Nutrition in Plants

➢
➢ Nutrition is the mode of taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the
body. The mode of nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from
simple substances is called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment)
nutrition. Therefore, plants are called autotrophs. Nutrition is the mode of
taking food by an organism and its utilisation by the body. The mode of
nutrition in which organisms make food themselves from simple substances is
called autotrophic (auto = self; trophos = nourishment) nutrition. Therefore,
plants are called autotrophs.
➢ Animals and most other organisms take in food prepared by plants. They are
called heterotrophs (heteros = other).

➢ Photosynthesis
Leaves – food factory of plant, raw material must reach there
CO2 – taken through pore called stomata , surrounded by guard
cell

➢ The leaves have a green pigment called chlorophyll. It helps leaves to

capture the energy of the sunlight. This energy is used to synthesise (prepare)
food from carbon dioxide and water. Since the synthesis of food occurs in the
 presence of sunlight, it is called photosynthesis (Photo: light; synthesis : to
combine).
So we find that chlorophyll, sunlight, carbon dioxide and water are necessary
to carry out the process of photosynthesis.
➢ Besides leaves, photosynthesis also takes place in other green parts of the
plant — in green stems and green branches.

➢ The desert plants have scale- or spine-like leaves to reduce loss of water by
transpiration. These plants have green stems which carry out photosynthesis.

➢ The presence of starch in leaves indicates the occurrence of photosynthesis.

Starch is also a carbohydrate.
➢ proteins are nitrogenous substances which contain nitrogen. that nitrogen is
present in abundance in gaseous form in the air. However, plants cannot
absorb nitrogen in this form.
➢ Soil has certain bacteria that convert gaseous nitrogen into a usable form and
release it into the soil. These are absorbed by the plants along with water.
Also, farmers adding fertilisers rich in nitrogen to the soil..
➢ Plants can then synthesise proteins and vitamins.
Heterotrophs
✓ There are some plants which do not have chlorophyll. They cannot
synthesise food.
✓ Cuscuta (Amarbel). It does not have chlorophyll. It takes readymade food
from the plant on which it is climbing. The plant on which it climbs is called
the host.
✓ Since it deprives the host of valuable nutrients, Cuscuta is called
the parasite.
✓ Pitcher plant
The pitcher-like or jug-like structure is the modified part of leaf
The apex of the leaf forms a lid which can open and close the mouth of the
pitcher.
Saprophytic
nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients from dead and decaying matter
E.g fungi
Many fungi derive nutrition from dead and decaying matter. They are
saprotrophs.
fungal spores are generally present in the air. When they land on wet and
warm things they germinate and grow.
Symbiosis
Some organisms live together and share both shelter and nutrients
 example, certain fungi live inside the roots of plants. The plants provide
nutrients to the fungus and, in return, the fungus provides water and certain
nutrients.
In organisms called lichens, a chlorophyll-containing partner, which is an
alga, and a fungus live together. The fungus provides shelter, water and
minerals to the alga and, in return, the alga prepares and provides food to the
fungus.
Rhizobium cannot make its own food. So it often lives in the roots of gram,
peas, moong, beans and other legumes and provides them with nitrogen

In return, the plants provide food and shelter to the bacteria. They, thus, have
a symbiotic relationship. This association is of great significance for the
farmers. They can reduce the use of nitrogenous fertiliser where leguminous
plants are grown. Most of the pulses (dals) are obtained from leguminous
plants.
Insectivorous plants are partially autotrophs rather than total
autotrophs. They consume insects but still use light and
water to generate their own energy. Partially autotrophic
plants include pitcher plants.

Chapter 2
Length of small intestine is 7.2m long
Diarrhoea is caused due to infection, Indigestion poisoning
Bile is produced in l
Example of heterotrophic organism which can synthesize food
is paramecium.
Component of food absorb in large intestine is water
End part of tongue is sensitive to Bitter taste.
Teeth use for cutting and tearing is Canine
The teeth of first set fall off at the age between 6 – 8 yearz
How many types of teeth are there?4

Digestion of fats start in …………small intestine

We get hiccups when food particles enter the ……………..windpipe

The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances is

called digestion.

The mouth and buccal cavity

➢ The process of taking food into the body is called ingestion
➢ The first set of teeth grows during infancy and they fall off at the age between
six to eight years. These are termed milk teeth
➢ The second set that replaces them are the permanent teeth. The permanent
teeth may last throughout life or fall off during old age or due to some dental
disease.
 ➢ These bacteria break down the sugars present from the leftover food and
release acids. The acids gradually damage the teeth (Fig. 2.5). This is
called tooth decay.
➢ get hiccups or a choking sensation this happens when food particles enter the
windpipe.
➢ The windpipe carries air from the nostrils to the lungs. It runs adjacent to the
foodpipe
➢ The tongue is a fleshy muscular organ attached at the back to the floor of the
buccal cavity.
➢ Talking, mixes saliva with the food during chewing and helps in swallowing
food, It has taste buds that detect different tastes of food.

The foodpipe / oesophagus

Food is pushed down by movement of the wall of the foodpipe
DURING VOMITING The food moves in the opposite direction during vomiting by creating
reverse peristaltic movement in the oesophagus. vomiting is common when we eat too much food
that contains more fat when the food is poisoned,immediate sleep after eating too much food. These
are common reasons for causing vomiting. During vomiting peristaltic movement reverses their
normal direction and the food is expelled out through mouth

The stomach
➢ thick-walled bag, shape is like a flattened J, widest part of the alimentary
canal
➢ It receives food from the food pipe at one end and opens into the small
intestine at the other.
➢ The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and
digestive juices.
➢ acid kills many bacteria that enter along with the food and makes the medium
in the stomach acidic and helps the digestive juices to act. The digestive
juices break down the proteins into simpler substances

The small intestine

➢ highly coiled and is about 7.5 metres long
➢ It receives secretions from the liver and the pancreas. Besides, its wall also
secretes juices.
➢ LIVER= reddish brown gland situated in the upper part of the abdomen on the
right side. It secretes bile juice that is stored in a sac called the gall
bladder (Fig. 2.2). The bile plays an important role in the digestion of fats.

PANCREASE
➢ large cream coloured gland located just below the stomach
➢ The pancreatic juice acts on carbohydrates, fats and proteins and changes
them into simpler forms.
➢ The partly digested food now reaches the lower part of the small intestine
➢ SMALL INTESTINE here the intestinal juice completes the digestion of all
components of the food. The carbohydrates get broken into simple sugars
such as glucose, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino
acids.

Absorption in the small intestine

➢ digested food can now pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine.
This process is called absorption.
➢ The inner walls of the small intestine have thousands of finger-like
outgrowthsThese are called villi
➢ villi increase the surface area for absorption of the digested food
➢ The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different
organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as
the proteins required by the body. This is called assimilation.
 ➢ In the cells, glucose breaks down with the help of oxygen into carbon dioxide
and water, and energy is released. The food that remains undigested and
unabsorbed enters into the large intestine.

