CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Drainage: Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and
subsurface water within the right way. This includes interception and diversion of water from the
road surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is
an essential part of highway design and construction. Highway drainage is used to clear surface
water from the highway. Good highway drainage is important for road safety. Roads need to be
well drained to stop flooding; even surface water can cause problems with ice in the winter.
Water left standing on roads can also cause maintenance problems, as it can soften the ground
under a road making the road surface break up and as well lead to an accident from the road
users (Amit, 2016).
A functional and adequate drainage is a major factor to be considered in envisaging and
constructing a good road as well as ensuring a good layout of streets at any geographical location
(Zumrawi, 2014). Drainage system is a unique facility that's appropriate and applicable to any
given environment. It’s a significant infrastructure constructed primarily for collection and
conveyance of surface water, ground water and wastewater away, and protect the road, structures
and street/environment, from becoming messed up with water/erosion/Flooding (Karley, 2009).
Garcia, Gomez, Escobar, Téllez, Quijano, & Ocampo (2014), opined that a functional drainage
system should have social impact, economic impact, environmental impact, prevent flooding and
prevent polluting discharges to the environment. Climate change and the constant growth of
cities and urban areas have had a considerable impact on drainage system (Kleidorfer, Mikovits,
Jasper-Tonnies, Huttenlau, Einfalt & Rauch, 2013). The continuous influx of people to state
capital searching for better opportunities has geometrically increased the population in cities and
led to spread-out into new areas.

The population growth has required an increase in the construction of buildings, roads, and other
civil infrastructures (Robinson & Thagesen 2004). The frequency, intensity and duration of rain
has increased due to weather phenomena such as global warming, a commensurate preparation,
planning and action must be employed in full capacity both individual and government to
construct/ensure a functional and adequate Drainage system. A whole lot of havoc has been
wrecked directly and indirectly on people in the study area, due to lack of or inadequate
drainage(Adebayo, Bamisaye, Akitan, & Ogunleye, 2006), such as erosion and flooding, and the
damage associated with both erosion and flooding primarily caused by drainage system issue are
quite unbearable and unpalatable, such as effect on buildings by losing its load-bearing capacity
and stability as a result of the extent of building foundation exposure by erosion due to lack of
drainage, the presence of excess water on the roadway which may lead to gully, potholes and
other issues, another crucial effect is the fact that some areas over years have gone bad that
dwellers and visitors can't drive to their location/destination, some have lost properties and cars
has been stolen by parking by road sides due to unavailability or poor drainage system which led
to roads becoming impassable, pollution of water bodies in the environment etc.(Mohd,

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Mohamed, Pin, Ismail, Nordin & Hasbullah, 2016) The importance and benefits of a good
drainage system is too weighty to be ignored or neglected (Mohammad 2021), prevention of
water accumulation; this is an important use of a good drainage system; it allows the free flow of
water and in most cases prevents accumulation that can lead to flooding. Also, good drainage
systems would prevent the accumulation of stagnant water, which can encourage mosquitoes
breeding, and could resultantly cause health challenge or health issues, this can't be pushed aside
as wastewater generated within a given neighborhood especially in the area of
study is much.
The basic underling purpose of any drainage system is to keep people from water, to keep water
from the people and to protect and enhance the environment while doing so (Thomas and
Dedo, 2002). Drainage can be considered at two levels: the neighborhood level and the house-
hold level. At the neighborhood level is includes: major drainage networks in cities,
municipalities and townships. On the other hand, at the household level it involves channeling
away surface water or run offs and waste water from individual households to the main drain
which finally joins the main drainage channel. Drainage is a must component in the road
construction. For this reason, in most designs of the road, the first thing to be put in place is
drainage system.
The presence of water in the pavement layer will tend to reduce the bearing capacity of the road
and thereby its lifetime. It is required that the surface water from carriage ways and the shoulders
should be efficiently drained off without allowing it to be subgrade of the road (Mwanhi, 2013).
Mwangi also notes that, it is essential that adequate provision is made for road drainage to ensure
that a road pavement performs satisfactorily. The main function of a road drainage system is to
prevent flooding of the road and pounding the road, road surface, protect the bearing capacity of
the pavement and the sub-grade materials to avoid the erosion of side slopes. Water and road
construction do not make for a harmonious couple (Dawson, 2008). From this statement,
Mwangi (2013) states, “for this reason it can be seen that there is a very serious effect of poor
drainage on maintenance on the conditions of road. Therefore, surface water from adjoining land
should be prevented from entering the road way. The road drain should be built in such
a way that it will have a sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry away all surface water
collected.
The responsibility for planning, developing and maintaining the nations transport infrastructure
is divided among the three tiers of Government. Intra-state roads are the responsibility of State
Governments, while the Local Governments are required to cater for intra-urban and rural feeder
roads, which account for about 66% ofthe existing road network. The Federal Government is
responsible for the national highways which constitute only 17% of the existing road network. In
addition, the Federal Government through its Agencies is also responsible for financing Inland
Waterways/River Ports, Sea Ports, railways, airports and pipelines (Draft National Transport
Policy, 2010). Seventeen percent (17%) of the total road network in Nigeria is owned and
managed by the Federal government (trunk A roads), while another seventeen percent (17%) of
the 198,000km total road network is owned and managed by the thirty six (36) states (trunk B
roads) while the remaining sixty six percent (66%) is owned and managed by the seven hundred

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and seventy four (774) local government areas (trunk C roads) of Nigeria where a majority of
people live.

According to Patil (2011), during the rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it
percolates through the soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches to the ground water. Some
water is retained in pores of the soil mass and on the surface of the soil particles which cannot be
drained by normal gravitational methods and this water is termed as held water. It is required that
the surface water from the carriage away and shoulder should effectively be drained off without
allowing it percolate to subgrade. The surface water from adjoining land should be prevented
from entering the road way. The side drains should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal
slopes to carry away all the surface water collected. Also, in water logged areas special
precaution should be taken. There are many such roads which are not having the proper drainage
system in Mararaba. This has caused the failure of the roads due to reasons like increase in
moisture content, decrease in strength, mud pumping, formation of waves and corrugations,
stripping of bitumen, cutting of edges of pavement and frost action (Patil.2011). It is against this
background that this study examined drainage system and road performance in Mararaba, Karu
Local Government Area of Nasarawa State.

1.1. Aim
The aim of this study is to improve the road network and surface drainage system within the
Ekiti State University (EKSU)
1.2. Objectives
i. To determine the causes of road deterioration and drainage issues in Eksu.
ii. To determine the best maintenance for road safety and drainage management
iii. To recommend sustainable solutions for road and drainage needs in Eksu

1.2. Statement of Problem

Ekiti State University (EKSU), is experiencing significant challenges related to its

road infrastructure and surface drainage systems. Over the years, the university has
seen a marked increase in the deterioration of its roads, with issues such as potholes,
cracks, and uneven surfaces becoming more prevalent. These road conditions not only
pose safety hazards to students, staff, and visitors but also disrupt the smooth flow of
traffic within the campus, leading to delays and increased vehicle maintenance costs.
The surface drainage system within the university is inadequate, contributing to frequent
flooding during the rainy season. Poor drainage exacerbates road deterioration by
weakening the road base and causing waterlogging, which further accelerates the wear and
tear of the pavement. This situation is worsened by improper waste management practices,
which lead to blocked drainage channels and, subsequently, more severe flooding.

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 The underlying causes of these issues are multifaceted, including factors such as
inadequate design and construction standards, poor maintenance practices, and
environmental factors like heavy rainfall and soil erosion. Without prompt and sustainable
interventions, these problems will continue to deteriorate, leading to more costly repairs
and potential risks to the safety and well-being of the university community.

Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the root causes of these issues and recommend
effective, sustainable solutions to improve the road and drainage systems at EKSU. This
project aims to address these challenges by identifying best practices in road safety and
drainage management, determining the specific causes of road and drainage problems
within the university, and proposing practical solutions to enhance the durability and
functionality of EKSU's infrastructure.

1.4 Significance of Study

The significance of this study lies in its potential to improve road safety and drainage
management within Ekiti State University (EKSU) campus, thereby enhancing the safety, well-
being, and quality of life for students, staff, and visitors. The study's findings will contribute to
the development of effective strategies for road safety and drainage management, ultimately
benefiting the university.

By identifying best practices and recommending sustainable solutions, this study will help
address the challenges of road deterioration and drainage issues, which are critical concerns for
the university.

This study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on road safety and drainage
management, providing valuable insights and practical recommendations for other institutions
and communities facing similar challenges. The study's findings will also have implications for
urban planning, transportation engineering, and environmental management, making it a
valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners.

1.5. Scope of Study

This research aims to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the road safety and drainage
management practices within Ekiti State University (EKSU) campus. The study will examine the
current state of road safety measures and drainage management practices, including, stormwater
management systems, drainage infrastructure, flood control measures, and emergency response
plans.

