untreated
bamboo can survive up to 6 years before significant structural integrity A batch of conventional mud-bricks was placed for production at the

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Pakistan, where they underwent a 30-day process of sun drying as

shown in Fig. 3.

2.2. Specimen’s details

After the process of sun-drying of bricks for 30 days, masonry prisms

were constructed with dimension of 53.34 cm × 45.72 cm × 22.86 cm
(21 in x 18 in x 9 in) for compression testing and
121.92 cm × 121.92 cm × 22.86 cm (48 in × 48 in × 9 in) walls for
diagonal shear testing. This post-construction conditioning was under­
taken to ensure thorough drying of the mortar joints, a critical factor for
accurate testing. The specimens were divided into five distinct groups,
each with unique characteristics or compositions, as detailed in Table 1.

2.3. Bamboo strips preparation

Bamboo poles having a diameter of 17.78 cm (7 in) were procured

Fig. 3. Mud-bricks. from the local market and strips of 1.22 m (4 ft) in length were fabri­
cated from them. The resulting strips were 2.54 cm (1 in) wide and
0.64 cm (1/4 in) thick. A total of five meshes were built with c/c spacing
Table 1 of 7.62 cm (3 in) and an additional five meshes were created with c/c
Details of specimens. spacing of 10.16 cm (4 in) using simple binding wire. The dimension of
Specimen Description No. of specimens bamboo strips, spacing and connection of mesh with walls were selected
ID
Masonry Masonry on the basis of research work conducted by Mendis et al., (2019) [28]. 8
wallets prisms gauge binding wire having diameter of 1.02 mm and tensile strength of
UMW Unstrengthen Mud Wall 5 3
358 MPa (52 ksi) was used for connecting the strips with wall faces [38].
SMW1A Strengthened mud wall using 5 3 The thickness of jute was decided on the basis of its availability.
bamboo strip mesh with c/c spacing Generally, 0.64 cm (¼ in) thick rope is available in Pakistan. Fig. 4(a)
of 7.62 cm (3 in) and (b) shows the Bamboo strips and dried jute thread.
SMW1B Strengthened mud wall using 5 3
bamboo strip mesh with c/c spacing
of 10.16 cm (4 in)
SMW2A Strengthened mud wall with dried 5 3 2.4. Mesh installation
jute thread mesh with c/c spacing of
5.08 cm (2 in) Bamboo strip meshes were installed on both sides of the wall to form
SMW2B Strengthened mud wall with dried 5 3 a strong framework. The meshes were perfectly interconnected using 8-
jute thread mesh with c/c spacing of
gauge binding wires to improve stability and coherence. At the same
7.62 cm (3 in)
time, dried jute threads were meticulously wrapped into mesh forma­
tions based on the specified spacing outlined in Table 1. Fig. 5 illustrate
brick’s factory located in Zangali Peshawar Pakistan, with the objective the installation process, demonstrating the precision and care taken in
to mitigate shrinkages and cracks by adding 0.5% wheat straw [37] by ensuring a long-lasting and effective result. This method not only re­
weight to the brick mixture. The bricks were then moved to the con­ inforces the structural integrity of the wall, but it also shows a
struction yard at the Department of Civil Engineering, UET Peshawar thoughtful and systematic approach to installation.

Fig. 4. Mesh materials; (a) bamboo strips; (b) dried jute thread.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 5. Mesh installation; (a) key connection point for bamboo mesh; (b) bamboo strip mesh; (c) jute thread mesh.

3.1. Preliminary testing

Table 2
Experimental testing.
Preliminary testing includes six tests: (1) sieve analysis of soil, (2)
Test type Standard Atterberg’s limits determination, (3) flexure test on unit brick, (4)
Sieve analysis of soil ASTM D6913 compression test on unit brick, (5) tensile testing on bamboo strip, and
Atterberg’s limits determination ASTM D4318 (6) tensile testing on dried jute thread.
Compression test on unit brick ASTM C140
Flexure test on unit brick ASTM C67
Tensile testing on bamboo strip ASTM D143
3.1.1. Sieve analysis of soil
Tensile testing on dried jute thread ASTM A931 Sieve analysis is a laboratory test method for determining soil par­
Masonry prism compression testing ASTM E519 ticle size distribution. It is a basic soil mechanics test that is used for a
Diagonal shear testing ASTM C1314 variety of purposes, including: soil classification, erosion control,
drainage, and permeability. The test was performed on 1000 g soil
sample in accordance with ASTM D6913 [39] guidelines.
This test’s findings showed that the soil has a well-graded grain size
distribution curve. The soil is well-graded, as it has a Coefficient of
Curvature (Cc) value of 1.25, (1 <Cc<3), and the Coefficient of Uni­
formity (Cu) value is 5 (Cu>4) based on the Particle Size Distribution
Curve shown in Fig. 6.