Large intestine
➢ wider and shorter than small intestine. It 1.5 metre in length
➢ is to absorb water and some salts from the undigested food material.
➢ The remaining waste passes into the rectum and remains there as semi-solid
faeces. The faecal matter is removed through the anus from time-to-time. This
is called egestion.

DIGESTION IN GRASS-EATING ANIMALS

➢ Actually, they quickly swallow the grass and store it in a part of the stomach
called rumen . Here the food gets partially digested and is called cud.
➢ But later the cud returns to the mouth in small lumps and the animal chews it.
This process is called rumination and these animals are called ruminants.
➢ The grass is rich in cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. In ruminants like cattle,
deer, etc., bacteria present in rumen helps in digestion of cellulose. Many
animals, including humans, cannot digest cellulose.
➢ Animals like horses, rabbit, etc., have a large sac-like structure called
Caecum between the oesophagus and the small intestine
➢ Amoeba ingests its food with the help of its false feet or pseudopodia. The
food is digested in the food vacuole.
➢ Digestion of carbohydrates, like starch, begins in the buccal cavity. The
digestion of protein starts in the stomach. The bile secreted from the liver, the
pancreatic juice from the pancreas and the digestive juice from the intestinal
wall complete the digestion of all components of food in the small intestine.
The digested food is absorbed in the blood vessels from the small intestine.
CHAPTER 3
Heat

✓ A reliable measure of the hotness of an object is its temperature.Temperature

is measured by a device called thermometer.
✓ The thermometer that measures our body temperature is called a clinical
thermometer.
✓ consists of a long, narrow, uniform glass tube. It has a bulb at one end. This
bulb contains mercury.
✓ The scale we use is the celsius scale, indicated by °C.
✓ reads temperature from 35°C to 42°C.
✓ The normal temperature of human body is 37°C. Note that the
temperature is stated with its unit.
✓ measure the temperature of other objects For this purpose, there are other
thermometers. One such thermometer is known as the laboratory
thermometer.
✓ The range of a laboratory thermometer is generally from –10°C to 110°C
✓ Why does the mercury not fall or rise in a clinical thermometer when taken out
of the mouth? kink? It prevents mercury level from falling on its own.
✓ Mercury is a toxic substance and is very difficult to dispose of if a thermometer
breaks.
✓ The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end
of an object is known as conduction. In solids, generally, the heat is
transferred by the process of conduction.

✓ The materials which allow heat to pass through them easily

are conductors of heat. For examples, aluminum, iron and copper.
✓ The materials which do not allow heat to pass through them easily are poor
conductors of heat such as plastic and wood. Poor conductors are known
as insulators.
✓ When water is heated The air near the heat source gets hot and rises. The air
from the sides comes in to take its place. In this way the air gets heated. This
mode of heat transfer is known as convection.

IN COASTAL AREAS

During the day, the land gets heated faster than the water. The air over the land
becomes hotter and rises up. The cooler air from the sea rushes in towards the land
to take its place. The warm air from the land moves towards the sea to complete the
cycle . The air from the sea is called the sea breeze. To receive the cooler sea
breeze, the windows of the houses in coastal areas are made to face the sea.

At night it is exactly the reverse. The water cools down more slowly than the land.
So, the cool air from the land moves towards the sea. This is called the land breeze.

radiation. The transfer of heat by radiation does not require any medium. It can take
place whether a medium is present or not. When we sit in front of a room heater,

Examples
When we sit in front of a room heater, we get heat by this process.

A hot utensil kept away from the flame cools down as it transfers heat to the
surroundings by radiation.

Our body too, gives heat to the surroundings and receives heat from it by radiation.
WHY WE SHOULD WEAR DARK CLOTHES JIN WINTER AND LIGHT CLOTHES
IN SUMMER

Dark surfaces absorb more heat and, therefore, we feel comfortable with dark
coloured clothes in the winter. Light coloured clothes reflect most of the heat that
falls on them and, therefore, we feel more comfortable wearing them in the summer.

WHG WE USE WOOLLEN VLOTHES IN WINTER ??

the winter, we use woollen clothes. Wool is a poor conductor of heat. Moreover,
there is air trapped in between the wool fibres. This air prevents the flow of heat from
our body to the cold surroundings. So, we feel warm.

choice in winter of using either one thick blanket or two thin blankets joined together.
What would you choose and why? Remember that there would be a layer of air in
between the blankets.
The celsius scale was devised by a Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius in 1742.
Strangely, he fixed the temperature of the boiling water as 0°C and of freezing water
as 100°C. However, this order was reversed very soo
why wearing more layers of clothing during winter keeps us warmer than wearing
just one thick piece of clothing .

Because many layers of cotton clothes trap a more amount of air in between them,
as we know that air is a poor conductor of heat it do not allow the body's heat to go
outside and as a result it keeps us warm.

8. One litre of water at 30°C is mixed with one litre of water at 50°C. The temperature
of the mixture will be

11. Stainless steel pans are usually provided with copper bottoms. The reason for
this could be that

copper is a better conductor of heat than steel. This makes the pan
get hot quickly. Because of this, most stainless steel cooking pans
come with copper bottoms.
CHAPTER 4
Acids, Bases and Salts
Curd, lemon juice, orange juice and vinegar taste sour. These substances taste sour
because they contain acids.

The chemical nature of such substances is acidic. The word acid comes from the
Latin word acere which means sour. The acids in these substances are natural
acids.
substances like these which are bitter in taste and feel soapy on touching are known
as bases. The nature of such substances is said to be basic.
Special type of substances are used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
These substances are known as indicators

The indicators change their colour when added to a solution containing an acidic or a

basic substance. Turmeric, litmus, China rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the
naturally occurring indicators.

Natural Indicators around Us

Litmus: A natural dye
The most commonly used natural indicator is litmus. It is extracted from lichens (Fig.
4.1a).
It has a mauve (purple) colour in distilled water.
When added to an acidic solution, it turns red and when added to a basic solution, it
turns blue.
 It is available in the form of a solution, or in the form of strips of paper, known as
litmus paper. Generally, it is available as red and blue litmus paper (Fig. 4.1b).

The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known
as neutral solutions. These substances are neither acidic nor basic.

Turmeric is another natural indicator

China Rose as Indicator
China rose indicator turns acidic solutions to dark pink (magenta) and basic solutions
to green.

Red rose dark pink ( margenta) Green

when the solution is basic, phenolphthalein gives a pink colour. On the other hand,
when the solution is acidic, it remains colourless.

When an acidic solution is mixed with a basic solution, both the solutions neutralise
the effect of each other, neutralisation reaction, heat is always produced, or
evolved. The evolved heat raises the temperature of the reaction mixture.

Neutralize through

Stomach Acid Milk of magnesia (

antacid)

Ant bite For Formic acid

baking soda (sodium
hydrogencarbonate) or
 calamine solution, which
contains zinc carbonate.
.
Soil Acidic
quick lime (calcium
oxide) or
slaked lime (calcium
Basic hydroxide).

organic matter (compost)

is added to it

Factory wastes Acidic Base add

CHAPTER 5
Physical and Chemical Changes
Properties such as shape, size, colour and state of a substance are called
its physical properties. A change in which a substance undergoes a change in its
physical properties is called a physical change. A physical change is generally
reversible.
In such a change no new substance is formed.