The investigation will also delve into the underlying causes of road deterioration and drainage
issues, considering the interplay between physical, environmental, and human factors. This
includes analyzing how pavement degradation, and other environmental stressors contribute to

4
road deterioration on drainage systems.
By understanding these complex interactions, the research aims to identify best practices for road
safety and drainage management.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
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2.1 Concepts of Road and Drainage
2.1.1 Road
Road infrastructure is the structural facilities that aid the movement of persons and goods
through the various means of transport on road. It is said to be composed of the following: The
carriage way; the pedestrian facilities (where applicable), Drainage system, Culverts (Box or
Ring types), Bridges and flyovers, Street light installations, Traffic signs, Traffic Islands etc,
(Abdulkareem, 2010).
A road is a very sophisticated physical structure that responds in a complex manner to the
external traffic and environmental loading. This is mainly due to the non-homogenous
composition of the asphalt mixture, aggregate and sub grade soil, and the vast variation in traffic
and environmental characteristics from a region to another. In the study by Mwangi (2013)
asphalt roads and pavements demonstrated different types of both structural and functional
distresses as a result of the combined effect of traffic and climate. In Kenya most roads
deteriorate due to high axle loading and lack of proper drainage and road maintenance.

2.1.2 Road Layers

A typical road construction is multilayered in form, comprising of unbound materials.
Essentially, the lower indigenous sub grade layer is covered by a bound or unbound sub base,
providing drainage and frost protection for the sub grade, and the road base layer upon which the
asphalt layers are laid as a final surface coating. The structural design of a road relates to the
ability of the road to carry the imposed loads without the need for excessive maintenance
(Abdulkareem, 2010). The road layers consist of three tiers; a surface course, a binder course and
a base course together these constitute the top layer of the road structure (Abdulkarem, 2010).
There is a wide range of surface course products available, and these wearing mixtures must be
designed to have sufficient stability and durability to withstand the appropriate traffic loads and
the detrimental effects of environmentally induced stresses such as air, water and temperature
changes, while in other cases the wearing course should be impermeable, to keep water out of the
road structure (Moulton, 1980).

Moulton (1980), notes further that, the binder course is an intermediate layer. It is designed to
reduce rutting and withstand the highest stresses that occur at about 50- 70mm below the surface
course layer. Binder mixtures typically use a large aggregate size (19-38 mm) with a
corresponding lower asphalt binder content to produce a combination of stability and durability.
He goes ahead to state that, the road base course is perhaps the most important structural layer,
and is specifically designed to effectively distribute traffic and environmental loading to ensure
that underlying unbound layers are not exposed to excessive stress and strains. The road base
course should also exhibit long-life characteristics, ensuring that fatigue of the structure is
resisted for as long as possible and no damage develops.

2.1.3 Types of Urban Drainages

There are three types of drainage Abwot (1999) namely: urban storm water drainage, land

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drainage and high way drainage systems. For Ndiwalana (2002) urban storm water is a system
both above and underground for carrying away storm water or waste water. Land drainage is the
process of releasing running water through supply ditches allowing it to flow over land through
supply ditches to furrows between blocks of land. On the other hand, highway drainage refers to
the collection or transportation and disposal of surface water system originating on or near the
highway.
The principal types of drainage systems are: open drain, piped (positive) Drain, French Drain.
The type of road drainage which is selected for a particular road will depend on such factors as to
whether it is a rural or an urban road, or if it is in cut or fill and also on groundwater conditions
(Annie-Claude, 2009).
According to the Highway Design Manual (2001) Open drains are used to carry away surface
water and can also pick up some subsoil water (depending on depth). Open drains facilitate the
early visual detection of blockages but their use may be restricted by the lack of roadside space,
safety considerations and the risk that they may be closed in by agricultural machinery.
A piped positive drain is normally associated with an urban situation and is used in conjunction
with gullies and kerbs. It may also be used in some rural embankment situations where it is
deemed important that water from the road and hard shoulder should not be allowed to drain onto
the embankment. A piped drainage system with gullies requires regular (The Highway Design
Manual,2001).
A French drain is the most commonly used system on newly constructed roads in rural areas.
Open jointed pipes are laid in a trench which is backfilled with a porous material. French drains
are useful methods of providing both surface water and sub grade drainage where space is
limited.

Plate 2.0: Photograph of French Drain

A Gutter drain is a channel designed to collect and direct surface water away from areas like
roads and buildings. They help prevent flooding and erosion by guiding runoff to appropriate

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drainage system.

Plate 2.1: Photograph of Gutter Drain

Catch basin is underground container that collect runoff water, allowing sediment to settle before
the water is directed into a drainage system. It’s crucial for managing stormwater and preventing
clogging in larger drainage system.

Plate 2.2: Photograph of Catch basin

2.1.4. Importance Of Drainage in Civil Engineering

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Effective drainage is crucial in civil engineering for several reasons:

i. Proper drainage ensures that water does not accumulate around or under structures,
which could lead to foundation settlement, pavement cracking, and other forms of
structural damage.
ii. Drainage systems help manage surface water flow, reducing the potential for soil
erosion. Erosion can undermine the integrity of roads, embankments, and other civil
engineering projects.
iii. By preventing water-related damage, drainage systems extend the lifespan of
infrastructure. For instance, roads with effective drainage systems are less likely to suffer
from potholes, ruts, and cracks caused by water infiltration and freezing.
iv. Proper drainage is essential for maintaining safe conditions on roads and highways.
Water accumulation on road surfaces can lead to hydroplaning, reduced visibility, and
other hazards.

2.1.5 Drainage Features

2.1.5.1 Surface Drainage
Surface Drainage The surface drainage elements include road surface, side drains, and culverts;
and the curbs, gutters and storm sewer systems. These elements work together as a system to
prevent water from penetrating the pavement, remove it from the travel lanes to the side drains or
gutter, and carry it away from the road (Mwangi, 2013).
2.1.5.1 Surface Drainage
i. Shoulders
Shoulders direct water flow to the side drains or ditches. They should slope more than the
carriageway to keep water moving to the side drains. If shoulders slope less, water will
build up during heavy rain at the join between shoulder and carriageway, flooding traffic
lanes Surface Drainage The surface drainage elements include road surface, side drains,
and culverts; and the curbs, gutters and storm sewer systems. These elements work
together as a system to prevent water from penetrating the pavement, remove it from the
travel lanes to the side drains or gutter, and carry it away from the road (Mwangi, 2013).
Furthermore Moulton (1980) reported that shoulders help provide lateral support for the
pavement, carry water from the pavement to ditches, and give vehicles a place to go if
they lose control or need to stop in an emergency. For drainage they need to be slightly
steeper than the pavement and should be able to withstand occasional traffic. Erosion and
washing of shoulders are a major problem and should be addressed by using less erosive
material on the surface (Moulton, 1980).
ii. Cross Slope
Cross slope is provided to provide a drainage gradient so that water will run off the
surface to a drainage system such as a street gutter or ditch. Water will flow faster on a
paved surface. Therefore, the slope of a road surface does not need to be steep. The cross

9
 slope should not be too sleep. If it is, the water running off the side will start eroding the
shoulder and sides of the road (Moulton, 1980).
iii. Longitudinal Drainage
Main objective of longitudinal drainage is collection and removal of water that is on the
road and immediate surrounding or water from adjacent areas (Mwangi, 2013). It's
fundamental for maintaining safety of traffic by eliminating water from the road surface
at the same point reducing the possibility of water infiltrating into the road and pavement
layers or foundation which may lead to deterioration (Van, 1989). Longitudinal surface
drainage systems include gutters, channels, ditches, permeable land surface and swales
complemented by their respective manholes, retain facilities and catch basins.

2.1.5.2. Subsurface Drainage System

According to Mwangi (2013), Subsurface Drainage This type of drainage is quite
important factor in pavement design. The basic design strategies promoted are to prevent water
from entering in pavement and to remove quickly any water that infiltrates. The changes in
moisture content of subgrade soil are caused by fluctuations in ground water table, percolation of
rain water and movement of capillary water. In subsurface drainage it is required to keep the
variation of moisture in subgrade soil to minimum. The need for subsurface drains as alternatives
to open drains depends on site conditions; however, they require careful consideration owing to
their high cost. These types of drains are required in urban areas, places with subsoil wells and in
some types of cuttings. Subsurface drains include under drains and trench drains. They serve the
following purposes; intercept water before it gets to the road, lower the water table and remove
excess free moisture from the road (Van, 1989).

Subsurface drainage consists of three basic elements. A permeable base which is required to
provide for rapid removal of water which enters the road structure, a method of conveying the
removed water away from the road structure and this may consist of a base sloped towards a
drainage ditch. At the most, this may consist of a pipe collector system and a filter layer to
prevent the migration of fines into the permeable base from the sub grade, sub base or shoulder
base material (Wyatt and Macari, 2000). The report further states that excess fines in the
permeable base will clog its drainage routes and render it ineffective. All sub drains should be
able to maintain the flow lines and the design slopes. The outlet water flow should be clear and
uniform, indicating that erosion is not occurring and the system is not clogged. Side slopes on the
road, drainage beds in the pavement and transverse drains are some of the measures of effecting
subsurface drainage (Otumba, 2000).