3.1.2. Atterberg’s limits determination

Atterberg limits [40] are a set of consistency tests used to classify
fine-grained soils based on moisture content. These tests determine the
water content in a soil that causes it to transition from solid to liquid
state (liquid limit) or from plastic to solid state (plastic limit). These tests
were conducted on 300 g of air-dried soil passed through sieve number
40 in accordance with ASTM D4318 [41] guidelines. Fig. 7 provide an
overview of the test setup and procedure to determine liquid limit and
plastic limit.
The soil sample analysis revealed a liquid limit value of 53%.
Concurrently, the plastic limit was set at 20%. The plasticity index was
Fig. 6. Particle size distribution curve. calculated by subtracting the plastic limit from the liquid limit and
yielded a value of 33%. This significant plasticity index indicates that
3. Experimental testing program the soil is extremely plastic. A higher plasticity index in geotechnical
terms indicates a greater potential for the soil to undergo volumetric
The objective of the study is to evaluate the in-plane mechanical changes and deformations, making it critical information for under­
properties of the walls strengthened with bamboo strip mesh and dried standing the engineering behavior and stability of the soil in various
jute thread such as compressive strength, shear strength, modulus of construction and infrastructure projects [42]. Fig. 8 shows the flow
elasticity, modulus of rigidity, ductility, stiffness and damage behavior curve of soil sample.
by performing tests on masonry prisms and masonry wallets. This sec­
tion details the approaches, methodologies, criteria, and equations 3.1.3. Compression test on unit brick
employed for evaluating various mechanical characteristics of The compressive strength of masonry units has become a funda­
strengthened masonry prism and wallets. The experimental examination mental and widely recognized property for assessing their quality. The
includes preliminary testing on soil from which bricks were made, unit compressive strength of the bricks was determined following the
brick, bamboo strips and dried jute thread. Similarly testing on masonry guidelines outlined in ASTM C140 [43] as shown in Fig. 9. The block was
prisms and masonry wallets are also discussed in this section. The tests subjected to a load (P) in load-controlled mode using a Universal Testing
conducted in laboratory and the applicable criteria utilized in this study Machine (UTM) with a maximum capacity of 200 tons. Flat steel plates
are outlined in Table 2. were positioned both above and below the block, and the loading rate

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 7. Atterberg’s limits determination; (a) liquid limit (b) plastic limit.

P = Peak force sustained until collapse and,

A = Area of the brick.

3.1.4. Flexure test on unit brick

To evaluate the flexural strength of the unit brick, a three-point
flexural test was employed. This test involved placing the brick on
supports, applying a load at the center of the brick, and measuring the
load required to cause failure. The modulus of rupture, or flexural
strength, was calculated by dividing the maximum load sustained by the
brick at failure by the moment arm and the cross-sectional area of the
brick. The standard procedure of ASTM C67 [44] was applied to eval­
uate the flexure strength of unit brick. The test setup is demonstrated in
Fig. 10. Table 3 shows the details of testing unit brick for flexure. The
flexure strength of the brick was calculated using Eq. 2.

3w(2l − x)
S= (2)
bd2
S = Bending resistance or rupture modulus,
w = Peak load applied,
L = Span between the two supports,
Fig. 8. Flow curve.
Table 3
was set at 0.5 kN/s. The area of the brick was taken as Testing summary of unit brick.
21.59 cm × 10.16 cm (8.5″ x 4″). The testing results are present in
Specimen Compressive strength MPa (psi) Flexure strength MPa (psi)
Table 3.
1 1.34 (194.52) 0.56 (80.84)
The crushing resistance of the brick was determined using Eq. (1).
2 1.43 (207.49) 0.60 (86.71)
P 3 1.24 (180.26) 0.68 (98.47)
σc = (1) Mean 1.34 (194.09) 0.61 (88.67)
A
CoV 5.7% 8.3%
σc = Crushing strength,

Fig. 9. Compression test on unit brick; (a) schematic view, (b) testing of specimen, (c) crushing of specimen.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 10. Flexure test on unit brick; (a) schematic view, (b) testing of specimen, (c) cracking of specimen.