A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a

chemical change. A chemical change is also called a chemical reaction.
In addition to new products, the following may accompany a chemical change:

 Heat, light or any other radiation (ultraviolet, for example) may be given off or
absorbed.( burning of ribbon)
 Sound may be produced.
 A change in smell may take place or a new smell may be given off.(spoiled food)
 A colour change may take place .( cut apple )
 A gas may be formed.( lime eg)

For example, digestion of food in our body, ripening of fruits, fermentation of grapes,
etc., happen due to series of chemical changes. A medicine is the end product of a
chain of chemical reactions. Useful new materials, such as plastics and detergents,
are produced by chemical reactions. Indeed, every new material is discovered by
studying chemical changes.

➢ Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) → Magnesium oxide (MgO)

On dissolving the ash in water it forms a new substance. This change can be written
in the form of the following equation:

Magnesium oxide (MgO) + Water (H2O) → Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]

❖ The change of colour of the solution from blue to green is due to the formation of iron
sulphate, a new substance. The brown deposit on the iron nail is copper, another new
substance. We can write the reaction as:

Copper sulphate solution (blue) + Iron → Iron sulphate solution (green)

+ Copper (brown deposit)
 ➢ The change in the test tube is as follows:

❖ Vinegar (Acetic acid) + Baking soda (Sodium hydrogencarbonate) →

Carbon dioxide + other substances
The reaction between carbon dioxide and lime water is as follows:
Carbon dioxide (CO2) + Lime water [Ca(OH)2] → Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) +
Water (H2O)
When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, calcium carbonate is formed,
which makes lime water milky. The turning of lime water into milky is a standard test
of carbon dioxide.
RUSTING OF IRON
✓ The process of rusting can be represented by the following equation:

✓ Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2, from the air) + water (H2O) → rust (iron oxide Fe2O3)

✓ For rusting, the presence of both oxygen and water (or water vapour) is
essential.
✓ In fact, if the content of moisture in air is high, which means if it is more humid,
rusting becomes faster.( near coastal areas rusting would be faster )
✓ how do we prevent rusting?
✓ Prevent iron articles from coming in contact with oxygen, or water, or both.
✓ One simple way is to apply a coat of paint or grease. In fact, these coats should
be applied regularly to prevent rusting.
 ✓ Another way is to deposit a layer of a metal like chromium or zinc on iron. This
process of depositing a layer of zinc on iron is called galvanisation. The iron
pipes we use in our homes to carry water are galvanised to prevent rusting.

✓ The salt water makes the process of rust formation faster. Therefore, ships
suffer a lot of damage from rusting in spite of being painted. So much
so, that a fraction of ship’s iron has to be replaced every year.

✓ Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with carbon and metals like chromium,
nickel and manganese. It does not rust.

✓ However, large crystals of pure substances can be formed from their

solutions. The process is called crystallisation. It is an example of a physical
change.

Note
✓ Neutralization is a chemical reaction
✓ Condensation of steam is a physical change
✓ Melting of candle is both physical change and chemical reaction
✓ When wax vapour burns co2 and smoke is formed is chemical change
✓ Physical change is temporary Change

Revision through Question

1. Why cutting of apple is physical change?
2. What are the different condition for the chemical change?
3. Why colur of copper sulphate turn green when blade or iron is added in it ?
4. Why the lime water turns milky after involvement of the co2 gas in it ?
5. What is the chemical equation of rusting?
6. What are the methods to prevent rusting?
7. What is crystallization? Is it a chemical or a physical change?

CHAPTER 6
Respiration in Organisms
✓ An adult at rest normally breathe in and out 15 to 20 times in a minute.
✓ During exhalation size of chest cavity decreases
✓ Exhaled air contains more co2 then O2
✓ Fishes have much higher breathing rate
✓ Most common substrate for Respirationn is glucose
✓ Breathing rate in human being in normal condition is
✓ Whenever we feel drowsy or sleepy, we start yawning. Does yawning help us in anyway?
✓ During drowsiness, our breathing rate slows down. The lungs do not get enough oxygen from
the air resulting in yawning. Yawning brings extra oxygen into the lungs and helps us to keep
awake.
✓ What Exhaled air contains ?
✓ The exhaled air is not just carbon dioxide; it contains a mixture
of other gases. Human breath contains volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). These compounds consist of methanol,
isoprene, acetone, ethanol and other alcohols. The exhaled
mixture also contains ketones, water and other hydrocarbons.
✓ Why do whales and dolphins come up to the surface of water and releasea fountain of water?
✓ Whales and dolphins belong to the same category. They both can come up to the surface of
the water or ocean and also eject the stream of water while moving upwards. This is mainly
because they tend to breathe the fresh air and ejects carbon dioxide. The hole which ejects
water is called a ''blow hole''. And when they breathe air out of it, it appears like a fountain of
water. Blowholes are surrounded by muscles that keep them closed when they are
underwater.

✓ What is aerobic and anaerobic Respiration?

✓ When , and how ,muscle cell respire anaerobically?
✓ What is inhalation and exhalation?
✓ How cockroach respire?
✓ why you get muscle cramps after heavy exercise?what we do get rid of it?

✓ The process of breakdown of food in the cell with the release of energy is
called cellular respiration. Cellular respiration takes place in the cells of all
organisms.
✓ food (glucose) is broken down into carbon dioxide and water using oxygen.
When breakdown of glucose occurs with the use of oxygen it is
called aerobic respiration.

✓ there are some organisms such as yeast that can survive in the absence of
air. They are called anaerobes. They get energy through anaerobic
respiration. In the absence of oxygen, glucose breaks down into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, as given below:
 ✓ Yeasts are single-celled organisms. They respire anaerobically and during this
process yield alcohol. They are, therefore, used to make wine and beer.

✓ muscle cells can also respire anaerobically, but only for a short time, when
there is a temporary deficiency of oxygen. During heavy exercise, fast running
(Fig. 6.1), cycling, walking for many hours or heavy weight lifting, the demand
for energy is high. But the supply of oxygen to produce the energy is limited.
Then anaerobic res6piration takes places in the muscle cells to fulfil the

demand of energy:

why you get muscle cramps after heavy exercise?

The cramps occur when muscle cells respire anaerobically. The partial breakdown of
glucose produces lactic acid. The accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps.
We get relief from cramps after a hot water bath or a massage.

We get relief from cramps after a hot water bath or a massage. Can you guess
why it is so?

✓ Hot water bath or massage improves circulation of blood. As a result, the

supply of oxygen to the muscle cells increases. The increase in the supply of
oxygen results in the complete breakdown of lactic acid into carbon dioxide
and water.

