Terminologies Definition of Microcomputer and Microcontroller Microprocessor Vs. Microcontroller Evolution of the Microcomputer A microcomputer system Number Systems
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Definitions of basic Terms Cycle Period of the CPU clock. The fundamental unit of time for CPU activity. Clock Speed The lock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).It is also known as Clock Rate. Bandwidth The number of bits processed in a single instruction. Bus A bus is a common group of wires that interconnect components in a computer system and carries data, address or control signals. Wires connecting memory & I/O to microprocessor Instruction A meaningful command to be executed by the CPU along with the data operands. A command given to the microcomputer to perform a specific task or function on a given data 3 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/10/2018 Definitions of basic Terms…
Register The fastest temporary data storage in the memory hierarchy. ALU A digital logic circuit to process logic and arithmetic operation Memory One of the basic elements of a computer system It stores both the instructions to be executed (i.e., the program) and the data involved Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold. Memory hierarchy Register => Cache(levels)=>RAM=>Disks Cache fast static memory to hold most frequently used data/instruction
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Definitions of basic Terms… Central Processing Unit (CPU) CPU is the brain of the computer system. It performs the necessary arithmetic and logic operations and controls the timing and general operation of the complete system.
To execute an instruction–the processor must:
Fetch the instruction from memory
Decode the instruction Execute the instruction Machine cycle Store the result back in the memory.
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Definitions of basic Terms… Microprocessor Architecture (Based on Instruction Set) CISC Complex instructions Simpler compiler complex and large hardware difficult but programming is easy as it has a large number of instructions. RISC Few and simple instructions complex compilers small and simple hardware but software (programming) is difficult because you have to write code using a small number of instructions.
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Definitions of basic Terms… Pipeline There are two ways to make the CPU process information faster: Increase the working frequency or Change the internal architecture of the CPU.
The first option is technology dependent, meaning that the designer must use whatever technology is available at the time, with consideration for cost. The technology and materials used in making IC’s determine the working frequency, power consumption, and the number of transistors packed into a single-chip microprocessor.
The second option for improving the processing power of the CPU has to do with the internal working of the CPU. The idea of pipelining in its simplest form is to allow the CPU to fetch and execute at the same time. 7 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Definitions of basic Terms… Pipelined vs. non-pipelined cycles
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Definitions of basic Terms… Nibble, Byte, and Word All the information entering or leaving a microprocessor is in the form of a binary signal, a voltage switching between the two bit levels 0 and 1.
Bits are passed through the microprocessor at very high speed and in large numbers and we find it easier to group them together.
Nibble: A group of four bits. It is half a byte.
Byte: A byte is simply a collection of 8 bits.
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Definitions of basic Terms… Word • Unlike a byte, a word does not have a fixed number of bits in it • The length of the word or the number of bits in the word depends on the microprocessor being used. • If the microprocessor accepts binary data in groups of 32 at a time then the word in this context would include 32 bits. If a different microprocessor used data in smaller handfuls, say 16 at a time, then the word would have a value of 16 bits. • The most likely values are 8, 16, 32 and 64 bits but no value is excluded. 10 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Microprocessor Vs. Microcontroller Microprocessor Is simple central processing unit(cpu) on a single chip. Usually contains only CPU, control & cache on chip requires lot of external hardware It is used as CPU (Central Processing Unit) in computers. These general microprocessors contain no RAM, ROM, or I/O ports on the chip itself Unlimited memory sizen highest power consumption higher cost (e.g. 8086, Pentium, Core i7, MIPS, ARM Cortex,… ) 11 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Microprocessor Vs. Microcontroller… Microcontroller A computer on a single chip On-chip memory, I/O ports, CPU, serial and parallel interface, timers/counters, interrupt controller circuitry. Easy to work with. Low power consumption. Very Low cost. Usually low speed. Limited memory size.