Fig. 11. Tensile testing of; (a) bamboo strip, (b) dried jute thread.

3.2. Masonry prism testing

Table 4
Tensile testing results of bamboo strips and dried jute thread.
The ASTM C1314–03b Specifications addressed the construction of
Specimen Bamboo Strip Tensile strength - Dried Jute Thread Ultimate masonry prisms, the examination process, and methods for establishing
MPa (ksi) load – N (lb)
compressive strength in masonry. This testing method is employed to
1 128.9 (18.7) 1067.2 (238.09) verify if the masonry materials utilized yield structures that satisfy the
2 130.3 (18.9) 961.8 (216.05) specified compressive strength standards. The masonry blocks employed
3 97.3 (14.1) 1002.1 (224.87)
Mean 118.8 (17.2) 1006.4 (226.34)
in constructing masonry prisms exemplify the same units utilized in the
CoV 12.9% 4.0% overall construction. The testing was conducted on
53.34 cm × 45.72 cm × 22.86 cm (21 in x 18 in x 9 in) prisms in
compliance with ASTM C1314 guidelines. On the basis of the specifi­
b = Mean breadth of the block on the failing surface, cations listed in Table 1, testing on fifteen compression prisms was
d = Thickness or height of the block on the failing surface, and. conducted. Two Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) were
x = The separation between the block’s center and the failing connected on both faces to measure strain.
surface. The compressive resistance of a prism is characterized as the quotient
of the maximum compressive force resisted by the prism to the effective
3.1.5. Tensile testing on bamboo strip and dried jute thread area of the prism. While the compressive strength of the masonry is
To evaluate the mechanical characteristics of the dried jute thread approximated by multiplying the compressive strength of the prism by
and bamboo strips under axial loading, tensile strength tests were con­ an adjustment factor specified in ASTM C1314–03b [47]. The obtained
ducted. A uniaxial force was applied by the Universal Testing Machine stress-strain profile was employed to calculate the elastic modulus and
(UTM) to the samples until they failed. For testing of jute thread and corresponding strain in the range of 5%− 33.33% of the ultimate
bamboo strips, the standard procedure of ASTM D143 [45] and ASTM compressive strength. Fig. 12 shows the application of compressive load
A931 [46] were applied respectively. The test setup is demonstrated in on masonry prisms using Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
Fig. 11. Table 4 presents the obtained results.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 12. Prisms compression tests; (a) schematic view, (b) UMW, (c) SMW1A, (d) SMW1B, (e) SMW2A, (f) SMW2B.

3.3. Diagonal shear testing each category specified in Table 1. To measure both diagonal shortening
(ΔV) and diagonal lengthening (ΔH) of the walls, two LVDTs were
Masonry wallets measuring 122 cm × 122 cm (4 ft x 4 ft) were installed and connected to the wall through both diagonals. For data
constructed following the guidelines outlined in ASTM E519 [48]. A acquisition, the hydraulic jack system and LVDTs were linked to
series of twenty-five tests were conducted, with five tests performed for UCAM-70A data logger. The load application for each category of wall is

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 13. Diagonal shear testing; (a) schematic view, (b) UMW, (c) SMW1A, (d) SMW1B, (e) SMW2A, (f) SMW2B.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 14. Damage behavior under compression; (a) schematic view (b) UMW, (c) SMW1A, (d) SMW1B, (e) SMW2A, (f) SMW2B.

shown in Fig. 13. Shear strength (τ), shear strain (γ) and modulus of (see Fig. 14). This consistency in failure modes emphasizes the tested
rigidity (g) were calculated using Eqs. (3), (4), and (5). prisms’ dependability and consistency, providing valuable insights into
their structural performance.
0.707P
τ= (3) The compressive stress-strain graphs are shown in Fig. 15, depicts the
0.5t(L + H)
material’s behavior under stress. Table 5 summarizes the corresponding
where t is the wall thickness and L and H are the length and height of the average values and CoV for prism compressive strength, masonry
wall respectively. compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and strain at ultimate stress.
In cases where the hp/tp ratio equaled 2.33, the ASTM C1314 [47]
γ=
ΔV + ΔH
(4) correction factor of 1.0266 was used for calculating masonry compres­
g sive strength.
τ
G= (15)
γ 4.2. Diagonal shear testing result