✓ The taking in of air rich in oxygen into the body is called inhalation and giving
out of air rich in carbon dioxide is known as exhalation.
✓ NOSTRIL NASAL CAVITY LUNG (present in chest cavity. large ,
muscular sheet diaphragm forms floor of chest cavity).
During inhalation,

✓ ribs move up and outwards and

✓ diaphragm moves down. This movement increases space in our chest cavity
and air rushes into the lungs. The lungs get filled with air.
✓
✓ During exhalation, ribs move down and inwards, while diaphragm moves up to
its former position. This reduces the size of the chest cavity and air is pushed
out of the lungs
✓ ✓ Inhalation ✓ Exhalation
✓ Ribs ✓ Move up ✓ Down

✓ Diaphragm ✓ Move down ✓ Up

✓ Space in chest ✓ Increase ✓ Decrease

cavity

✓ Cockroach: A cockroach has small openings on the sides of its body. Other
insects also have similar openings. These openings are called spiracles .

✓ Insects have a network of air tubes called tracheae for gas exchange.
Oxygen rich air rushes through spiracles into the tracheal tubes, diffuses into
the body tissue, and reaches every cell of the body. Similarly, carbon dioxide
from the cells goes into the tracheal tubes and moves out through spiracles.
These air tubes or tracheae are found only in insects and not in any other
group of animals.

Earthworms Skin

Fishes Gills

Frog Lungs and skin

Human being , elephants, Lungs

lions, cows, goats, frogs,
lizards, snakes, birds,
 ✓ Aquatic animal excrete from cell as AMMONIA
✓ Urine from kidney passes to urinary bladder through URETER
✓ LEFT ATRIUM receives oxygenated blood
✓ CAPILLARIES are thinnest blood vessel
✓ Blood Platelets are responsible for blood clotting
✓ Average adult blood pressure is 120/80

Right side of heart is rich in co2

✓ Insects excrete uric acid in form of solids
✓ 1 to 1.81 litees urine passes in 24 hour
✓ Flow of blood is fastest in arteries ) wall thick and elastic)
✓ Blood of veins rich in m

✓ Main excretory product in human being is urea

✓ Urea dissolves in water to form uric acids
✓ White colour of bird dropping is due to urea
✓ Fishes excrete in form of ammonnis
✓ Land animals excrete in form of uurea

✓ REVISION THTOUGH QUESTIONS

✓ Whenever we feel drowsy or sleepy, we start yawning. Does yawning help us in anyway?
✓ What Exhaled air contains ?
✓ Why do whales and dolphins come up to the surface of water and releasea fountain of water?
✓ What is aerobic and anaerobic Respiration?
✓ When , and how ,muscle cell respire anaerobically?
✓ What is inhalation and exhalation?
✓ How cockroach respire?
✓ why you get muscle cramps after heavy exercise?what we do get rid of it?
✓ We get relief from cramps after a hot water bath or a massage. Can you
guess why it is so?

✓ They are pipe-like, consisting of a group of specialised cells. They

transport substances and form a two¬way traffic in plants. Which of
the following terms qualify for the features mentioned above?
Vascular tissue
✓ The part of human body which lacks sweat gland is lips
✓ Which blood vessel carries oxygen-rich blood?
(a) Arteries
✓ What joins up to form veins which empty into the heart? Capillaries
✓ heart is located in the chest cavity
✓ The blood vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all
parts of the body back to the heart are called veins
✓ Veins thin walled , Arteries thick walled
✓ Pulmonary Artery only Artery which carries deoxygenated blood , it is called
Arteries because it carries blood away from the heart.
✓ Human adult passes 1 to 1.8 lutre of urine in 24 hours
✓ Pulmonary veins carries blood from lung to heart
✓ Which chamber receives oxygenated blood left artrium
✓ Pulse rate 72to 80 beats per ,instead

✓ How does the blood carry various substances?

✓ Blood is composed of a fluid, called plasma in which different types of cells
are suspended.

✓ One type of cells are the red blood cells (RBC) which contain a red pigment
called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin binds with oxygen and transports it to all
the parts of the body and ultimately to all the cells. It will be difficult to provide
oxygen efficiently to all the cells of the body without haemoglobin. The presence
of haemoglobin makes blood appear red.
✓ The blood also has white blood cells (WBC) which fight against germs that
may enter our body.

✓ The clot is formed because of the presence of another type of cells in the
blood, called platelets.

✓ two types of blood vessels, arteries and veins are present in the body. (Fig.
7.1)
✓ Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all parts of the body. Since
the blood flow is rapid and at a high pressure, the arteries have thick elastic
walls.
 ✓ The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate. A resting person,
usually has a pulse rate between 72 and 80 beats per minute. Veins are the
vessels which carry carbon dioxide-rich blood from all parts of the body back

to the heart. The veins have thin walls. There are valves present in veins
which allow blood to flow only towards the heart.

✓ pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart, so it is called an artery and not
a vein. It carries carbon dioxide-rich blood to the lungs.
✓
✓ Pulmonary vein carries oxygen-rich blood from the llungs to the heart.

✓ On reaching the tissues, they divide further into extremely thin tubes
called capillaries. The capillaries join to form veins which empty into the
heart.

Heart
✓ The heart is located in the chest cavity with its lower tip slightly tilted towards
the left heart has four chambers.
✓ The two upper chambers are called the atria (singular: atrium) and the two
lower chambers are called the ventricles (Fig. 7.4). The partition between the
chambers helps to avoid mixing up of blood rich in oxygen with the blood rich
in carbon dioxide.
✓ doctor uses the stethoscope as a device to amplify the sound of the heart
 ✓ The walls of the chambers of the heart are made up of muscles. These
muscles contract and relax rhythmically. This rhythmic contraction followed by
its relaxation constitute a heartbeat
✓ pulse rate per minute indicates the rate of heart beat.
✓ William Harvey (A.D.1578–1657), discovered the circulation of blood
✓ Animals such as sponges and Hydra do not possess any circulatory system.
The water in which they live brings food and oxygen as it enters their bodies.
T

Excretory system in humans

✓ The kindeys, ureters, bladder and urethra form the excretory system.
✓ When the blood reaches the two kidneys, it contains both useful and harmful
substances.
✓ The useful substances are absorbed back into the blood.
✓ The wastes dissolved in water are removed as urine.
✓ From the kidneys, the urine goes into the urinary bladder through tube-
like ureters. It is stored in the bladder and is passed out through the urinary
opening at the end of a muscular tube called urethra
✓ adult human being normally passes about 1–1.8 L of urine in 24 hour
✓ whether other animals also urinate?
✓ Aquatic animals like fishes, excrete cell waste as ammonia which directly
dissolves in water.
✓ Some land animals like birds, lizards, snakes excrete a semi-solid, white
coloured compound (uric acid)
✓ . The major excretory product in humans is urea.

✓ As a result of kidney failure, waste products start accumulating in the blood.

