EDFO 411 Ch 1 2024

Introduction:

Parameters that qualify education system differ because every country has its own set of
pros and cons. These include: infrastructure, quality of living, teacher-student ratio, and
availability of public resource, programs that are new and unique, types of programs offered
eg short courses across disciplines, interdisciplinarity in programs, placements, rankings,
tuition fee, and the number of enrolled international students.

Comparative education
- studies and compares educational resources
- studies and compare culture and other features that affect the educational scenario
of one country to another
- Facilitates the planning of educational programs, curriculum, teaching methods and
learning activities
- Provides helpful information on how to improve educational assessment and
evaluation

DEFINITIONS
1. COMPARATIVE EDUCATION:

- It is a study of two or more education systems. (Adeyinke (1994)

- A study of how the philosophy; objectives and aims; policy and practice; of education
in other countries influence the general development, policy and practice of
education in a particular country.
- A study of how the development of education in the past, across the ages and
continents has influenced the development of education in particular countries.
- A study of the school systems of two or more countries and the administrative
machineries set up to implement or to control the implementation of government
policies at various levels of education system
- It is the study of educational theories and practices in various countries which
attempts to use cross national data to test relationship between education and
society and between teaching practices and learning outcomes. It studies how
education has developed over time – from earliest times to today.
- It is a discipline in the social sciences which entails the scrutiny and evaluation of
different educational systems, such as those in various countries. Professionals in
this area of endeavor are absorbed in advancing evocative terminologies and
guidelines for education worldwide, enhancing educational structures and producing
a context to which the success and effectivity of education programs and initiatives
can be assessed.
According to Nicholus Hans (1958) it’s a step by step study of different and often contrasting
education systems with a view of understanding their differences.
E.H. Epstein (1995) is a field of study that applies historical, philosophical and social science
theories and methods to international problems in education.
Beredy G.Z.F. (1964) it’s the analytical study of foreign educational systems.

2. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

This is the study of multinational institutions and internal institutions e.g. UNESCO, World
Bank, IMF with regard to policy matters that are intended to harmonize education standards
of qualification, promotion of educational exchanges and initiation of cultural agreements.
It also focuses on areas of equivalents e.g. how does a Kenyan Bachelors, Masters or PhD
degree compare with those from American or Ugandan etc degree.

It refers to a dynamic concept that involves a journey or movement of people, minds, or ideas
across political and cultural frontiers. It is facilitated by the globalization phenomenon, which
increasingly erases the constraints of geography on economic, social and cultural
arrangements. The concept involves a broad range of learning, covering, for instance, formal
education and informal learning (e.g. training, exchange programs, cross-cultural
communication). It could also involve a reorientation of academic outlook such as the pursuit
of "worldmindedness" as a goal so that a school or its academic focus is
considered international.
International education can be seen as developing ‘international-mindedness,’ or enhancing
international attitude and awareness.
From an ideological perspective, international education has a focus on moral development,
by influencing the creation of "positive attitudes towards peace, international understanding
and responsible world citizenship".
From a pragmatic approach, international education can relate to economic and cultural
globalization. For instance, there are increasing demands for education qualifications to be
transferable between schools and education systems. Furthermore, there is a "spread of
global quality standards through quality assurances procedures such as accreditation"

Forms of Comparative Education

Comparative education is also divided into four broad areas. These are;
i) Comparative Pedagogy

This entails studies of classrooms dynamics in different education systems, that is, what
goes on inside the classroom? How is learning? Is it teacher on pupil centered? How do
teachers relate to their pupils? This area also involves studying teaching methods. For
example how is mathematics taught in Kenyan schools?

ii) Intracultural Analysis

This area entails examination of the various forces that impact on education. They include
culture, social, economic, religions, political and philosophical issues.
iii) International Education

This includes the study of multinational institutions like international schools, international
efforts to harmonize curricula, text books, and development of objectives for the purpose of
creating international norms. It also includes the study of international institutions like
UNESCO with regard to policy matters intended to harmonize global education, standards of
qualifications, promotion of educational exchanges and initiation of cultural agreements.
There is a lot of work in the area of equivalences in education, for example, how does a
Kenyan masters degree compare to a British masters degree?

iv) Development Education

This is an effort especially by the developed world to produce information and plans so
assist policy makers in the developing countries. It also involves the development of
appropriate education methods and techniques for training of human resources in various
programmes.
Aims of Comparative Education
• To provide a picture or profile of the education systems in various countries or
regions of the world (and highlight the relationships between education and society.)

• To help the current generation understand the now a days education systems with
reference to the past

• To enable one come up with a global description and classification of education in

various parts of the world – (establish generalized statements about education that are valid
in more than one country.)

• To determine the relations and aspects in education and society, for example, how
does family size affect education? How does social status affect education? Or what are the
motivations of different social classes to participate in education? among other aspects.

• To distinguish the fundamental elements of educational persistence and change and

relate these with philosophical laws. (describe educational systems, processes, or outcomes)
• To facilitate practical reform and planned development of the school system, that is,
improvement of education at home. In order to achieve this aims one requires to establish
the correlation of aims, customs, social norms and the education system.