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2.1.5.2.1 Elements of a Good Subsurface Drainage
i. Granular Drainage Layer
A well-maintained granular drainage layer is uniform in thickness, the width detailed in the plans
and specifications, and of the proper material gradation (Jreri, 2009).
ii. Under Drains
A well-maintained system of transverse and longitudinal drainage pipes effectively intercepts
and carries water out of the granular layer. Under drains carry water from the granular drainage
layer to edge drains. Edge drains are installed under shoulders. longitudinally adjacent to the
pavement (Ireri, 2009). Edge drains are constructed during roadways construction. Perforated
pipes installed in a trench parallel to the roadway, which is then backfilled with an open graded
aggregate. Caps of impervious soils are placed on top of edge drains to prevent surface water
from draining into them. Filters may be used to prevent fine grained soils from clogging the open
graded aggregate or the pipe itself. Water from the under drains is collected in a non-perforated
edge drain pipe that discharges into a roadside ditch or a storm water system (Ng’ang’a, 2001).
2.1.6 Ditches
Ditches carry water away from the roadway and into streams or other natural waterways. To do
this, ditches must be properly shaped for safety, maintenance, water flow, and erosion control.
The ditch should be at least one foot below the bottom of the gravel base in order to drain the
pavement. Ditches should extend to shoulders with smooth transition to fore slope. A well
maintained, smooth flowing ditch will be free of heavy vegetation (tall grass) and standing water,
with enough grades to ensure self-cleaning and continuous flow (Barbagallo and Tricia 2005).
Roadway ditches are not supposed to cut across watershed divides or interrupt flow to critical
water zones such as wetlands. The design flow should be determined, ditches should be grass
lined unless hydraulic or other conditions require alternative channel lining materials
(DDMI, 2013).

2.1.6.1 Erosion Control in Ditches

A ditch should be built to channel water away from the road system without creating erosion.
The need for erosion protection should be evaluated for all channel and ditch designs. A channel
lining is required when the design discharge velocity exceeds the scour velocity for a grassed
ditch (or standing water resulting from flat ditch slopes. Paved ditches are discouraged from use
as a channel lining; it is recommended that the designer use articulated concrete block revetment
systems (HDM, 2013).
Ditches are constructed in four basic shapes: “V” shape, rectangular, trapezoidal and parabolic
(Barbagallo and Tricia 2005).“V” shaped ditches are constructed by a grader, front end loader, or
by the use of a special ditching bucket attached to a backhoe or excavator. They are easily made
with a grader and if the slopes are moderate, vegetation can be established and erosion kept at
minimum.

Rectangular ditches are usually constructed by placing a backhoe directly in the ditch and
travelling lengthways along it. This is a fast and cheap way to establish and clean a ditch. The

11
flat bottom has the advantage of spreading the water out and slowing it down, but the square
sides are difficult to establish vegetation on and cave-ins are common. Trapezoidal ditches are an
efficient way of channeling the water away. Sloping sides allow vegetation to be established and
the flat bottoms spread the water out and slow it down, reducing erosion. Because of its shape, it
has the capacity to carry more water than the “V” or rectangular ditch. It requires more expertise
on the part of the operator to construct and it requires more right of way width. This shape is
more expensive to construct but it does require less maintenance.

Parabolic ditch is constructed using the front-end loader, backhoe, or excavator. It requires the
removal of more fill than either the V or rectangular ditch. Sloping sides and a rounded bottom
are easily vegetated and reduce erosion. Capacity is roughly equal to trapezoidal ditch. In terms
of efficiency and long-term cost effectiveness, this ditch may be the best.

2.1.7 Culverts
Culverts are the most common cross drainage structures used on roads. They are built using a
variety of materials, in different shapes and sizes, depending on the preferred design and
construction practices. Culverts are required in order to (i) allow natural streams to cross the
road, and (ii) discharge surface water from drains and the areas adjacent to the road. Culverts
form an essential part of the drainage system on most roads. Types of culvert outlets (a)
Projecting outlet (b) End-wall structure, (c) End-wall and wing-wall (d) End wall and wing-wall
(with apron and sill). Culverts are constructed using different materials. The most common
practice of culverts is based on the use of pre-cast concrete pipes, in-situ concrete boxes and
corrugated steel pipes culverts. Culverts are shallow passages that are fitted under roads that
allow water to pass beneath them. They can be made of cither steel, plastic or concrete
(Mwangi 2013).

2.2Maintenance Models
2.2.1 Highway Design and Maintenance Standard Model
The model was developed by the World Bank’s Transportation Department to meet the needs of
highway authorities, particularly in developing countries, for evaluating policies, standards and
programs of road construction and maintenance. The model simulates total life cycle conditions
and costs for one road, a group of roads with similar characteristics, or an entire network of
paved or unpaved roads, for a series of road agency construction or maintenance strategies and
provides the economic decision criteria for evaluating the strategies being analyzed. The primary
cost set for the life cycle analysis includes the costs of road construction and maintenance and
vehicle operating costs, to which travel time costs can be added. The costs of construction related
traffic delays, accidents and environmental pollution can be entered in the model exogenous
based on separate estimates. HDM can be coupled with the companion Expenditure Budgeting
Model (EBM) to find the best way of using road agency funds under budgetary constraint (The
World Bank Group, 2001).

2.2.2 Road Economic Decision Model (REDM)

REDM is a consumer surplus model used to evaluate investments in low volume roads. The

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model is implemented in a series of Excel workbooks that collect all user inputs. present the
results in a user-friendly manner, estimate vehicle operating costs and speeds, perform an
economic comparison of investments and maintenance alternatives and perform Sensitivity,
switch-off values and stochastic risk analyses. The model computes benefits accruing to normal,
generated, and diverted traffic, as a function of a reduction in vehicle operating and time costs. It
also computes safety benefits and model users can add other benefits (or costs) to the analysis,
such as those related to non-motorized traffic, social service delivery and environmental impacts
(The World Bank Group, 2006).

2.3 Nexus between Road Transport and Growth/Socio-Economic Development

One of the earlier attempts to investigate the role of infrastructure in development
processes was by A Schauer (1989). In a study done in the United States, the author argues that
non-military public investment is far more important in increasing aggregate productivity than
military spending. This study concludes that core infrastructure such as street lights, highways,
airports, etc., contributes more to productivity than other forms of infrastructure (Ogun, 2010).
Servin and Calderon (2004) evaluated the impact of infrastructures on economic growth and
income distribution using a large panel data set for 100 countries from 1960- 2000 and found that
economic growth is positively related to infrastructure stock while income inequality declines
with higher infrastructure quantity and quality. This they did using a variety of generalized-
method-of-moments to account for potential endogeneity of infrastructure.
Decisions made regarding investment in public transportation and how various aspects of the
economy are affected was studied by Weisbrod and Reno (2009), using descriptive statistics, the
study showed that public transportation investment can have significant impacts on the economy
and thus represent an important public policy consideration. Ajiboye and Afolayan (2009) in
another study found that improved transportation will encourage fanners to work harder and be
more productive, add value to products, reduce spoilage and wastages, empower fanners, have
positive impact on productivity, income, employment and reduce poverty level in the rural
areas.

Umoren, Ikuruekong, Emmanuel, and Udida(2009) carried out a study on the

development of road infrastructure as a tool of transforming Ibiono- Ibom local government area,
which state that the idea behind the study was to reveal the importance of development of road
infrastructure as a panacea for socio-economic advancement in the rural areas. Using the Gamma
index in the analysis of the road network in the three zones selected, results show low
connectivity in each of the zones which implies low profit, reduced mobility and increased cost
of transport while a correlation coefficient of 0.87 indicates a strong positive relationship
between road infrastructure and socio-economic activities.

Inoni (2009) investigated the effect of road infrastructure on Agricultural output and income of
rural households in Delta State using data from twenty-one local government areas. A multi-
stage random sampling technique was used to draw samples for the study and the ordinary least
squares technique was used to estimate the relevant parameters. Findings revealed that rural
roads have significant positive effect on agricultural output, reduce transport cost, stimulate
13
demand for rural labour and improve rural income. The study also found that road infrastructure
promotes intersectoral linkages between the agriculture and non-farm sector that enhances
income diversification strategies among rural households.
2.4 The Role and the Effects of Highway Drainage System
Dipnoan (2014), studied highway surface drainage system and problems of water
logging and concluded that adverse roadway elements contributing to highway accidents were
substandard roadway alignment or ‘geometry, lack of shoulders and shoulder defects, absent or
inappropriate pedestrian facilities, narrow and defective lanes and bridges/bridge approaches,
roadside hazards, undefined pavement center and edge lines, poor sight distances and visibility,
unmarked and inappropriate design of intersections, serious allocation deficiencies along the
route, haphazard bus shelters/stops, and others are causes of water logging problem in highway.
This research traced that Proper drainage is a very important consideration in design of a
highway. Inadequate drainage facilities can lead to premature deterioration of the highway and
the development of adverse safety conditions such as hydroplaning. It is common, therefore, for
a sizable portion of highway construction budgets to be devoted to drainage facilities.