Such persons cannot survive unless their blood is filtered periodically through
an artificial kidney. This process is called dialysis.
TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS

✓ how water and nutrients absorbed by the root are transported to the leaves?
✓ How is the food prepared by the leaves carried to the parts which cannot
make food?
✓ Plants have pipe-like vessels to transport water and nutrients from the soil.
The vessels are made of special cells, forming the vascular tissue
✓ The vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in the plant is
called the xylem
 ✓ The food has to be transported to all parts of the plant. This is done by the
vascular tissue called the phloem
✓ minerals dissolved in water also move up the stem, along with water. Water
and minerals go to leaves and other plant parts, through narrow tubes (xylem)
inside the stem
✓ Plants absorb mineral nutrients and water from the soil. Not all the water
absorbed is utilised by the plant. The water evaporates through the stomata
present on the surface of the leaves by the process of transpiration. The
evaporation of water from leaves generates a suction pull (

Reproduction in Plants
✓ There are several ways by which plants produce their offspring. These are
categorised into two types: (i) asexual, and (ii) sexual reproduction.
In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to new plants without seeds,
whereas in sexual reproduction, new plants are obtained from seeds.

✓ It is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced from

roots, stems, leaves and buds. Since reproduction is through the vegetative
parts of the plant, it is known as vegetative propagation.

✓ Roots of some plants can also give rise to new plants. Sweet potato and
dahlia are examples.
✓ cacti produce new plants when their parts get detached from the main plant
body
✓ advantage of vegetative propagation.
✓ take less time to grow and bear flowers and fruits earlier than those produced
from seeds. The new plants are exact copies of the parent plant, as they are
produced from a single parent.
✓ Budding
✓ Yeast
✓ Fragmentation
✓ spirogyra (an alga
✓ Spore formation fungi
✓ Spores are asexual reproductive bodies. Each spore is covered by a hard
protective coat to withstand unfavourable conditions such as high temperature
and low humidity.
 ✓ So they can survive for a long time. Under favourable conditions, a spore
germinates and develops into a new individual.
✓ Plants such as moss and ferns (Fig. 8.8) also reproduce by means of spores.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

✓ The cell which results after fusion of the gametes is called a zygote. The
process of fusion of male and female gametes (to form a zygote) is
called fertilisation (Fig. 8.11). The zygote develops into an embryo.
✓ After fertilisation, the ovary grows into a fruit and other parts of the flower fall
off. The fruit is the ripened ovary. The seeds develop from the ovules. The
seed contains an embryo enclosed in a protective seed coat.

✓ Winged seeds such as those of drumstick and maple light seeds of

grasses or hairy seeds of aak (Madar) and hairy fruit of sunflower [Fig. 8.14
(a), (b)], get blown off with the wind to far away places.

Drumstick
Winged seed maple

Light seed Oal (madar )

Hairy fruits of sunflower
Dispersal by

Animal Xanthium urena

Burst by sudden jerk Castor

Balsam

✓ Some seeds are dispersed by animals, especially spiny seeds with hooks
which get attached to the bodies of animals and are carried to distant places.
Examples are Xanthium and Urena.
✓ Some seeds are dispersed when the fruits burst with sudden jerks. The
seeds are scattered far from the parent plant. This happens in the case of
castor and balsam.
✓ Seed dispersal helps the plants to (i) prevent overcrowding, (ii) avoid
competition for sunlight, water and minerals and (iii) invade new habitats.

Motion and Time

✓ speed is the total distance covered divided by the total time taken. Thus,

✓
✓ If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, its
motion is said to be non-uniform.
✓ On the other hand, an object moving along a straight line with a constant
speed is said to be in uniform motion. In this case, the average speed is the
same as the actual speed.

✓ The to and fro motion of a simple pendulum is an example of a periodic or

an oscillatory motion.
✓ The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its time
period.
✓ The distance-time graph for the motion of an object moving with a constant
speed is a straight line.
 ✓ when electric current passes through a wire, it behaves like a magnet. This is
the magnetic effect of the electric current.
✓ the needle of a compass is a tiny magnet, which points in north-south
direction. When we bring a magnet close to it, the needle gets deflected. We
have also seen that compass needle gets deflected when the current flows in
a nearby wire.
✓ current carrying coil of an insulated wire wrapped around a piece of iron is called
an electromagnet.

 Electromagnets are used in many devices.

✓ electric bell. It has an electromagnet

Light
This activity showed that light travels along straight lines.
This change of direction by a mirror is called reflection of light
objects are visible only when light reflected from them reaches our eyes

An image formed by a plane mirror is erect and of the same size as the object.
In a plane mirror the image is formed behind the mirror.
plate acts as a plane mirror

The curved shining surface of a spoon acts as a mirror. The most common example
of a curved mirror is a spherical mirror.
If the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is concave, it is called a concave mirror.
If the reflecting surface is convex, then it is a convex mirror
The inner surface of a spoon acts like a concave mirror, while its outer surface acts
like a convex mirror.
This bright spot is, in fact, the image of the Sun. Notice that this image is formed on
a screen. An image formed on a screen is called a real image. Recollect that in
Activity 11.2 the image formed by a plane mirror could not be obtained on a screen.
Such an image is called a virtual image.

reflecting surface of the bell is convex.

mirrors used as side mirrors in automobiles? These are convex mirrors. Convex
mirrors can form images of objects spread over a large area. So, these help the
drivers to see the traffic behind them

Dentist use concave mirror

A concave mirror can form a real and inverted image. When the object is placed very
close to the mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified.

 Image formed by a convex mirror is erect, virtual and smaller in size than the object.

Images Formed by Lenses

The magnifying glass is actually a type of a lens.

Those lenses which feel thicker in the middle than at the edges are convex lenses
[Fig. 11.22 (a)]. Those which feel thinner in the middle than at the edges are concave
lenses
convex lens converges (bends inward) the light generally falling on it [Fig. 11.24 (a)].
Therefore, it is called a converging lens. On the other hand, a concave lens diverges
(bends outward) the light and is called a diverging lens [Fig. 11.24 (b)].

 A convex lens can form real and inverted image. When the object is placed very
close to the lens, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified. When used to see
objects magnified, the convex lens is called a magnifying glass.

 A concave lens always forms erect, virtual and smaller image than the object.

 White light is composed of seven colours.

Plane mirror Virtual

Convex ( Automobile Smaller in Concave
dinverging) size lens

Magnifying
is

Concave Dentist Real and Virtual ,erect Convex

inverted Magnified lens
 Crop Production and Management

Kharif Crops : The crops which are sown in the rainy season are called kharif crops.
The rainy season in India is generally from June to September. Paddy, maize,
soyabean, groundnut and cotton are kharif crops.

(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the winter season (October to March) are called
rabi crops. Examples of rabi crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.

agricultural practices which are listed below

(i) Preparation of soil

(ii) Sowing
(iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
(iv) Irrigation
(v) Protecting from weeds
(vi) Harvesting
(vii) Storage

1.3 Preparation of Soil

Why does the loosening of soil allow the roots to breathe easily?
helps in the growth of earthworms and microbes present in the soil.

dead plants and animals get decomposed by soil organisms. In this way, various
nutrients in the dead organisms are released back into the soil. These nutrients are
again absorbed by plants.
turning and loosening of soil brings the nutrient-rich soil to the top so that plants can
use these nutrients.