4. Results and discussion For the shear strength of masonry, diagonal shear test, according to
ASTM E519 [48] was performed on 25 specimens as outlined in Table 1.
The outcomes of the experimental examination of the materials, The 121.92 cm × 121.92 cm× 22.86 cm (48 in x 48 in x 9 in) English
specifically masonry prisms and the masonry wallet, are presented in the bond specimens were loaded diagonally, and the corresponding applied
following section. An approach of comparison was used, focusing on the load and deformation in both diagonals were meticulously recorded.
mechanical properties of strengthened and un-strengthened walls. The walls under diagonal shear test exhibit considerable deformation
Average values and the coefficient of variation (CoV) have been used to without collapsing, indicating their structural integrity, as shown in
convey the results of all tests comprehensively. Fig. 16. Remarkably, there is no visible local collapse despite the walls
displaying diagonal cracks that suggest the stress they experience. The
4.1. Testing results on masonry prism robustness of the construction is demonstrated by this resilience.
Remarkably, no rocking motion is seen in any kind of wall, even with
A total of fifteen specimens were tested to determine the average significant deformation, suggesting that the structures are stable under
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of the prisms, with three applied load. The absence of localized collapse is notable; this implies
prisms falling into each category, as shown in Table 1. When the failure that the walls can distribute stress uniformly, preventing any concen­
modes of all specimens are examined, a consistent pattern emerges, trated failure points. Moreover, the cohesion failure pattern is evident in
characterized by vertical cracks, distinct vertical crushing, and splitting both the inter-brick bonding and the bricks themselves. This cohesive

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 15. Compressive stress-strain curves; (a) UMW, (b) SMW1A, (c) SMW1B, (d) SMW2A, (e) SMW2B.

failure, in combination with the lack of rocking motion and localized technique also performed exceptionally well. Using the secant modulus,
collapse, indicates an excellent deformation pattern. Such findings are which ranges from 1/20th to 1/3rd of the maximum shear strength, the
critical in understanding the behavior of walls under stress and can shear modulus was determined from the shear stress-strain curves.
inform future construction practices, ensuring structures are designed to Table 6, presents the compiled results from the diagonal shear tests
withstand a wide range of loads and deformations. conducted on each specimen. These results provide a thorough summary
Fig. 17 graphically depict the shear stress-strain curves for each of the performance metrics and add significant information to the ma­
specimen, showing how the walls behaved in terms of load and defor­ sonry shear strength studies.
mation when subjected to diagonal loading. The performance of the. Notably, the energy delivered to the walls increases significantly
walls wrapped in dried Jute Thread stood out significantly in terms after the strengthening intervention, particularly in the large deforma­
of shear strength, modulus of rigidity, and especially in strain under tion range. This increase in total delivered energy demonstrates the
diagonal loading, similar to the findings in masonry compression prisms. effectiveness of the retrofitting technique used. The data in Table 4
Notably, in comparison to the untreated walls, the Bamboo Strips shows a significant increase in the energy absorption until failure, which

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Table 5 which is typically represented as the gradient of the P-D curve. Sathi­
Summary of masonry prism compression testing. paran et al. (2008) [49] described the concept of initial stiffness
Property UMW SMW1A SMW1B SMW2A SMW2B (denoted as K0) by analyzing the variation in diagonal force at specific
stages and corresponding displacements just before the initial cracking
Compressive 0.564 0.834 0.801 1.040 0.791
strength of (81.80) (121.07) (116.24) (150.80) (114.77) of a wall (Eq. (6)). P0 denotes the initial cracking load, and D0 denotes
prism fp the displacement caused by this load. The ratio of the variation of di­
-MPa (psi) agonal force at stages occurring after the initial cracking and the cor­
CoV (%) 12 3 4 9 15 responding displacement changes is used to calculate residual stiffness
Compressive 0.579 0.856 0.822 1.068 0.812
strength of (83.98) (124.29) (119.33) (154.81) (117.82)
(Kr), as shown in Eq. (7). Similarly, ɑ is the ratio between Ko and Kr
masonry fm Fig. 18 is idealized load-deformation curve, clearly shows two stages:
-MPa (psi) the first representing the initial stiffness up to the point of cracking load,
CoV (%) 12 3% 4 9 15 and the second representing the residual stiffness. Significant improve­
Modulus of 32.4 61.7 45.3 102.1 49.0
ments in the stiffness of reinforced walls have been observed in the
elasticity (4692.42) (8939.59) (6571.06) (14799.01) (7119.91)
Em -GPa realm of structural strengthening techniques. The effectiveness of these
(psi) techniques is demonstrated by the data presented in Table 7.
CoV (%) 31 17 5 27 46
Strain at 0.0137 0.0122 0.0150 0.0182 0.0165 Po − 0
Ko = (6)
maximum Do − 0
stress Ɛ’m
CoV (%) 14 28 18 19 13 Pmax − Po
Kr = (7)
Dmax − Do