Muhammad, (2014) studied highway drainage system and started that highway drainage is
importance for removing water from the road surface, preventing ingress of water into the
pavement, passing water across the road, either under or over and preventing scour and/ or
washout of the pavement, shoulder, batter slopes, water courses and drainage structures. He
identified types of drainage on the highway to include kerbs and gullies, surface water channel,
combined filter drain (French drain), over-the-edge drainage, drainage channel locks, combined
kerb and drainage units, linear drainage channels, fin and narrow filter drain (sub-surface
drainage) and edge drainage for porous asphalt.
According to Bath & North Fast Somerset Council (2016). Highway drainage should fulfils the
following objectives: prevent flooding, ponding and seepage and keep the carriageway, cycle
way and footway as free of standing water as possible; ensure surface water falling on the
highway enters the drainage system or natural watercourse as speedily as possible; keep the
underlying road structure as dry as possible: prevent injury or damage caused by hazardous
surface water; prevent highway surface water flooding adjacent properties and prevent blockages
in associated highway drainage systems with consequential flooding.
According to civil engineering dictionary (2014), highway drainage performs the
following; collecting, transporting, and disposing of surface/subsurface water originating on or
near the highway right of way or flowing in streams crossing bordering that right of way. This is
important because of water damage highway structure in many ways. The water which are
dangerous for highways are: Rainwater: Cause erosion on surface or may seep downward and
damage pavement (surface drains), Groundwater: May rise by capillary action and damage
pavement (sub-surface damage) and water body: May cross a road (river/stream) and may
damage road. In research on drainage on roads by Singh et ta\ (2014), highway drainage is used
to clear surface water from the highway. Roads need to be well drained to stop flooding; even
surface water can cause problems with ice in the winter. Water left standing on roads can also

14
cause maintenance problems, as it can soften the ground under a road making the road surface
break up.

Roads and drainages are important aspect of infrastructural development of any society. In a
humanly populated environment, they are essential for any meaningful socioeconomic activities
as human beings are itinerant in nature (Uchegbu, 2000). Being the most universal form of
transport, people therefore need roads to be able to communicate with one another, carry out
transactions (Udongwu, 2002). They also need drainages, which collect unwanted water and
other liquid waste and channel such into an appropriate place (Nmegbu, 2001). This ensures that
roads are not waterlogged, and residential (and other) areas are properly drained of wastewater.
However, natural hazards, for instance, flood, have attracted serious attention in man’s inhabited
environment. Man, too has tremendously influenced the state of his environment either positively
or negatively through his activities such as deforestation, indiscriminate erection of structures,
and reluctance to maintain even those structures he has put in place for his own benefits. In urban
centers, if the road network is properly established, drainage system well planned and
constructed, and both government and the people join hands to maintain them, then such a place
will definitely appear delightful (Offiong, 1997). This was the dream of the General Olusegun
Obasanjo’s military regime in the late 70"s when it ordered massive construction oftrunk “A”
roads across Nigeria. Thus, one of such roads, which link Eastern Nigeria with the north through
Otukpo, is now regarded as the major road in Otukpo Urban. Together with the integrity roads, a
network of roads is formed. Consequently, some drainage now exists as a mitigating measure
against flood, run-offs and stagnant water.

In research on drainage on roads by Singh, Navpreet and Nitin (2014), a well-designed and well-
maintained road drainage is important in order to: minimize the environmental impact of road
runoff on the receiving water environment, ensure the speedy removal of surface water to
enhance safety and minimize disruption to road users and to maximize the longevity of the road
surface and associated infrastructures. Water in the pavement system can lead to moisture
damage, modulus reduction and loss of strength. In order to prevent such damages to the
pavement, it is essential to provide proper drainage to the roads. They maintained that the
presence of water in a communicate with one another, carry out transactions (Udongwu, 2002).
They also need drainages, which collect unwanted water and other liquid waste and channel such
into an appropriate place (Nmegbu, 2001). This ensures that roads are not waterlogged, and
residential (and other) areas are properly drained of wastewater. However, natural
hazards, for instance, flood, have attracted serious attention in man’s inhabited environment.
Man, too has tremendously influenced the state of his environment either positively or negatively
through his activities such as deforestation, indiscriminate erection of structures, and reluctance
to maintain even those structures he has put in place for his own benefits. In urban centres, if the
road network is properly established, drainage system well planned and constructed, and both
government and the people join hands to maintain them, then such a place will definitely appear
delightful (Offiong, 1997). This was the dream of the General Olusegun Obasanjo’s military
regime in the late 70"s when it ordered massive construction of trunk “A” roads across Nigeria.
Thus, one of such roads, which link Eastern Nigeria with the north through Otukpo, is now
15
regarded as the major road in Otukpo Urban. Together with the intracity roads, a network of
roads is formed. Consequently, some drainage now exists as a mitigating measure against flood,
run-offs and stagnant water.

In a research on drainage on roads by Singh, Navpreet and Nitin (2014), a well-designed and
well-maintained road drainage is important in order to: minimize the environmental impact of
road runoff on the receiving water environment, ensure the speedy removal of surface water to
enhance safety and minimize disruption to road users and to maximize the longevity of the road
surface and associated infrastructures.
Water in the pavement system can lead to moisture damage, modulus reduction and loss of
strength. In order to prevent such damages to the pavement, it is essential to provide proper
drainage to the roads. They maintained that the presence of water in a highway layer reduces the
bearing capacity of the road, and in doing so it also reduces the structure's lifetime. A road
structure has to be provided with an adequate drainage to remove precipitation from its surface
as expeditiously as possible, failure to which early pavement distortions and deterioration
eventually occurs (Gichaga, 1989). Furthermore, flood waters are a deterrent to free traffic
movement and create necessary perils for the users of the facility. For this reason, road designers
provide pavement crown and shoulder slopes to expedite the removal ofsurface water (Paul and
Norman, 1989).

As the water cause a serious impact on both the road access and its strength due to poor drainage
an efficient drainage system is the most important part of urban road construction and
maintenance works. Good drainage needs to be taken into consideration at the early design
stages in order to secure a long life for the road. With a well-designed drainage system, future
rehabilitation and maintenance works can be considerably reduced and thus limit the cost of
keeping the road in a good condition (Mwangi, 2013). In many settlements of the developing
countries of the world studies have indicated that drainage systems have been a big deterrent in
the development of low-cost settlements. It has led to a serious and hazardous flooding and
submergence of structures constructed on unsuitable land like low lying areas or reclaimed land
for residential, industrial and times, commercial development.
2.5 Drainage System Requirements of Highway Drainage System
Rokade, Agarwal & Shrivastava R. (2012) “The drainage design criteria used in the past have
been based on the assumption that both the flow of water through pavements and the drainage of
pavement layers can be represented with saturated flow assumptions. The detrimental effects of
water can be reduced by preventing water from entering the pavement, providing adequate
drainage to remove infiltration, or building the pavement strong enough to resist the combined
effect of load and water. Pavement service life can be increased by 50% if infiltrated water can
be drained without delay. Similarly, pavement systems incorporating good drainage can be
expected to have a design life of two to three times that of un-drained pavement sections.
Veeraragavan and Shailendra (2010) carried out “sub surface drainage is a key element in the
design of pavement system. An optimum performance of a pavement system can be achieved by

16
preventing water entering by means of a well-designed subsurface drainage system. Shailendra et
al (2010) reported that “inadequate subsurface drainage continues to be identified as a major
cause of pavement, distress. The entrapment of water within the pavement leads to a “bathtub”
condition resulting in premature failures and chronic pavement distresses. This leads to large
number of costly repairs or replacement to the pavements long before they reach their design life
Ger (2004) designed the guidelines for road drainage which stressed that drainage is a basic
consideration in the establishment of road geometry and in general this means that the drainage
should meet the following: cross falls should be a minimum of 2.5% on carriageways, with
increased cross falls of up to 5.0% on hard shoulders draining to filter drains; longitudinal
gradients should not be less than 0.5% on kerbed roads; flat areas should be avoided and
consideration of surface water drainage is particularly important at rollovers, roundabouts and
junctions; outfall levels must be achievable; the spacing of road gullies should be sufficient to
remove surface water whilst achieving an acceptable width of channel flow. One gully for
every 200sq. m of paved surface is generally found to be satisfactory.
According to National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) (1998), a drainage
pavement contains the integral components. The primary components include the asphalt or
concrete surface pavement, a permeable base, a separator/filter layer, the subgrade. If any of
these system components do not function properly, the system will not perform (e.g., a drainage
pavement that does not drain will be a liability to the pavement system).