The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing
Plough and hoe is used

Sowing

Selection of Seeds

Damaged seeds become hollow and are thus lighter. Therefore, they float on water.
Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. 1.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help of tractors. T

Another method of replenishing the soil with nutrients is through crop rotation
farmers in northern India used to grow legumes as fodder in one season and wheat
in the next season. This helped in the replenishment of the soil with nitrogen.
Farmers are being encouraged to adopt this practice.

Traditional Methods of Irrigation

The various traditional ways are:

(i) moat (pulley-system)

(ii) chain pump
(iii) dhekli, and
(iv) rahat (Lever system)

Modern Methods of Irrigation

Sprinkler System:
Sprinkler is very useful for lawns, coffee plantation and several other crops [F

Drip system
It is the best technique for watering fruit plants, gardens and trees [

Protection from Weeds

The removal of weeds is called weeding

weedicides, like 2,4-D.

Harvesting

grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This process is called threshing
Farmers with small holdings of land do the separation of grain and chaff
by winnowing

process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is known as fermentation.

Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857.

Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly known
antibiotics which are made from fungi and bacteria.

Alexander Fleming penicillin

Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for small-pox in 1798.
microorganisms decompose dead organic waste of plants and animals converting
them into simple substances

Harmful Microorganisms

Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person
through air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable diseases.
Examples of such diseases include cholera, common cold, chicken pox and
tuberculosis.

example of a carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito (Fig. 2.8), which carries the
parasite of malaria (Plasmodium).

Disease causing Microorganisms in Animals

anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a bacterium.

Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.

Robert Köch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which

causes anthrax disease.

Chemical Method Of Preservation

Sodium benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives.

salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes.

Preservation by Oil and Vinegar

Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in
such an environment. Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this
method.

Heat and Cold Treatments

In milk

Pasteurised milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful

microbes. The milk is heated to about 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly
chilled and stored. By doing so, it prevents the growth of microbes. This process was
discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called pasteurisation.
 Coal and Petroleum

Inexhaustible Natural Resources: These resources are present in unlimited quantity

in nature and are not likely to be exhausted by human activities. Examples are:
sunlight, air.

(ii) Exhaustible Natural Resources:The amount of these resources in nature is

limited. They can be exhausted by human activities. Examples of these resources are
forests, wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc.

exhaustible natural resources like coal, petroleum and natural gas. These were
formed from the dead remains of living organisms (fossils). So, these are all known
as fossil fuels.

As coal contains mainly carbon, the slow process of conversion of dead vegetation
into coal is called carbonisation. Since it was formed from the remains of vegetation,
coal is also called a fossil fuel.

Coke is a tough, porous and used in the manufacture of steel and

black substance. in the extraction of many metals.
almost pure form of
carbon.

Coal black, thick liquid Products obtained from coal tar are
(Fig. 3.3) with an used as manufacturing various
Tar
unpleasant smell. It is a substances used in everyday life and
mixture of about 200 in industry, like synthetic dyes, drugs,
substance explosives, perfumes, plastics, paints,
photographic materials, roofing
materials, etc.

Interestingly, naphthalene balls used

to repel moths and other insects are
also obtained from coal tar.

Coal Coal gas is obtained is used as a fuel in many industries

during the processing of situated near the coal processing
Gas
coal to get coke plants.
 Petroleum

Petrol and diesel are obtained from a natural resource called petroleum. The word
petroleum is derived from petra (rock) and oleum (oil) as it is mined from between
the rocks under Earth

Petroleum was formed from organisms living in the sea. As these organisms died,
their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of sand and
clay. Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and high
pressure transformed the dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas
WHY PETROLEUM IS CALLED AS BLACK GOLD

Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’. These are used in the manufacture
of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon, acrylic etc.), polythene and other
man-made plastics.
Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas, is used in the production of
fertilisers (urea). Due to its great commercial importance, petroleum is also
called ‘black gold’.

Natural Gas

easy to transport through pipes. Natural gas is stored under high pressure as
compressed natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for power generation. It is now being
used as a fuel for transport vehicles because it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel.
 Combustion and Flame

chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat is called
combustion
The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition
temperature.

history of the matchstick

A mixture of antimony trisulphide, potassium chlorate and white

phosphorus with some glue and starch was applied on the head of a match
made of suitable wood.
white phosphorus proved to be dangerous
These days the head of the safety match contains only antimony trisulphide
and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface has powdered glass and a
little red phosphorus (which is much less dangerous).
Why does the matchstick start burning on rubbing it on the side of the
matchbox?

Because ignition temperature is necessary for the combustion

Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire on their own at room temperature.
But, if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will catch fire. But if wood is heated a
little, it would still not catch fire.why?
it mean that ignition temperature of kerosene oil is lower than that of wood

The heat supplied to the paper cup is transferred to water by conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the ignition temperature of paper is not reached. Hence, it does
not burn.
The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire
with a flame are called inflammable substances. Examples of inflammable
substances are petrol, alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) etc.

When a fire brigade arrives, what does it do? It pours water on the fire

Water cools the combustible material so that its temperature is brought below its
ignition temperature. This prevents the fire from spreading.

For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like

petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the best extinguisher.
water works only when things like wood and paper are on fire.
Why carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is the best extinguisher.?
CO2 , being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the
contact between the fuel and oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The
added advantage of CO2 is that in most cases it does not harm the
electrical equipment.
What is a way to get co2 ??
Another way to get CO2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire,
these chemicals give off CO2 .

Types of Combustion

Types of Combustion

the gas burns rapidly and produces heat and light. Such combustion is known
as rapid combustion.
The type of combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without the
application of any apparent cause is called spontaneous combustion

When a cracker is ignited, a sudden reaction takes place with the evolution of heat,
light and sound. A large amount of gas formed in the reaction is liberated. Such a
reaction is called explosion.
sources of heat energy for domestic and industrial purposes are mainly wood,
charcoal, petrol, kerosene etc. These substances are called fuels.
What are the properties of good fuel??
A good fuel is one which is readily available. It is cheap. It burns easily in air at a
moderate rate. It produces a large amount of heat. It does not leave behind any
undersirable substances.

What is a calorific value??

The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel
is called its calorific value. The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in a unit
called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
 Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful Products

Carbon fuels like wood, coal, petroleum release unburnt carbon particles. These fine
particles are dangerous pollutants causing respiratory diseases, such as asthma.

Incomplete combustion of these fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a

very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to burn coal in a closed room. The
carbon monoxide gas produced can kill persons sleeping in that room
Combustion of most fuels releases carbon dioxide in the environment. Increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the air is believed to cause global warming.

Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas. It is an extremely

suffocating and corrosive gas. Moreover, petrol engines give off gaseous oxides of
nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in rain water and form acids. Such
rain is called acid rain. It is very harmful for crops, buildings and soil.

Smoke contains burnt carbon

Colour of non luminous zones blue

Magnesium burn to produce magnesium oxide, heat ,

Iight

combustion
 Consequences of Deforestation

Deforestation increases the temperature and pollution level on the earth.

It increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water level also
gets lowered. They know that deforestation disturbs the balance in nature.

If cutting of trees continues, rainfall and the fertility of the soil will decrease.
Moreover, there will be increased chances of natural calamities such as floods and
droughts.

Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.

plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees would mean that less
carbon dioxide will be used up resulting in its increased amount in the atmosphere.
This will lead to global warming as carbon dioxide traps the heat rays reflected by
the earth. The increase in temperature on the earth disturbs the water cycle and may
reduce rainfall. This could cause droughts.

Explain how deforestation leads to reduce the fertility of soil

Deforestation is a major cause which leads to the change in soil properties. Physical
properties of the soil get affected by plantation and vegetation. Fewer trees result in
more soil erosion. Removal of the top layer of the soil exposes the lower, hard and
rocky layers. This soil has less humus and is less fertile. Gradually the fertile land
gets converted into deserts. It is called desertification.

Explain how deforestation leads to flood?

Deforestation also leads to a decrease in the water holding capacity of the soil. The
movement of water from the soil surface into the ground (infiltration rate) is reduced.
So, there are floods. The other properties of the soil like nutrient content, texture etc.,
also change because of deforestation.

Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.

plants and animals found here are similar to those of the upper Himalayan peaks
and to those belonging to the lower western ghats.
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists of one national park named Satpura and two
wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and Pachmarhi (

Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns, arjun, etc., are the flora and chinkara, bluebull,
barking deer, cheetal, leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are examples of the fauna of the
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve (
Endemic species are those species of plants and animals which are found
exclusively in a particular area. They are not naturally found anywhere else.

Bison, Indian giant squirrel and flying squirrel are endemic fauna of this area.

Some of the threatened wild animals like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, python,
rhinoceros, etc., are protected and preserved in our wild life sanctuaries
Satpura Tiger Reserve is unique in the sense that a significant increase in the
population of tigers has been seen here.
Animals whose numbers are diminishing to a level that they might face extinction are
known as the endangered animals

small animals are much more in danger of becoming extinct than the bigger
animals. At times, we kill snakes, frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly without
realising their importance in the ecosystem. By killing them we are harming
ourselves. They might be small in size but their role in the ecosystem cannot be
ignored. They form part of food chains and food webs.

Reproduction in Animal
The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts can be identified is called a
foetus (Fi
Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first time by Ian Wilmut and
his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland. They successfully
cloned a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 6.13 (c)]. Dolly was born on 5th July 1996 and was
the first mammal to be cloned.

cell was collected from the mammary gland of a female Finn Dorsett sheep
Adolescence begins around the age of 11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
Since this period covers the ‘teens’ (13 to 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents are
also called ‘teenagers’. In girls, adolescence may begin a year or two earlier than in
boys. Also, the period of adolescence varies from person t9o person.

Initially, girls grow faster than boys but by about 18 years of age, both reach their
maximum height.
Why boys have hoarse voice at puberty

At puberty, the voice box or the larynx begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice
boxes. The growing voice box in boys can be seen as a protruding part of the throat
called Adam’s apple

Generally, girls have a high pitched voice, whereas boys have a deep voice. In
adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles of the growing voice box go out of control
and the voice becomes hoarse.

Increased Activity of Sweat and Sebaceous Glands

Many young people get acne and pimples on the face at this time because of the
increased activity of these glands in the skin.

few glands such as sweat glands, oil glands and salivary glands release
their secretions through ducts. Endocrine glands release hormones directly
into the bloodstream. So, they are also termed ductless glands.
In females, the reproductive phase of life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of age)
and generally lasts till the age of approximately 45 to 50 years. Th

At 45 to 50 years of age, the menstrual cycle stops

Apart from the pituitary, the testes and the ovaries, there are other endocrine glands
in the body such as thyroid, pancreas and adrenals (F

his pancreas was not producing the hormone insulin in sufficient quantities.
Inadequately causes diabetes
thyroid gland was not producing the hormone thyroxine cause Goitre
adrenal glands secrete hormones which maintain the correct salt balance in the
blood. Adrenals also produce the hormone adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust to
stress when one is very angry, embarrassed or worried.

WHICH HORMONE CONTROLES THE DEVELOPMENT OF TADEPOLES TO

ADULTS

This change from larva to adult is called metamorphosis (Fig. 7.10). Metamorphosis
in insects is controlled by insect hormones. In a frog, it is controlled
by thyroxine, the hormone produced by thyroid. Thyroxine production requires the
presence of iodine in water. If the water in which the tadpoles are growing does not
contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles cannot become adults.

Iron builds blood and iron-rich food such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat, citrus,
Indian gooseberry (amla) are good for adolescents.
force is caused by the action of muscles in our body. The force resulting due to the
action of muscles is known as the muscular force.

Non-contact Forces

Magnetic Force

force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known

as electrostatic force.

Objects or things fall towards the earth because it pulls them. This force is called
the force of gravity, or just gravity

force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.

pressure = force / area on which it acts

air all around us. This envelop of air is known as the atmosphere. The atmospheric
air extends up to many kilometres above the surface of the earth. The pressure
exerted by this air is known as atmospheric pressure.

New Chapter Force of Friction

if you apply the force along the left, friction acts along the right. If you apply the force
along the right, the friction acts along the left direction. In both cases the force
opposes the motion of the book. The force of friction always opposes the applied
force.

Spring balance is a device used for measuring the force acting on an object. It consists
of a coiled spring which gets stretched when a force is applied to it. Stretching of the
spring is measured by a pointer moving on a graduated scale. Thue reading on the
scale gives the magnitude of the force

Why the force of friction is greater if a rough surface is involve ??

Friction is caused by the irregularities on the two surfaces in contact. Even those
surfaces which appear very smooth have a large number of minute irregularities on
them (Fig. 9.5). Irregularities on the two surfaces lock into one another. When we
attempt to move any surface, we have to apply a force to overcome interlocking. On
rough surfaces, there are a larger number of irregularities. So the force of friction is
greater if a rough surface is involved.

force of friction will increase if the two surfaces are pressed harder.

Eg dragging a mat when nobody is sitting on it, and when a preson is sitting on it.
The force required to overcome friction at the instant an object starts moving from rest
is a measure of static friction. On the other hand, the force required to keep the object
moving with the same speed is a measure of sliding friction.

So, the sliding friction is slightly smaller than the static friction how

When the box starts sliding, the contact points on its surface, do not get enough time
to lock into the contact points on the floor. So, the sliding friction is slightly smaller
than the static friction and you find it somewhat easier to move the box already in
motion than to get it started.

If there would no friction

-possible to hold the glass at all if there is no friction

could not write with pen or pencil if there were no friction

how difficult it is to move on a wet muddy track, or wet marble floor?

Because of less friction force it difficult to walk on marble floor
When your teacher is writing with chalk on the blackboard, its rough surface rubs off
some chalk particles which stick to the black board. Could it happen if there were no
friction between the chalk and the board?
If an object started moving, it would never stop if there were no friction. Had there
been no friction between the tyres of the automobiles and the road, they could not be
started or stopped or turned to change the direction of motion.
friction is an evil, too
When you strike a matchstick against the rough surface, it catches fire why
Because friction creates fire
thought why the sole of your shoe is grooved ?

