CHAPTER 8
SENTENCES WITHIN
SENTENCES
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Look at the sentences:
[1] Georgette said this.
[2] Georgette said she burned the toast.
said = transitive verb
this / she burned the toast = complement of V (said)
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Draw a phrase
marker for:
[2] Georgette said
she burned the toast.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Look at the sentence:
[3] I thought Georgette said she burned the toast.
S3
S2
S1
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Draw a simplified phrase marker for: Abbreviated clausal
analysis (ACA)
Right-branching clausal
structure
S1 = main clause
S2, S3 = subordinate clause
S1 is main clause, also superordinate (host) clause of S2.
Subordinate clauses = Embedded sentences S2 is subordinate clause of S1, also superordinate (host) clause of S3.
= Subordinate sentential structures
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Draw ACA of:
[4] He reminded the men that he was in command at every
opportunity.
Abbreviated clausal
analysis (ACA)
that
NOT right-branching
clausal structure
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Draw ACA of:
[5] The fact that you received no greeting from Mars doesn’t mean
that it is uninhabited.
Abbreviated clausal
analysis (ACA)
NOT right-branching
clausal structure
COMPLEMENTISERS: that
THAT (S-bar)
marker of clausal subordination
introduce a subordinate clause
Function word
Not determiner
Called a complementizer
Fills the C position as in this diagram
Can be overt (seen) as or covert (unseen) (depending on some situations)
COMPLEMENTISERS: that
When THAT is covert (unseen),
(S-bar)
Clauses introduced by THAT
(both overtly or covertly) are
called THAT-CLAUSES
COMPLEMENTISERS: whether/ if
Look at the sentences:
[5] Sarah asked [whether/if those stupid
sausages were ready yet].
[6] [Whether Li would be fired] was worrying
them. Clauses introduced by
Notes: WHETHER/ IF are called
In [5] whether/ if introduce a clause which INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
relates to a yes-no question
In [6], whether … = whether …. or not
introduce a noun clause.
So IF cannot be used instead of whether
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND
WHETHER-CLAUSES
Functions:
1. Subject & extraposed subject
2. Complement of V (in a VP)
3. Complement of A (in a AP)
4. Complement of N (in a NP)
5. Complement of P (in a PP)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
[7a] That the king was in his counting house surprised her.
= Clausal Subject
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
[7a] That the king was in his counting house surprised her.
The clausal subject can be extraposed to the end of the sentence.
Then pronoun IT is used as dummy subject or expletive subject.
(expletive subject) (extraposed subject)
[7b] It surprised her that the king was in his counting
house.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Change these sentences to extraposed versions:
[8] That the book had a missing chapter was noticed by the critics.
[9] That Raschid’s disguise was a success is absolutely certain.
[10] Whether Li would be fired was worrying them.
[11] Whether Millie will go up in that machine is doubtful.
Extraposed subject (ES) clauses:
[8b] It was noticed by the critics that the book had a missing chapter.
[9b] It is absolutely certain that Raschid’s disguise was a success.
[10b] It was worrying them whether Li would be fired.
[11b] It is doubtful whether Millie will go up in that machine.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Extraposed subjects are drawn as daughters of the main
clause S and sisters of the expletive subject IT & VP.
Ex: [7b] It surprised her that the king was in his counting
house.
S’ (extraposed subject)
Is sister of IT & VP
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
However, some extraposed subjects cannot be put back at the
beginning.
[Intrans]
Ex: [12a] It seems that the recipe involves some dubious
ingredients.
[12b] * That the recipe involves some dubious ingredients
seems. (WRONG)
With these verbs (seem, appear), we can only use sentences with
expletive IT.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Draw Phrase markers for [13] & [14]:
[13] That the squid sauce was a mistake soon became clear.
[14] It isn’t my fault Max crushed your monocle.
* You can simplify by using triangles for NPs.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Draw Phrase markers for [13] & [14]:
[13] That the squid sauce was a mistake soon became clear.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Draw Phrase markers for [13] & [14]:
[14] It isn’t my fault Max crushed your monocle.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Subject & Extraposed Subject
Draw Phrase markers for [17]:
[17] It was noticed by the critics that the book had a missing chapter.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of V (in VP)
That-clauses or Whether-clauses can function as
complements of V in Verb phrases.