2.6 Requirements of Drainage System Maintenance

According to Bath & North East Somerset Council (2016), the council maintained that highway
drainage requires routine maintenance to ensure its continued efficiency from time to time,
additional maintenance is essential to ensure the system continues to function properly. Gullies
and their immediate pipe connection are emptied and cleaned as part of an annual proactive
maintenance programmed. Drainage is cleaned as followed: rural areas - once per year, urban
areas- once per year, and high-speed dual carriageways twice per year. However, where
persistent problems are identified with gully cleansing, for example, being blocked by silt and
detritus on a regular basis, the gullies are specifically identified and programmed for a greater
cleaning frequency.

2.7 Effects of Bad Drainage System on Roads Environment

Bad drainage has damage and loss in serviceability of both rigid and flexible types of pavements
much greater when structural section contains free water. The quality of drainage is an important
parameter which affects the performance of the highway pavement. Poor drainage quality on
roads leads to a large number of costly repairs or replacements long before reaching their design
life. The gradation and properties of layer materials seldom permit the layer to be an effective
drainage layer, leading to entrapment of water within the pavement causing a "bathtub"
condition, resulting in premature failures and chronic pavement distresses

Jitendra, Pradeep, and Manoj(2013) carried out a framework for quantification of the effect of

17
drainage quality on structural and functional performance of pavement by identifying a simple
framework for Quantification of the effect of drainage quality on structural as well as functional
performance of the pavement. They presented the structural and functional performance of the
pavement in predicted terms of deflection and roughness respectively. Their study was useful to
reduce the maintenance cost of highway pavement system and to preserve huge highway
network in India.
Getachew and Tamene (2015), assessed the effect of urban road surface drainage: in Ginjo
Guduru Kebele of Jimma town. They assessed the pavement damage due to improper drainage,
identified areas most prone to flooding problems, assessed the existing condition of road and
surface drainage infrastructure; examine the impacts of road surface drainage structures
integration on road performance and related social as well as environment issues. They observed
that the road surface drainage found to be inadequate due to insufficient road profile, insufficient
drainage structures provision, improper maintenance and lack of proper interconnections
between the road and drainage infrastructures thereby resulting to the damages to road surface
material and flooding in the area.

Victor (2010), Carried out an investigation into the adequacy of the drainage system on Narok-
Mai Mahiu road which to determine the adequacy of the drainage system. They employed a
research survey in order to obtain the information that would describe the state of drainage
infrastructure. Questionnaires, photographs, observation, and interviews were used to collect
data. The results indicated that Narok Mai-Mahiu road drainage system was not adequate to
satisfactorily drain the runoffs. As a result, the surrounding environment was greatly affected as
exemplified by runoffs washing away some sections of the road and bridges, creating gullies on
people’s land, blockage of the road, loss of life and property and washing away of the fertility of
the land. Poor design, workmanship, and maintenance were the main challenges. He then pushed
that drainage facilities should be improved through maintenance; gabions be built for remedying
of gullies and construction of water conservation structures.
Siddhartha, Agarwal and Rajnish (2012) in his research on drainage and flexible
pavement performance; in the research, they pointed out that providing adequate drainage to a
pavement system has been considered as an important design consideration to prevent premature
failures due to water related problems such as pumping action, loss of support, and rutting
among others. They continued that most water in pavements is due to rainfall infiltration into
unsaturated pavement layers. Through joints, cracks, shoulder edges, and various other defects,
especially in older deteriorated pavements. Water also seeps upward from a high groundwater
table due to capillary suction or vapor movements, or it may flow laterally from the pavement
edges and side ditches. Providing adequate drainage to a pavement system has been considered
as an important design consideration to ensure satisfactory performance of the pavement,
particularly from the perspective of life cycle cost and serviceability.
To minimize premature pavement distresses and to enhance the pavement performance, they
recommended the provision of adequate drainage to allow infiltrated water to drain out from the
base and sub-base, thus avoiding saturation of base and subgrade soils.

18
Magdi, (2014) studied the impacts of poor drainage on road performance in Khartoum, a city in
Sudan. Attempts were made to find out the reasons for road failure within the first five years as a
result of poor drainage. The findings show that four basic reasons lead to early deterioration of
road pavements in the study areas, these factors include. Poor drainage design and construction,
poor maintenance structure, use of low-quality materials and no local standard of practice. It was
concluded that if these factors are put into consideration in planning and execution and if
improved on pavement structures would serve within its expected design life.

Patil and Jalinder (2011) studied the effects of bad drainage on roads with precision on some
roads in India. It was found that increase in moisture content increases the chances of road
failure before the stipulated or expected design life. It was observed that on Service Road to
Mumbai Pune Expressway the blockage of drainage channels leads to accumulation of water on
pavement thus, leading to the stripping of bitumen. On walhekarwadichowk road, poor drainage
leads to formation of waves and corrugations which as well leads to increase in weight and thus
increases the stress causing the simultaneous reduction in strength of soil mass. On Nehru Nagar
Road, Pimpri Akurdi Railway Station Road, and Holkar Bridge Chowk, Khadaki it was found
that water penetrated into the subgrade thus making it weak and subsequently development of
potholes as a result of water logging. The Approach Road to railway tunnel near Akurdi Railway
Station was observed to be bad condition due to flood in rainy seasons.

Getachew and Tamene (2015), made a study on Assessment of the Effect of Urban Road Surface
Drainage using Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma Town in Ethiopia as a case study. It was found
that road surface drainage of the study area was found to be inadequate due insufficient road
profile, insufficient drainage structures provision, improper maintenance and lack of proper
interconnection between the road and drainage infrastructures thereby resulting damages to road
surfacing material and flooding problems in the area.

Magdi, (2016) investigated surface drainage problem of roads in Khartoum state, Sudan. A
comprehensive study was done using appropriate land and traffic survey equipment. Several
roads were surveyed which led to conclusions as; The drainage problem is highly compounded in
Khartoum state because of inadequate drainage system thereby resulting in damages of
pavements and leading to unhealthy environment, poor drainage conditions especially during
rainy seasons, force the water to enter the pavement from the sides as well as from the top
surface. The most common causes of road drainage problem were found related to improper road
geometry. insufficient capacity of drainage structures, poor construction and lack of proper
maintenance. It was recommended that proper road geometry needs to be maintained to provide
required crown and longitudinal slopes, Provision of proper connections or integrations between
the road network and drainage network systems are required with regular maintenance,
deficiencies in road drainage should be identified and ranked in order of priority as part of the
normal maintenance program.

19
Owuama, Uja & Kingsley (2014) studied Sustainable Drainage System for Road
Networking; the research was aimed at suggesting an alternative and sustainable drainage system
which is a trenchless drain comprising absorption unit and grass cover. It was found that the
technology would provide a cheap, aesthetic and effective method of disposing road surface
runoff with minimal distress to users and minima! damage to the environment. It was concluded
that trenchless drains dispose accumulated surface water easily and introduces aesthetics to the
environs and an antidote to mosquito breeding which consequently reduces the incidence of
Malaria.

Agbonkhese, Yisa & Daudu (2013) studied bad drainage and its effects on road pavement
conditions in Nigeria and came up with some reasons as to why there is poor or bad road
conditions relating to drainage. Their research stressed that: Poor maintenance, poorly executed
construction jobs, negative attitude of residents and noncompliance to existing master plan of
town has been the cause of poor road conditions. They concluded that poor drainage has led to a
fast deterioration of most roads in Nigeria and government and respective bodies should also
take into consideration, proper design and maintenance culture to enable the constructed roads to
be put to use to meet their designed life.

Rokade, et al (2012) carried out research on drainage related performance of flexible highway
pavements in which they started that the drainage design criteria used in the past for drainage
design have been based on the assumption that both the flow of water through pavements and the
drainage of pavement layers can be represented with saturated flow assumptions. They
concluded that effects of water can be reduced by preventing water from entering the pavement,
providing adequate drainage to remove infiltration, or building the pavement strong enough to
resist the combined effect of load and water. Pavement service life can be increased by 50% if
infiltrated water can be drained without delay. Similarly, pavement systems incorporating good
drainage can be expected to have a design life of two to three times that of un-drained pavement
sections.