also indicates improvement in the ductility of the strengthened walls. K0 = ɑ kr (8)

Table 7 presents a comparative analysis of shear strength and
ductility for various wall types, sourced from both current research and
previous publications. The data highlights differences in mechanical
properties, such as shear strength measured in psi and ductility, across
unreinforced masonry walls (UMW), several types of strengthened ma­ 4.3. Lateral strength of brick masonry wall
sonry walls (SMW), glass textile reinforced masonry (GTRM), hemp
textile reinforced masonry (HTRM), and reinforced masonry walls According to the methodology provided in ASCE-41 [50]. and the
(RMW). approach proposed by "Popov" [51], the anticipated analytical forecast
Stiffness is also calculated which is defined in structural engineering for the lateral resistance of masonry walls against seismic forces applied
as the rate of change of diagonal force (P) versus displacement (D), parallel to their plane has been determined. As per the findings of Popov
and Balan (1998) [52], Vfcr, the shear force related to the development

Fig. 16. ; Damage behavior under diagonal load; (a) schematic view (b) UMW, (c) SMW1A, (d) SMW1B, (e) SMW2A, (f) SMW2B.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Fig. 17. Shear stress-strain curves; (a) UMW, (b) SMW1A, (c) SMW1B, (d) SMW2A, (e) SMW2B.

of cracks in the bed joints of the pier due to bending tension can be Paul (1999) [51].
determined using Eq. (9). φ′ = ηif η ≥ 0.5.
φ′ = 1-ηif η < 0.5.
(σo + ft)Lp × t
Vfl, cr = (9) In accordance with the ASCE/SEI 41 guidelines [43], the horizontal
6φʹ × hp
force (Vsl) related to shear failure in sliding can be computed using Eq.
(10).
where ft is the flexural strength of the wall or the bond strength of the
wall in tension, and σo is the stress in wall caused by axial load, also Vsl = Vs x An (10)
known as fa. The pier’s length is denoted by Lp, its thickness by t, and its
height by hp. When assessing either the force causing flexural tensile Vs is the masonry shear resistance, while An corresponds to the
cracking or shear strength, the symbol φ′ is employed to represent the effective cross-sectional area of mortar or grout in a structural wall or
larger of the values η and (1 − η) for the purpose of brevity. The infection pier.
point factor, denoted by η, is detailed in Paulay and Priestley (1992) and According to Standard ASCE/SEI 41, Eq. (11) can be used to calcu­
late the horizontal load associated with Diagonal Shearing Breakdown.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

Table 6 Table 8
Summary of diagonal shear testing. Summary of initial and residual stiffnesses.
Property UMW SMW1A SMW1B SMW2A SMW2B Specimen K0 Kr ɑ