It is done to provide the shoes better grip on the floor, so that you can move safely.
Similarly, the treaded tyres of cars,trucks and bulldozers provide better grip with the
ground.
We deliberately increase friction by using brake pads in the brake system of
bicycles and automobiles. When you are riding a bicycle, the brake pads do not
touch the wheels. But when you press the brake lever, these pads arrest the motion
of the rim due to friction. The wheel stops moving.
Eg to increase the friction

kabaddi players rub their hands with soil for a better grip of their opponents.
Gymnasts apply some coarse substance on their hands to increase friction for better
grip.
reduce friction in order to increase efficiency.

friction is undesirable and we would want to minimise it.

sprinkle fine powder on the carrom board

when a few drops of oil are poured on the hinges of a door, the door moves
smoothly.

bicycle and a motor mechanic uses grease between the moving parts of these
machines.

WWHT IS A USE OF LUBRICANT? WHAT IS AIR CUSHION

Movement becomes smooth. The substances which reduce friction are
called lubricants. In some machines, it may not be advisable to use oil as lubricant.
An air cushion between the moving parts is used to reduce friction.

you now understand why the wheel is said to be one of the greatest inventions of
mankind?

When one body rolls over the surface of another body, the resistance to its motion is
called rolling friction. Rolling reduces friction. It is always easier to roll than to
slide a body over another. That is the reason it is convenient to pull luggage fitted
with rollers
Since the rolling friction is smaller than the sliding friction, sliding is replaced in
most machines by rolling by the use of ball bearings. Common examples are the use
of ball bearings between hubs and the axles of ceiling fans and bicycles

Fluid Friction

fluids exert force of friction on objects in motion through them.

frictional force on an object in a fluid depends on its speed with respect to the fluid.
The frictional force also depends on the shape of the object and the nature of the
fluid.
Birds and fishes have to move about in fluids all the time. Their bodies must have
evolved to shapes which would make them lose less energy in overcoming friction.

• Fluid friction can be minimised by giving suitable shapes to

bodies moving in fluids.
Rolling friction 《 Sliding friction 《 Static friction
Sound
Remove the tumbler from your mouth. Does the sound become loud again?
Indeed, if you had been able to suck all the air in the tumbler, you will not listen any
sound. Actually, sound needs a medium to travel. When air has been removed
completely from a vessel, it is said that there is a vacuum in the vessel. The sound
cannot travel through a vacuum.

Sound travels through liquid sold not travel in vacumm

to and fro motion of an object is known as vibration. This motion is also
called oscillatory motion

The number of oscillations per second is called the frequency of oscillation.

Frequency is expressed in hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of 1 Hz is one
oscillation per second.
Amplitude and frequency are two important properties of any sound.

Loudness of sound is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the

vibration producing the sound. F
When the amplitude of vibration is large, the sound produced is loud. When the
amplitude is small, the sound produced is feeble.

various sources.
Normal breathing 10 dB
Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Busy traffic 70 dB
Average factory 80 dB

Above 80 dB the noise becomes physically painful.

Compare the sound of a baby with that of an adult. Is there any difference?

frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the frequency of vibration

is higher we say that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch. If the frequency of
vibration is lower, we say that the sound has a lower pitch. For example, a drum
vibrates with a low frequency. Therefore, it produces a low-pitched sound. On the
other hand, a whistle has a high frequency and therefore, produces a sound of higher
pitch (Fig. 10.18). A bird makes a high-pitched sound whereas a lion makes a low-
pitched roar. However, the roar of a lion is very loud while the sound of the bird is quite
feeble.

sounds of frequencies less than about 20 vibrations per second (20 Hz) cannot be
detected by the human ear. Such sounds are called inaudible. On the higher side,
sounds of frequencies higher than about 20,000 vibrations per second (20 kHz) are
also not audible to the human ear.
human ear, the range of audible frequencies is roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz.

Some animals can hear sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
Dogs have this ability. The police use high frequency whistles which dogs
can hear but humans cannot.

The ultrasound equipment, familiar to us for investigating and tracking

many medical problems, works at frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
Lack of sleep, hypertension (high blood-pressure), anxiety and many more health
disorders may be caused by noise pollution. A person who is exposed to a loud
sound continuously may get temporary or even permanent impairment of hearing.
Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto iron why
Tin is less reactive than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is
protected from getting spoilt.
process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of
electricity is called electroplating.

Some Natural Phenomena

In 1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist, showed that lightning and the
spark from your clothes are essentially the same phenomena. However, it took 2000
years for this realisation to occur.
when a plastic comb is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a small charge. These objects
are called charged objects. In the process of charging the refill and the plastic comb,
polythene and hair also get charged.

A charged refill repelled a charged refill.

• But a charged balloon attracted a charged refill.

Does it indicate that the charge on the balloon is of a different kind from the charge on
the refill? Can we say then, that there are two kinds of charges? Can we also say that
the charges of the same kind repel each other, while charges of different kind attract
each other?

It is a convention to call the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed

with silk as positive. The other kind of charge is said to be negative.

It is observed that when a charged glass rod is brought near a charged plastic straw
rubbed with polythene there is attraction between the two.

a device can be used to test whether an object is carrying charge or not. This device
is known as electroscope.
Every time you will find that the foil strips collapse as soon as you touch the
paperclip with hand. Why does it happen?

The reason is that the foil strips lose charge to the earth through your body. We say
that the foil strips are discharged. The process of transferring of charge from a
charged object to the earth is called earthing.

Do’s and Don’ts during a Thunderstorm

Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, construction machinery, open cars are not
safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters in parks, elevated places do not protect us from
lightning strokes.

Carrying an umbrella is not at all a good idea during thunderstorms.

If in a forest, take shelter under shorter trees.

If no shelter is available and you are in an open field, stay far away from all trees. Stay
away from poles or other metal objects. Do not lie on the ground. Instead, squat low
on the ground. Place your hands on your knees with your head between the hands
(Fig. 12.6). This position will make you the smallest target to be struck.

major earthquake occurred in India on 8 October 2005 in Uri and Tangdhar towns of
North Kashmir (Fig. 12.8). Before that a major earthquake occurred on 26 January
2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat.

Since earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the boundaries of the plates
are the weak zones where earthquakes are more likely to occur. The weak zones are
also known as seismic or fault zones. In India, the areas most threatened are
Kashmir, Western and Central Himalayas, the whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane. Some areas of South India also fall in the
danger zone

The power of an earthquake is expressed in terms of a magnitude on a scale called

the Richter scale. Really destructive earthquakes have magnitudes higher than 7 on
the Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir earthquakes had magnitudes greater than
7.5.

plastic straw would carry a negative charge is correct.

McQ

Friction due to fluids is called drag

Force of friction depends on roughness size weight
Streamlined objects are boats aeroplane ship
Friction is a contact force