Legal framework and transportation management arc the national aims in decreasing road
deterioration (Nordenegen and Oberholtzer, 2006).
Kaare, Kristjan and Ott K (2012) emphasized that flexible pavements deteriorate under traffic
loads and climate effects. This effect depends on the technology and materials of the road, but
the greatest effects depend on traffic loads and volumes. Abhijit (2011). Investigate the effect of
poor drainage on road condition and found that the increase in moisture content decreases the
strength of the pavement. Therefore, poor drainage causes the premature failure of the pavement.
On the same line, pavement tends to crack at some point of their life under the combined action
of traffic and the environment and climate conditions (Wee and Teo 2009). Wisconsin
Department of Transport investigates the pavement fatigue as a result of the number and weight
of axle loads. They also discuss how wheel loads, number of truck axles, number of truck tires,
quality of sub-grade, pavement thickness and changing seasons contribute to pavement fatigue.
In addition, climate conditions were seen to have an effect on road deterioration, vehicle
operating costs, road safety and the environment (Anyala et.al. 2011). Transport Canada (2005)
20
indicated that climate factors are a major cause for pavement deterioration. It is a fact that
temperature, frost and thaw action as well as moisture are factors that can cause certain types of
pavement deterioration (Transport Canada, 2005). These factors can also intensify pavement
deterioration caused by heavy vehicles.

Harischandra (2004) found that potholes, cracks, edge defects, depressions and corrugation are
significant road defects observed in the field. At the same time, he emphasized that traffic, age,
road geometry, weather, drainage, construction quality as well construction material,
maintenance policy play the major role as road deteriorate agents. Korkiala-Tanttu and Daeson
(2007) suggested that in the pavement or embankment, water plays a primary role in giving
shorter service life and in increasing the need of rehabilitation measures.

Abdulkareem and Adeoti (2004) examined the method of road maintenance in Nigeria. To do so,
they defined and analyzed the causes of structural failure of highway pavement and suggest some
factors; action of weather, rain and heat, unstable ground conditions and poor drainage, poor
construction material and methods, post construction activities like digging of trenches along the
road etc., poor workmanship and inadequate maintenance.
On his study on Nigeria highway, Okido (2012) has indentified some ofthe factors that cause
highway failure. These factors were; poor design and construction, poor maintenance of already
built highways, use of low-quality materials in construction, poor workmanship and poor
supervision of construction work and the applying of heavy traffic that were not meant for the
road. Furthermore, he also suggests that the following will lead to highway failure such as; poor
highway facilities, no knowledge base, in adequate sanction for highway failure, no local
standard of practice, poor laboratory in situ tests on soil and weak local professional bodies in
highway design, construction and management. However, it is clear that highway pavement
globally deteriorates for a number of reasons and factors as indicated earlier. Jordan highway is
no exception and may deteriorate due to these reasons. Therefore, understanding the causes for
highway pavement failures is essential and important step towards minimizing risks to good
performance. An intensive literature review revealed a list of 51 factors that may lead to highway
pavement cracks and deterioration. The current paper aimed on identifying the factors that cause
the deterioration of highway in Jordan and establishing their relative importance for consultants
and main road contracting firms. However, a questionnaire was designed including the 51 factors
to examine these factors and ascertain their important index.

According to Cara (1997) developing Africa faces problems due to rapid urbanization and its
accompanying overcrowding and congestion of urban areas. Development on land surfaces
reduces permeability by replacing vegetated ground with roofs, roads and paved areas.
Furthermore, Cara notes that there is an overall lack of physical structures like drainage systems,
sanitation systems to support increasing urban population and insufficient funds to provide good
environmental living condition to all.
The critical development issues in Colombo include drainage and flood control; many parts of
the city are subjected to frequent flooding due to insufficient drainage UN Habitat (1997).

21
Residential encroachment along canal banks and improper solid waste disposal, filling of marshy
land has reduced the natural water retention system. Furthermore, many parts of the city are
characterized by inadequate or no waste collection while the only disposable site causes
environmental degradation. Smission (1980) states that the increasing population concentrations
associated with the urbanization process also resulted in increases in waste generation.
Household wastewater was connected (disposed of in the nearest open channel) and in turn
created problems of smell. As a result, the open channels constructed to alleviate flooding were
covered creating combined sewer system.

According to Hollis (1988), the most obvious change that urbanization brings to a drainage basin
is that it replaces vegetated landscapes with less permeable surfaces like tarmac roads and
buildings. There is less surface storage and less water enters the soil and groundwater stores. The
reduced water storage and vegetation cover mean lower evapotranspiration outputs.
Consequently, the percentage of rain water that runs off increases. Ajayi (1993) stated that in
most developing countries, solid waste disposal is closely linked with urban wastewater drainage
in that open sewers and drainage channels often end up also being receptacles for solid wastes
generated in the community. This leads to blockages, reductions in capacity and an exacerbation
of flooding problems. In such situations, he suggested that the Institutional arrangements be
along the lines of an “Integrated Environmental Service” provider (incorporating water supply,
wastewater and solid waste functions) and a corresponding “Integrated Environmental Control
Agency” Ajayi is of the view that the proposed Institutional arrangements will provide an
appropriate framework for the equitable allocation of resources to the various environmental
service needs and should result in a climate conducive to the implementation of the alternative
approach being advocated.

A World Bank report (1996) indicated that poor drainage conditions in developing countries are
a result of weak institutional capacity, inadequate regulatory policies, inadequate governance,
and generally lack of public Education/awareness/participation.

The resolution of problems associated with infrastructural provision in most developing

countries currently follows along the traditions of the developed countries. Often, this is not
appropriate for the locality. A review of urban drainage practice shows that, in the past, the
philosophy has been based on conveying peak flows of municipal waste water and storm runoff
away from the urban areas as quickly as possible. This has resulted in downstream flooding and
heavy pollution of receiving waters (Sonuga, 1993).
But it should not be forgotten that in some developing countries especially
where the above-mentioned qualities exist, still drainage problems especially those related to
weather conditions do still occur. World Health Organization report (1992) considered poor
operation and maintenance as the major cause. Of poor drainage conditions. In Ugandan
situation it would appear that poor drainage is a causation of blockage of the main channels and
the drainage by directly dumping wastes of different kinds into these drains (Kampala Structural
Plan, (1994).

22
Carcros (1990) observed that the increasing surface area coverage with roofs and roads in urban
areas are the major causes of flooding since they leave volumes of water to be carried away by
the drainage. This is so because there is no longer percolation action in the built-up environment.
In many cases even the surfaces or open yards are also concreted, leaving almost no room for
percolation, let alone the tarmac roads and streets. Plan International (1997) reported the research
done in Bwaise II parish Kampala is characterized by flooding, mainly due to poor drainage
caused by situation and open dumping of solid wastes in the main Nsooba drain which chokes
the channel resulting into water overflows.

Storm water drainage in Uganda is still a serious problem, which is due to the
inadequacies of the drainage network. Ndiwalana further states that, the rapid
commercial, residential, and urbanization developments in Uganda are responsible for increasing
the risk of floods resulting from inadequate drainage. The rapid development leaves no space for
provision of drainage systems. This is evident in most of the urban centers or areas that are
undergoing haphazard and disorganized development and growth (Ndivvalana, 2000). For
example Nakivubo Channel is 78 years old (New Vision, 2003) , but it is deeply silted and
polluted, although its purpose was to guide drainage water from Kampala and runoff into Lake
Victoria it can no longer perform to its full potential.

A road structure has to be provided with an adequate drainage to remove precipitation from its
surface as expeditiously as possible, failure to which early pavements distortions and
deterioration eventually occurs (Gichaga, 1989). Furthermore, flood waters are a deterrent to free
traffic movement and create unnecessary perils for the users of the facility. For these reasons,
road designers provide pavement crown and shoulder slopes to expedite the removal of surface
water (Paul and Norman, 1989).

As the water cause a serious impact on both the road access and its strength due to poor drainage
an efficient drainage system is the most important part of urban road construction and
maintenance works. Good- drainage needs to be taken into consideration at the early design
stages in order to secure a long life for the road. With a well-designed drainage system, future
rehabilitation and- maintenance works can be considerably reduced and thus limit the cost of
keeping the road in a good condition (Mwangi, 2013). In many settlements of the developing
countries of the world studies have indicated that drainage systems have been a big deterrent in
the development of low-cost settlements. It has led to a serious and hazardous flooding and
submergence of structures constructed on unsuitable land like low lying areas or reclaimed land
for residential, industrial and times, commercial development.

Diffendoofer, et al (2002), presents no less than six adverse effects related to excess water:
reduction of shear strength of unbound materials, differential swelling on expansive sub grade
soils, movement of unbound fines in flexible pavement base on base layers, pumping of fines
and durability cracking in rigid pavements, frost - heave and the weakening, and stripping of
asphalt in flexible pavements. Urban environments in Nigeria are faced with myriad of issues
regarding poor drainage systems (Offiong et al, 2009) and water tight structure which are the
23
major causes of flooding (Belete, 2011). Urban flooding which is the inundation of land or
property in a built environment particularly in more crowded areas are caused by rainfall
overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems. Although this is sometimes caused by events
such as flash flooding (Tucci, 2001).