Shear 0.059 0.143 0.088 0.138 0.131 UMW 89.57 23.76 3.77
Strength (8.55) (20.74) (12.75) (20.04) (18.98) SMW1A 189.65 31.05 6.11
f′v -MPa SMW1B 111.49 11.74 9.5
(psi) SMW2A 187.32 5.16 36.3
Cov (%) 22 10 7 9 2 SMW2B 161.59 4.81 4.81
Modulus of 19.4 36.6 29.1 27.8 35.8
Rgidity G (2806.51) (5301.59) (4225.49) (4027.58) (5190.62)
-GPa (psi)
Cov (%) 80 35 25 81 54 Table 9
Strain at 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.027 0.018 Lateral strength of masonry.
max
Lateral strength UMW SMW1A SMW1B SMW2A SMW2B
stress ƴ’v
parameters kN
Cov (%) 6 9 18 31 14
(kip)
Energy 199.38 587.677 413.447 825.034 821.309
delivered Vfl,cr 2.31 5.02 3.25 4.89 4.63
(joul) (0.52) (1.13) (0.73) (1.10) (1.04)
Cov (%) 28 11 8 10 12 Vsl 16.42 39.95 24.49 38.55 36.45
(3.69) (8.96) (5.51) (8.66) (8.20)
Vdt 12.64 29.04 18.30 28.14 26.67
(2.84) (6.53) (4.11) (6.32) (6.00)
Table 7 Vc 109.52 206.60 156.47 202.93 153.87
Shear strength and ductility comparison with previous publication. (24.67) (46.51) (35.05) (45.48) (34.61)
Vsf based on Vdt 12.64 29.04 18.30 28.14 26.67
Wall Type Source Shear Strength MPa (psi) Ductility (2.84) (6.53) (4.11) (6.32) (6.00)
UMW This research 0.059 (8.55) 5.95 Percent increase - 130% 73% 123% 111%
SMW1A 0.143 (20.74) 18.46 in Vsf
SMW1B 0.088 (12.75) 12.00
SMW2A 0.138 (20.04) 20.59
SMW2B 0.131 (18.98) 15.26 Vc associated with vertical crushing failure can be computed using Eq.
GTRM Cassese et al., (2021) 0.120 (17.4) 11.60 (12), where fm represents the compressive strength of masonry.
HTRM 0.134 (19.43) 22.22
RMW1 Tootoonchy et al., (2015) 0.097 (14.12) 12.50 Vc = 0⋅8(0⋅85 fmAn) (12)
RMW2 0.099 (14.28) 14.86
The lateral strength capacity of a brick masonry pier is determined by
considering the least lateral force corresponding to sliding shear failure,
diagonal tension shear failure, and vertical compression failure. The
calculations are based on results obtained for all five categories, as
presented in Table 8.

5. Conclusions and recommendations

The in-plane mechanical properties of unburnt mud bricks masonry

assemblages strengthened with bamboo strips and dried jute threads
elements were evaluated through laboratory experiments. The
strengthened wallets and masonry prisms were subjected to diagonal
and compressive loads in order to assess their compressive and shear
properties. The test results were analyzed in terms of compressive and
shear stress-strain curves, ductility, energy absorption, and stiffness, as
well as a detailed analysis of the performance of the strengthened walls
under lateral loading conditions. The experimental results lead to the
following important conclusions:

Fig. 18. Idealized Load-deformation curve. 1. No bamboo strips failed in tension or compression in both diagonal
shear and compression tests, demonstrating the strength and resil­
ience of the meshes. Similarly, dried jute thread showed no tension
fa
Vdt = fʹdt × An × β(1 + ʹ ) (11) failures in either case.
f dt 2. The compressive strength of mud brick masonry with bamboo mesh
Minimum Shear Resistance, denoted as Vdt, is determined based on increases by reducing the spacing between mesh. A 30% increase for
diagonally induced stresses in wall. The parameter β is defined as 0.67 3 in., and 19% increase for 4 in. was recorded. Similarly, compres­
when L/hef is less than 0.67, takes the value of L/hef when 0.67 is greater sive strength of mud brick masonry with Jute mesh also improves by
than or equal to L/hef but less than or equal to 1.0, and is 1.0 when L/hef reducing the spacing between the threads. The most significant
is greater than 1.0. Here, hef represents the elevation to the point of enhancement is 40% and 30% with 2 and 3 in. spacing, respectively,
action of seismic force, while L signifies the extent of the wall, fa is the showing greater strengthening response as compared to bamboo.
axial compression stress induced by gravity loads, σo is the axial 3. The relationship between diagonal tension strength and spacing is
compression stress, and fdt is the minimum diagonal tension resistance of more pronounced for bamboo mesh. Bamboo mesh enhances up to
masonry. Additionally, Vdt stands for minimum shear capacity resulting 96% with 3 in., and 44% with 4 in. spacing. Similarly, Jute mesh
from diagonal tension strength in the wall. exhibits even higher increases, reaching to 102% and 84% for 2 in.
In accordance with the ASCE/SEI 41 standard, the horizontal force and 3 in. spacings, respectively.

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M. Aizaz et al. Structures 68 (2024) 107238

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