MA 201 Complex Analysis
Lecture 6: Elementary functions
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
The Exponential Function
Recall:
Euler’s Formula: For y ∈ R, e iy = cos y + i sin y
and for any x, y ∈ R, e x+y = e x e y .
Definition: If z = x + iy , then e z or exp(z) is defined by the formula
e z = e (x+iy ) = e x (cos y + i sin y ).
Image of following sets under exponential function:
{(x, y0 ) : x ∈ R} 7−→ {(r , θ) : r = e x , x ∈ R, θ = y0 }.
{(x0 , y ) : y ∈ R} 7−→ {(r , θ) : r = e x0 , θ ∈ R}.
{(x, y ) : a ≤ x ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d} 7−→ {(r , θ) : e a ≤ r ≤ e b , c ≤ θ ≤ d}.
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Properties of Exponential Function
e0 = 1
e z = e z̄ , |e z | ≤ e |z| .
e z 6= 0, for all z ∈ C. Look at |e z | = |e x ||e iy | = e x 6= 0.
For all z, w ∈ C, e z+w = e z e w .
Indeed, if z = x + iy , w = s + it then,
e z+w = e (x+s)+i(y +t) = e (x+s) [cos(y + t) + i sin(y + t)]
= e x e s [(cos y cos t − sin y sin t) + i(sin y cos t + cos y sin t)]
= [e x (cos y + i sin y )][e s (cos t + i sin t)]
= ez ew .
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Properties of Exponential function
A function f : C → C is called periodic if there is a w ∈ C (called a
period) such that f (z + w ) = f (z) for all z ∈ C.
e z is periodic function with period 2πi.
e z is not injective unlike real exponential.
Since e z = e x cos y + ie x sin y satisfies C-R equation on C and has
continuous first order partial derivatives. Therefore e z is an entire
function.
d z
In fact dz
e = ∂
∂x
(e x ∂
cos y ) + i ∂x (e x sin y ) = e z .
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Trigonometric Functions
Define
1 iz 1 iz
sin z = (e − e −iz ); cos z = (e + e −iz ).
2i 2
Properties:
sin2 z + cos2 z = 1
sin(z + w ) = sin z cos w + cos z sin w
cos(z + w ) = cos z cos w − sin z sin w
sin(−z) = − sin z and cos(−z) = cos z
sin(z + 2kπ) = sin z, and cos(z + 2kπ) = cos z
sin z = 0 ⇐⇒ z = nπ and cos z = 0 ⇐⇒ z = (n + 12 )π, , n ∈ Z.
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Trigonometric functions
sin z, cos z are entire functions.
d d
dz
(sin z) = cos z and dz
(cos z) = − sin z.
sin z and cos z are unbounded functions.
Define:
sin z
tan z =
cos z
cos z
cot z =
sin z
1
sec z =
cos z
1
csc z = .
sin z
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Trigonometric functions
Hyperbolic Trigonometric functions: Define
e z − e −z e z + e −z
sinh z = ; and cosh z = .
2 2
Properties:
sinh z, cosh z are entire functions.
cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1.
sinh(−z) = − sinh z, cosh(−z) = cosh z,
sinh(z + 2kπ) = sinh z, cosh(z + 2kπ) = cosh z, k ∈ Z.
sinh(iz) = i sin z and cos(iz) = cos z
sin z = sin(x + iy ) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y ,
cos z = cos(x + iy ) = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y .
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
Note that e z is an onto function from C to C∗ = C \ {0}. In fact if
w ∈ C∗ then w = |w |e iθ where θ ∈ (−π, π]. If we set z = log |w | + iθ
then,
e z = e log |w |+iθ = e log |w | e iθ = w .
e z is not an injective function as e z+2πik = e z , k ∈ Z. But if we restrict
the domain then it becomes injective.
In particular if
H = {z = x + iy : −π < y ≤ π}
z
then z → e is a bijective function from H to C \ {0}.
Question: What is the inverse of this function?
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
Definition: For z ∈ C∗ , define log z = ln |z| + i arg z.
ln |z| stands for the real logarithm of |z|.
Since arg z = Arg z + 2kπ, k ∈ Z it follows that log z is not well defined
as a function. (multivalued)
For z ∈ C∗ , the principal value of the logarithm is defined as
Log z = ln |z| + i Argz.
Log : C∗ → {z = x + iy : −π < y ≤ π} is well defined (single valued).
Log z + 2kπi = log z for some k ∈ Z.
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
If z 6= 0 then e Log z
= e ln |z|+i Argz = z
What about Log (e z )?.
Suppose x is a positive real number then Log x = ln x + i Argx = ln x.
Log i = ln |i| + i π2 = iπ
2
,
Log (−1) = ln | − 1| + iπ = iπ,
Log (−i) = ln | − i| + i −π
2
= − iπ
2
,
Log (−e) = 1 + iπ
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
The function Log z is not continuous on the negative real axis
R− = {z = x + iy : x < 0, y = 0}.
To see this consider the point z = −α, α > 0. Consider the sequences
1 1
{an = αe i(π− n ) } and {bn = αe i(−π+ n ) }.
Then
lim an = z = lim bn
n→∞ n→∞
but
1
lim Log an = lim ln α + i(π − ) = ln α + iπ
n→∞ n→∞ n
and
lim Log bn = ln α − iπ.
n→∞
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
The function z → Log z is analytic on the set C∗ \ R− . Let z = re iθ 6= 0
and θ ∈ (−π, π). Then
Log z = ln r + iθ = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ)
with u(r , θ) = ln r and v (r , θ) = θ. Then
1 1 1
ur = vθ = and vr = − uθ .
r r r
The identity
Log (z1 z2 ) = Logz1 + Log z2
is not always valid. However, the above identity is true if and only if
Arg z1 + Arg z2 ∈ (−π, π] (why?).
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Logarithm
Branch of a multiple valued function: Let F be a multiple valued
function defined on a domain D. A function f is said to be a branch of
the multiple valued function F if in a domainD0 ⊂ D if f (z) is single
valued and analytic in D0 .
Branch Cut: The portion of a line or a curve introduced in order to
define a branch of a multiple valued function is called branch cut.
Branch Point: Any point that is common to all branch cuts is called a
branch point.
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
Complex Exponents
Let w ∈ C. For any z 6= 0, define
z w = exp(w log z),
where “exp” is the exponential function and log is the multiple valued
logarithmic function.
z w is a multiple valued function.
i i = exp[i log i] = exp[i(log 1 + i π2 )] = exp(− π2 ).
Lecture 6 Elementary functions