Top vendors: Microchip, Atmel, TI, Philips (NXP), Motorola(Freescale), Samsung …
12 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Evolution of Microprocessor 4004:(1971) 8008: (1971) 4-bit microprocessor 8-bit version of 4004 4KB main memory 16KB main memory 45 instructions 48 instructions PMOS technology NMOS technology 50 KIPS 3500 transistors 2300 transistors 8-bit word size 4-bit word size 18-pin DIP package 16-pin DIP package
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Evolution of Microprocessor
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8080: (1973) 8-bit microprocessor. 64KB main memory. 2 microseconds clock cycle time;500,000 instructions/sec. 10X faster than 8008. 4500 transistors 8-bit word size 40-pin DIP package 8085: (1977) 8-bit microprocessor - upgraded version of the 8080. 64KB main memory. 1.3 microseconds clock cycle time; 769,230 instructions/sec. 246 instructions. 6500 transistors 15 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 8086: (1978) 8088 (1979) 16-bit microprocessor. 29k transistors 1MB main memory. 16-bit word size 2.5 MIPS (400 ns). 40-pin DIP package 4- or 6-byte instruction cache. Has more registers 20,000 instructions 80286: (1983) 16-bit microprocessor very similar in instruction set to the 8086. 16MB main memory. 4.0 MIPS (250 ns/8MHz). 24-bit addressing, memory protection and virtual memory 16 MB of physical MEM and 1 GB of virtual mem 130,000 Trs. onto a single chip 16-bit word size 16 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Intel 80386(1985 ) 32-bit data bus and a 32-bit memory address 3-5 MIPS (7 MIPS on the 25 MHz chip) memory paging and enhanced I/O permission features 4GB programming model Note: 1G of memory contains 1024M, or 1,073,741,824 locations. 275k transistors, 16-33 MHz, 32-bit word size and 100-pin PGA Intel 80486(1989) 1,200,000 Trs. 8K-byte cache memory 386+387+8K data and instruction cache and paging The average speed for a typical mix of instructions was about 50% over the 80386 that operated at the same clock speed 1.2M transistors, 25-100 MHz, 32-bit word size and 168-pin PGA
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Intel Pentium III •1999; Pentium Pro + MMX + Internet Streaming SIMD Instructions • 0.25 micron, 9.5 million Trs., 600 MHz, Superscalar arch. • 32 K(16K/16K) non-blocking level 1 cache 5.5M-28M transistors 166-1000 MHz 32-bit word size MCM / SECC Intel Core i7 • March 2008, Nehalem micro-architecture, 3.066GHZ • 45nm CMOS process, 731 million trs., up to 8cores/chip • Integrated Memory, graphics and direct media interface controller • Simultaneous hyper-treading, turbo-boost technology,… • 32K instruction & 32K L1 data cache/core, 256K L2 cache/core • 8MB L3 cache, predictive Instruction execution…… (More on www.intel.com/products/processors/corei7) Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 18 19 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 A microcomputer system
The block diagram of a microprocessor-based computer system
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A microcomputer system…
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A microcomputer system… System Bus The bus inside a computer carries information from component to component as just a street bus carries people from place to place. In every computer there are three types of buses: address bus, data bus, and control bus. Address bus The address bus is unidirectional bus Carries the address of a specified location (identify the devices and memory connected to the CPU). For a device (memory or I/O) to be recognized by the CPU, it must be assigned an address which must be unique(i.e. No two devices are allowed to have the same address). Address buses for a CPU determines the number of locations which is always equal to 2x 22 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 A microcomputer system… Data Bus Data buses are bidirectional that carry information between the CPU and memory or between the CPU and I/O devices. The width of the data bus determines how much data the processor can read or write in one memory or I/O cycle (Machine Cycle). The processing power of a computer is related to the size of its data buses, since an 8-bit bus can send/receive 1 byte a time, but a 16-bit bus can send/receive 2 bytes at a time, which is twice as fast. The increase in the number of data buses increases the cost of construction. More data buses mean a more expensive CPU and computer. 23 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 A microcomputer system… Control Bus A bus that carries control signals which transmit both command and timing information among system modules. Because the data and address lines are shared by all components, there must be a means of controlling their use. How can we tell the address is a memory address or an I/O port address? Memory Read, Memory Write, I/O Read or I/O Write. When Memory Read or I/O Read are active, data is input to the processor. When Memory Write or I/O Write are active, data is output from the processor. 24 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/9/2018 Computer system Architecture Von–Neumann architecture The architecture in which the same memory is used for storing programs as well as data. The Von Neumann architecture uses the single data bus for instruction and data
Fig. Von-Neumann Architecture
25 Beyene Jember University of Gondar 3/10/2018 Computer system Architecture… Harvard architecture The architecture in which programs and data are stored in two separate memory units. The parallel bus used for code words and data words allows instruction and data to be fetched at the same time.