• To enable one have a greater understanding of the wider educational process.(

hence, assist in the development of educational institutions and practices)

• To promote the spirit of international understanding and co-operation among those

who study it, by promoting friendship, understanding other people's points of view and
appreciate other people's cultures.

THE SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

1. Subject matter and content

This covers the essential components of the educational components like aims,
contents, curriculum, administration, financing, structure, teacher education among
others.
2. Geographical units
This involves intra-national, international, regional, continental and global/world
systems analysis.
3. Ideological scope
This compares education systems and the basis of different political, social and
economic ideologies.
4. Thematic scope
This focuses on themes or topical issues/problems and compares within one or more
geographical units.
5. Historical/spatial scope
It deals with the study of historical development of comparative education from the
earliest face known as period of travelers’ tales to the modern face known as the
period of social science perspective.

RATIONALE FOR COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

1. To enhance one’s own understanding. It enables us to understand our own education

system in a better way by knowing its routes and roots and how it has been influenced
by others to be what it is today.
2. To generalize educational concepts- it enables us to make general concepts about
how education develops.
3. To know other people- Through comparative and international education one
develops a reservoir of knowledge which satisfies ones intellectual curiosity besides
enhancing ones intellectual enlightment. This broadens ones thinking especially when
dealing with educational issues and problems.
4. Improvement of education at home- By studying other people’s systems of the world,
we got to develop a better perspective of our own education system. Consequently,
we study comparative and international education in order to discover which reforms
are desirable and possible and how best to implement them in order to improve our
own. We also learn successes to follow and failures to avoid.
5. To make people practical- It helps to get exposure to the knowledge in other
disciplines especially in humanities and other social sciences. Education at this level is
regarded as a consumer good i.e. it must have practical aspect for utility e.g. ability to
read and write. The task of making education practical is the duty of the government
and educationists and therefore comparative and international education is
considered suitable for studying this problem.
6. To learn the true nature of society- By studying schools in other countries
comparative and international education opens the window through which we
understand society. Quite often the school reflects what the society looks like.
7. It contributes to international understanding and goodwill. Comparative and
international education fosters international understanding, peace and cooperation
among nations of the world. By discovering and appreciating what exists everywhere
 it helps to replace prejudice and pride with objectivity of judgement that facilitates
international harmony.
8. Humanitarian reasons- The contemporary world is characterized by a big quest for
knowledge, peace, equality and better life. The concern therefore is how education
can provide these qualities. Comparative and international education satisfies ones
natural desire to learn more about origins and development of education in different
countries in regard to these humanitarian issues i.e. How they have been solved
elsewhere.
9. Problem solving- All countries face educational problems that require solutions.
Comparative and international study helps us to understand differences and
similarities between our education system and others. Consequently one is able to
understand that countries develop education system in order to serve their own
national objectives, interests, values and aspirations based on their unique context
and hence solve problems facing them.
10. International standards- In order to achieve international standards in the world
comparative and international education makes us aware of the international trends
in education. This helps to guide countries on how to give their people or citizens a
universally acceptable education that fist in the global village today.
11. Expose people to innovations- Various forms of communication e.g. e-learning, T.V
and radio provide a platform for exchanging ideas and hence new innovations. This
helps to bring necessary reforms in ones own educational system.
12. To understand the economic implication of education: According to economic theory
there is a correlation between education and improvements in education.
Comparative and international education helps to examine whether and where this is
true.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

The search for the origins of comparative education has made many scholars to look back
through time. Franz Hilker and Frederick Schneider in Germany were very active in searching
for European origins. William Brickman in U.S.A. was among the first people to get involved
in comparative education as he published articles that reached way back to the times of King
Heroditus (484- 425BC).

Phases in the development of Comparative and International Education

The history of Comparative and International Education can be studied in the light of stages
or phases that are based on the major characteristics of each phase/stage.

1. The phase of Travelers’ Tales i.e. Prehistory to the end of 18th Century.
2. Phase of Pioneers or selective Education borrowing i.e. in 9th Century.
3. The phase of concern for cultural context or period of philosophy 1900- WW2
4. Social-science perspective i.e. from 1945 to the present.
1. THE PHASE OF TRAVELLERS TALES

-It comprised of studies of early writers of Comparative and International Education. They
drew examples from other countries that they visited or heard about.
-It was marked by descriptive reports by Travelers who comprised military by conquerors,
business expeditions and even explorers.
-Their reports on Education were fragmented and unsystematic, exaggerated at times and
understatements at other times.
-The motives for accounts of travelers tales were partly due to curiosity and the need for
comparison.