2.8 Methods for Improving Drainage Performance

Adequate drainage is essential in the design of roads since it affects the highways serviceability
and usable life, including the roads and pavement’s structural strength. If pounding on the
travelled way occurs, hydroplaning becomes an important safety
concern (Lewis and Andrew, 2007). Drainage design involves providing facilities that collect,
transport and remove water from the road. The design must also consider the water reaching the
roadway embankment through natural stream flow or manmade ditches (Shahin et al., 1984)

24
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the study Area

The study area is the Ekiti state University (EKSU) community situated in Ado Ekiti. Ado Ekiti

lies between longitudes 5⁰ 13′ and 5⁰ 16′E and latitudes 7⁰ 36′ and 7⁰ 49′N. The university areas

are linked with roads and drainage leading to different faculties and department (Fig. 1).

Plate 3.0: Map showing the study area

25
3.2 Materials Used

Audio recorder: They are used for research and field recording to capture ambient sounds,

interviews and data.

Pen and paper: Taking note of important information down, ideas, and data

Camera: They are used in documenting investigations, observations and data collection.

Umbrella: It’s used to prevent rain during the physical investigation

Measuring tape: They are used for measuring distances and the drains

Meter Rule: It’s a straightedge with markings to measure length and widths.

3.3. Practices for Road Safety and Drainage Management

3.3.1 Visual Survey

A thorough visual inspection/survey of the entire study area was conducted to identify the best
practices for road safety and drainage management in Eksu to the user; this was done through a
combination of field observations, Image capturing, and data analysis by combining field data to
validate observations and ensure accuracy. To identify the best practices for road safety and
drainage management, field survey program was conducted on major roads in the University,
Road from the main gate down to the various faculty. The field survey was carried out by visual
inspection to evaluate the existing conditions of the road and drainage system and identify best
practices such as, implementing speed limits, speed bumps, road sign and signals, and then
regular cleaning of stormwater drains to prevent blockages, implementing erosion measures to
prevent soil erosion and sedimentation that will enhance its safety and performance. Photographs
were taken directly from the road sites during the field survey to illustrate the existing condition
and related obstacles in the drainage and the pavement.

3.4 Causes of Road Deterioration and Drainage issues.

26
3.4.1 Physical investigation
A comprehensive physical investigation was conducted to identify the causes of road
deterioration and drainage issues in the study area (EKSU). The investigation involved detailed
observations and interviews within the affected locations.
Cause of road deterioration and drainage issues have been critically studied after various tours

and physical survey for all major roads. The Causes of road deterioration was discussed under

the following headings: Traffic congestion and road traffic accidents. The road and drainage

length, width was measured respectively to determine the host of vehicular factors including the

sizes and weights of the vehicles and the poor mechanical conditions of vehicles which results in

constant break-downs on roads, thus causing a break-up of traffic.

3.5 Sustainable Solution for Road and Drainage needs in the University

To carry out this objective, sustainable solution for road and drainage needs in the university was

recommended after causes of road deterioration and drainage issues was recommended using

manning ‘s equation to design appropriate drainage system to the affected areas. Parameters of

an existing drains (EKSU) was taken to proposed a new drainage design. The surface drainage

elements to solve drainage issues include road surface, side drains, and culverts; and the curbs,

gutters and storm sewer systems. These elements work together as a system to prevent water

from penetrating the pavement, remove it from the travel lanes to the side drains or gutter, and

carry it away from the road.

3.5.1 Manning’s Equation

The Manning equation is used widely in a variety of applications involving free-surface flow and
is likely to continue to be used in the future. Essentially all texts on water-resources engineering,
wastewater engineering, and hydraulics discuss the Manning equation and one or more of its
applications (Chow 1959; Metcalf and Eddy Inc. 1981; Benefield et al. 1984; Potter and
Wiggert, 1997; Streeter et al. 1998; Finnemore and Franzini, 2002). When the
Discharge/flowrate is known, then the manning’s equation can be deployed to determine the
cross section of the drain i.e.

27
 2 1
1
V = × R 3 S 2 (3.1)
n
2 1
1
Q= AV = A R 3 S 2 (3.2)
n
5
3 1
1A 2
¿ S (3.3)
n 23
P

V =velocity of flow (m/s)

n= a non-dimensional roughness coefficient
A= area of the cross section (m2)
P= wetted perimeter (m)
R= hydraulic radius
S= bed slope
Q = volumetric water flow rate passing through the stretch of channel (m3/s)
A = cross section area is in (m/s)
R= hydraulic radius is in (m)
SI unit is in m3/s.
3.5.1.1 Manning’s number/coefficient
Values of the roughness coefficient, n, may be assigned for conditions that exist at the time of a

specific flow event, for average conditions over a range in stage, or for anticipated conditions at

the time of a future event.

3.5.1.2 Discharge
Maximum discharge using rational method
Q=0.0028CIA (3.4 )
C= Coefficient of runoff/discharge
I= Intensity of rainfall
A=Estimated area of the catchment (m2)

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.

4.1 Identification of Best Practices for Road Safety and Drainage management

4..1.1 Visual Survey

The visual survey using photography and field observations in EKSU revealed varying levels of

roads risk across different road and drainage types. The positive side of roads provide the

opportunity of mobility and transport for both people and goods. The negative on the other side

occupies land resources and form barriers to animals. They can also have impacts on natural

water resources and discharge areas. (Lindgren Å., Friberg F). According to Achaka (2014) in

Ejem(2021), poor management of road network is a major problem that affects the growth of the

Nigerian economy. Poor road transportation management has resulted into the bad road network,

poor technological development and construction of sub-standard roads which led to the

ineffectiveness and collapse of the Nigerian road system that supposed to carry bulky goods from

one city to another and has increases the prices of goods and services. This in turn has bounced

as the road transportation system characterized by heavy-duty Lorries overworking the road

system and the resultant effect is damages of roads causing accidents and loss of lives and

property. (Ejem 2021). Roads provide access to employment, social, health and education

services. The present study has demonstrated that the provision of speed limit, speed bumps,

roads marking and signals facilitates is a priority to the university community.

Table 4.1 shows, visual survey in EKSU that majority of the roads lack roads facilities that are

meant to enhance safety of the users. These facilities include traffic light, speed limits, speed

bumps and road markings and signage in some dangerous part of the road. The Results from the

29
Fig. 4.1 further revealed that the construction of drainage and culvert impact positively on the

safety of students, staffs as well as on trading activities. Vehicular access to school, offices and

the main road to the university community are to equally improved upon.

Plate 4.0: Road in floodplain area

Table 4.1: Physical Investigation on road Safety at EKSU

Issue Identified Some roads are in floodplain area
Further observation Improper management of an existing roads
Mitigated solution Installation of road signs and marking
Repair and maintenance of existing road signs installed.
Cleaning of drainage in some areas in EKSU to convey
surface runoff.

solid waste from students, hostels and market place leading to drainage blockage

4..1.2 Drainage Management

Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface

water within the right way This includes interception and diversion of water from the road

surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and sub-surface drainage system is an

30
essential part of highway design and construction. Highway drainage is used to clear surface

water from the highway. Good highway drainage is important for road safety. Roads need to be

well drained to stop flooding; even surface water can cause problems during raining season.

Water left standing on roads can also cause maintenance problems, as it can soften the ground

under a road making the road surface break up and as well lead to an accident from the road

users (Amit, 2016).

From the physical observation carried out (Fig.4.2) some major part of university road always

flooded during heavy downpour due to blockages in waterways. Hence, table 4.2 reveals that

regular cleaning and maintenance of stormwater drains to prevent blockages, implantations of

erosion control measures to prevent soil erosions and sedimentation, Educate the students and

staff on the importance of proper drainage management, continuous monitoring and improve

drainage management practices to adapt to changing of conditions and many others. These

practices will improve drainage management, reducing the risks of accidents, injuries, and

property damage.

Table 4.2: Physical Investigation on Drainage issues at EKSU

Observation Regular cleaning and maintenance of stormwater drains
to prevent blockages,
implantations of erosion control measures to prevent soil
erosions and sedimentation
, Educate the students and staff on the importance of
proper drainage management.
continuous monitoring and improve drainage
management practices to adapt to changing of conditions
and many others
Issue Identified Some major part of university road always flooded during
heavy downpour due to blockages in waterways
Further Findings Improper continuous monitoring and improve drainage
management practices to adapt to changing of conditions
and many others

31
 Plate 4.1 Road without Drainage.

4.2 Causes of Road Deterioration and Drainage issues.

According to Dipnoan, (2014) studied highway surface drainage system and problems of water

logging and concluded that adverse roadway elements contributing to highway accidents were

substandard roadway alignment or geometry, lack of shoulders and shoulder defects, absent or

inappropriate pedestrian facilities, narrow and defective lanes and bridges/bridge approaches,

roadside hazards, undefined pavement center and edge lines, poor sight distances and visibility,

unmarked and inappropriate design of intersections, serious allocation deficiencies along the

route, haphazard bus shelters/stops, and others are causes of water logging problem in highway.

This research traced that Proper drainage is a very important consideration in design of a

highway. Inadequate drainage facilities can lead to premature deterioration of the roads and the

32
development of adverse safety conditions such as hydroplaning. It is common, therefore, for a

sizable portion of highway construction budgets to be devoted to drainage facilities.

Muhammad, (2014) also studied highway drainage system and started that highway is

importance for removing water from the road surface, preventing ingress of water into the

pavement, passing water across the road, either under or over and preventing scour and or

washout of the pavement, shoulder, batter slopes, water courses and drainage structures. He

identified types of drainage on the highway to include kerb and gullies, surface water channel,

combined filter drain (French drain), over-the-edge drainage, drainage channel locks, combined

kerb and drainage units, linear drainage channels, fin and narrow filter drain (sub-surface

drainage) and edge drainage for porous asphalt.

From the study carried out, the results (Fig; 4.2) of the observation indicate that, action of

weather and human activities such as rain and heat, usable ground conditions and poor drainage,

poor construction activities and method., post construction activities like digging of trenches

along the road, poor workmanship and inadequate maintenance are the causes of road

deterioration and drainage issues in the study area which resulting to failures of a road pavement

according to Ashimole (2008). The route is not adequately accompanied with drainage ways;

some parts have drainage while others do not have or are being blocked. This in essence, leads to

over retaining of runoff water from any source, directly on the surface of the route, thereby

leading to its degradation. Combination of both poor drainage ways on the route also leads to the

wear down of the road network.

33
Fig 4.3: Post construction activities along Faculty of Agric.

Fig 4.4: Some part of road without Drainage

34
Table 4.3: Physical Investigation for EKSU
Observation Action of weather and human such as:

rain and high temperature.

poor construction activities and method

post construction activities like digging of trenches along the road

poor workmanship and inadequate maintenance

Issue Identified Some roads parts have drainage ways while others do not have or are

being blocked.

Further findings solid waste from students, hostels and market place leading to

drainage blockage

4.3 Sustainable Solution for Road and Drainage needs

To recommend sustainable solution for road and drainage needs in EKSU meaning eqaution was

used to design an adequate drainage system.

Discussion: The initially area of the existing channel was estimated to be 1.5m with the
hydraulic radius of 0.17m as detailed in Appendix 3. The peak discharge for the entire channel
was calculated using the Rational method, with the peak rainfall intensity from Appendix 2
being 168.78 mm/hr for a 25-year return period and a 12-minute duration. The peak discharge
for the EKSU area was estimated at 1.25 m³/s using the Rational formula as shown in table 4.6,

Q=0.0028CIA (3.4 )

35
The measured width of the existing drain is used to design the required depth of drain to safely
accommodate the calculated discharge from manning’s equation as shown in eqn. 3.2

2 1
1
Q= Av= A R 3 S 2 (3.2)
n
The value of Manning’s coefficient, n, for concrete channel surface was taken as 0.013.the storm
water drainage size for EKSU is presented in a tabulated form in table 4.6 and 4.7. Both side
drains of the existing drainage system for EKSU is found not to be sufficient based on
hydrological analysis because the depth of the existing drains are much smaller than the required
drain depth. So based on the hydrological analysis proper storm management is important for
avoiding the overflow problems on the road which are built to minimum required drainage size.
In general, results of this study suggest that the depth of the existing drains need to be increased.
Table 4.4 Parameters showing the Existing Drain in EKSU
S/N Parameters Values (m)
1 Breadth width of the channel 0.5
2 Depth of the channel 0.5
(Source: field survey 2024)
Cross sectional Area of the channel = b×y
0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25m2
P (wetted perimeter) of the channel = 2y + b
P = 2(0.5) + 0.5 = 1.5m

Redesigning of the Drainage System for EKSU Using Manning’s Equation

C = the value of C is derived from (Appendix 1) for residential areas, average of 0.3 and 0.75 =
0.53

I = its derived from the Intensity-Duration Curve in (Appendix 3) the peak runoff duration that
produces its peak runoff of 12minutes for a return period of 25 years (168.75mm/hr)

n= the value of non-dimensional roughness coefficient is gotten from (Appendix 1) for concrete
channel surface to be (n=0.013)

s = its estimated to be 1 in 1000

36
 A= Qn/R2/3 81/2

1.25 × 0.073
= 2 1 =1.18m2
(0.17) (0.002)
3 2

Calculate the Peak Discharge using Rational formula

Q = 0.0028CIA= 0. 0028× 0.53 × 168.75 × 10 = 2.5m3/s

A
Hydraulic Radius (R) =
P

0.51
R= = 0.22m
2.3

2 1
1
Manning’s equation: Q = A R3 S 2
n

Q ×n
A= 2 1
R 3 S2

1, 25 ×0.013
2 1 = 1.18m2
(0.17) (0.002)
3 2

Recall that A = b × y and b = 2y

A= 2y2, then y =
√ 1.18
2
= 0.8m

1.2
b= = 0.6m
2

Wetted Perimeter of the Design Drain size P = 2(y) + b

37
 2 (0.5) + 0.8 = 1.8m

Table 4.5: Results Obtained from manning’s equation

S/N Parameters
1 Area of the channel 0.25m2
2 Hydraulic Radius 0.17m2
3 Coefficient of discharge 0.53
4 Intensity of rainfall 168.75mm/hr
5 Peak Discharge using Rational method 1.25 m3/s

Table 4.5 shows the hydraulic design of a drainage system using Manning’s equation. The
parameters listed are the area of the channel, hydraulic radius, coefficient of discharge (C),
rainfall intensity, peak discharge calculated by the Rational method, non-dimensional roughness,
cross-sectional area of the design drain, and the wetted perimeter of the design drain. These
parameters are as follows: 0.25m2 0. 17m2, 0.53, 168.75 mm/hr, 1.25 m³/s.

Table 4.6: New design size of the Proposed drainage in EKSU

S/N Parameters
1 Breath width of the channel 0.5m
2 Depth of the channel 0.8m
3 Area of the channel 1.18m2
4 Wetted parameters 1.18m2

Table 4.5 indicates that the peak discharge, calculated using the Rational Formula, was
determined to be 1.25m³/s. When applying Manning’s Equation for the design, the resulting

38
values for the cross-sectional area and the wetted perimeter of the channel are 1.18 m² and 0.25
m2, respectively. Table 4.6 shows that the findings indicate a need for a redesign of the drainage
system, as the storm water basin's capacity far exceeds the discharge from the conveyance
system, resulting in flooding. The new design size of 1.8 m can significantly enhance the drain's
capacity to handle larger volumes of water, thus reducing the likelihood of overflow during
heavy rainfall.

39
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion
The comprehensive visual survey and physical investigation conducted in the Ekiti State
University (EKSU) community revealed several key issues related to road safety and drainage
management. The visual survey using photography and field observations highlighted the
varying levels of road risks across different road and drainage types within the EKSU campus.
Many of the roads lack essential safety features such as speed limits, speed bumps, road
markings, and signage. This creates hazardous conditions for both pedestrians and vehicles,
increasing the risk of accidents. Additionally, poor drainage management, with blocked and
neglected stormwater drains, leads to flooding in certain areas during heavy rains. This not only
endangers road users but also contributes to the deterioration of the road infrastructure.

The physical investigation further identified the primary causes of road deterioration and
drainage issues within the study area. Traffic congestion, poor mechanical conditions of vehicles,
and constant breakdowns on the roads were found to be major contributors to the breakdown of
the road network. The inadequate size and improper design of the drainage system were also
identified as key factors leading to flooding and water-related damage to the roads.

5.2 Recommendations
This study recommends several sustainable solutions:
Implementing speed limits, installing speed bumps, and improving road markings and signage
are critical steps to enhance road safety within the EKSU community. Regularly cleaning and
maintaining the drainage system, including the stormwater drains, culverts, and related
infrastructure, will help mitigate flooding and prevent further damage to the roads.
The use of the Manning equation to design an appropriate drainage system for the affected areas
is a practical approach to improving the overall drainage management in the university. By
incorporating the appropriate parameters, such as the roughness coefficient, cross-sectional area,
and slope, the Manning equation can be used to determine the optimal size and configuration of
the drainage infrastructure to effectively manage the stormwater runoff and minimize the risk of
flooding.
Finally, the implementation of the rational method to calculate the maximum discharge can aid
in the design of an efficient drainage system that can accommodate the anticipated water flow
40
during heavy rainfall events. This holistic approach to drainage management, combined with the
recommended road safety measures, can create a more sustainable and resilient infrastructure
within the EKSU community.

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 APPENDIX

Appendix 1

Non-Dimensional Roughness Coefficient

44
 Appendix 2

Intensity-duration curve

45
 Appendix 3

Coefficient of runoff to be used in the rational formula

46