Some of the contributors during this phase were:-

(a). Xenophon (430-355 BC).
(b). Plato
(c). Julius Caesar (102-42 BC)
(d). Cicero (106-43 BC)
(e). Marco Polo – 13th Century
(f). Ibn Khaldun
(g). Erasmus (1496-1536 A.D).
Relevance of this phase to the present day theory and practice of Education

1. Features of travelers’ tales still remain with us in the work of journalists and
other educationists.
2. The reports of travelers’ tales are an informal way of getting to know the
experience of other societies. They actually form the first step of
understanding education in other countries.
3. Teachers can use stories given by these travelers on their return from visits to
other countries as an addition to their learning experience in schools.
4. The eye witnesses accounts are still deemed as valuable and relevant in
research today. Infact the novels and stories about other countries are all
commendable in our present day educational practice.

2. THE PHASE OF PIONEERS/SELECTIVE EDUCATION BORROWING (1817-1900)

Historically the 19th century Europe was characterized by the aftermath of French
Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution and Colonization process.
This phase was characterized and Motivated by:-

1. Efforts which were aimed at developing a methodology on a system of rules and

regulations that ought to be followed when studying foreign systems of education.
2. The drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for the sole purpose of borrowing
educational ideals and ideas. The scholars attributed to this phase includes:-
Victor Cousin (1792-1867), Horrace Mann (1796-1859), Henry Banard (1811-1900),
Mathew Arnold (1822-1888), K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870), Marc Antoine Julian de Paris
(17775-1848).
Relevance of this phase of selective borrowing to the present day and practice of
Education.

- This phase reveals that the accounts given were both descriptive and utilitarian in
purpose.
- In education today, descriptive studies are considered valuable and relevant.
- Educational stakeholders endeavor to make education useful and hence utilitarian.
- People still make visits to other countries or institutions for the purpose of observing.
3. THE PHASE OF CULTURAL CONTEXT/PHILOSOPHERS (1900-1945)

- Also referred to as the period of cultural analysis

- There was general uneasiness by many scholars about descriptive studies.
- During this period the emphasis was in comparative education which shifted from
description to analysis.
- Scholars at this time were mainly interested in the relationship between education
and society.
- There grew a major concern to understand some factors which helped to shape
systems of education in different countries.
- The problem for many scholars was no longer one of selective educational borrowing
alone but also one of predicting the possible success of educational transplant through
a thorough knowledge of cultural contexts in both the door and the recipient country.

Scholars during this phase were

Michael Saddler (1886-1943),
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909),
Isaac Kandel (1881 -1965), and Nicholas Hans England.
 Relevance of cultural context to the present day theory and practice of Education
- It emphasized the need to understand features in the systems of Education in terms
of factors and forces which shape these educational systems.
- This process does help in establishing similarities and difference on systems of
education and offers explanation as to why things are as they are.
- As such the motivation and activities of this phase have relevance to the theory and
practice of education today.

4. THE PHASE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE PERSPECTIVE: 1945 TO PRESENT

- This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the second World War
and it brought about a completely new scenario.
- The establishment of new and influential national and international agencies that are
involved in educational inquiry, planning and programme implementation.
- Comparative educationists in this era could see their field as most productive in the
future in terms of more involvement in international projects in education that are
potentially of a reformative kind.
- Recognition and increased activity in the study and teaching of comparative and
international Education as a discipline in colleges, universities and establishment of
this disciplines centers for research.
- With the emergencies of a new scenario in the World order, a new generation of
scholars also emerged.
- With the problem of educational reforms the scholars and educational administrators
took a new look and interest in this subject.

Some of the contributors in this phase includes

Vernon Mallinson and Joseph A. Lanwerys (Britain)
George Z.F. Beredy (1920-1983),
Brian Holmes and Edmond J. King (England),
Harold Noah and Max Eckstein (U.S.A).

Major characteristics of this phase

- An explosion of knowledge: The challenges of this was how knowledge ought to be
disseminated. This would imply that teachers have to acquire new roles.
- Drive for knowledge worldwide- A common phenomenon where everybody
everywhere wants education both in the developed and developing world.
- Drive for liberty- Through liberation struggles both political and ideological education
has been at the centre of these struggles.
- Rapid urbanization and industrialization which has greatly impacted on education.
- Population explosion- This has led to population related problems e.g. in Kenya over
50% of the population is school going aged. This means that their education and
upkeep has to be centered for or by a very small working population.
- Increasing concern for quality education- There has been need to emphasis on
education that is relevant to the life and needs of the students and the society they
are to serve. Comparative and International Educationists have been called upon by
in international agencies to help solve the myriad educational challenges.

Relevance of Social Science Perspective to present- Day Theory and Practice in

Education

This phase has been a major provider of information, data and advice in the process of
reconstruction for peace through education.

Comparative and International educationists have also been motivated to work with
personnel in systems of education and international organisation with the view of providing
information and other relevant data and advice as they may be required.
As such educationists have been giving sound advice to various states and international
societies for educational reforms.

Revision Questions

1. Name the four phases in the development of comparative and international

education.
2. Describe the background conditions that lead to the development of each phase.
3. Describe the motivation and contributions of individuals in each of the four phases.
4. Analyze the relevance of each of the four phases to the theory and practice of each
today.