They can be Object for transitive V,
Subject Predicative for intensive V,
or Object Predicative for Complex V.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of V (in VP)
[15] I thought S2[(that) Georgette said S3[(that) she burned
the toast.]]
S2[(that) Georgette said …..] = complement of V (thought)
S3[(that) she burned the toast] = complement of V (said)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of V (in VP)
DRAW A PHRASE MARKER FOR:
[16] Anna told him (that) his shirt was hanging out.
(THAT CLAUSE = S’ = Object of the verb TOLD)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of V (in VP)
DRAW A PHRASE MARKER FOR:
[18] The consensus is that you
should taste the stew first.
(THAT CLAUSE = S’ = Subject Predicative of the verb IS)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of A (in AP)
DRAW A PHRASE MARKER FOR:
[19] She made him aware that he had overstepped the mark.
(THAT CLAUSE = Complement of the adjective AWARE )
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of A (in AP)
DRAW A PHRASE MARKER FOR:
[20] The men seemed happy that they had not been chosen.
(THAT CLAUSE = Complement of the adjective HAPPY)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of A (in AP)
What is the difference?
[21] It is certain that her hair is dyed. -> extraposed subject (ES) clause
[22] William is certain that her hair is dyed. -> complement of A in AP
Can you explain, according to syntax knowledge you have learnt so far in
Chapter 8?
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of N (in NP)
[23] the fact that you received no greetings form Mars
-> A Noun phrase
[that you received no greetings form Mars] = complement of N (fact)
Note: Noun-complement clauses can only complement ABSTRACT NOUNs (fact,
rumour, idea, news, claim, suggestion, rule, message, etc.)
Because with concrete nouns (e.g. book), we cannot say:
[24] * the book that Sophie has arrived (WRONG)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of N (in NP)
[23] the fact that you received no greetings form Mars
Draw a phrase marker for NP [23].
[that you received no greetings form Mars] = complement of N (fact)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of N (in NP)
Which sentence has a noun-complement clause?
[24] --> Extraposed subject clause
[25] Noun-complement clause
[26] Noun-complement clause
[27] --> Extraposed subject clause
[28]
--> Extraposed subject clause
In [26], IT is not an expletive subject. IT means something like the phone, the note, or the paper. So THAT–
clause complements the N message.
Similarly, in [25], That-clause is a complement of N fact.
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND WHETHER-CLAUSES:
Complement of P (in PP)
Whether clauses (interrogative clauses) can function as the complement of a P
in a PP.
That clause cannot function as Complement of P.
Examles:
[29]
[30]
[31]
C
Clauses as
Complement of P (in PP)
Special cases of AFTER/ BEFORE / UNTIL/ SINCE
They are called PREPOSITIONS (not Conjunctions). Because they can
take not only a clause, but also a NOUN PHRASE to be their
complements.
[32] since his arrival (NP = complement of P since)
[33] since you came (S = complement of P since)
In case of [33], the clause “you came” is not THAT-clause
or WHETHER/IF clause this clause is called S (not S’)
FUNCTIONS OF THAT- CLAUSES AND
WHETHER-CLAUSES
Functions:
1. Subject & extraposed subject
2. Complement of V (in a VP)
3. Complement of A (in a AP)
4. Complement of N (in a NP)
5. Complement of P (in a PP)
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Adverbial clauses are introduced by:
1- Subordinating conjunctions (although, unless, if, because, once,
as, so, while, since)
2- Word sequences (now that, so that, as if, in case, in order that, as
soon as)
These words are CONJUNCTIONS, not prepositions, because they
always introduce clauses, never NPs.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
[34] Things will be rather dull if Hieronimo leaves.
adverbial clause of condition
[35] Taxes are rising because the bankers need huge bonuses.
adverbial clause of reason
NOTE:
Adverbial clauses are VP-adverbials if they describe the condition, purpose,
reason, effect, etc. of the VP.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Draw a phrase marker for
[34] Things will be rather dull if Hieronimo leaves.
adverbial clause of condition
Adverbials vs Prepositional phrases (PP)
Compare:
[36] Since he is a friend, I go to all his concerts.
Adverbial clause of reason (S’) = C + S
[37] Since he became a friend, I’ve been to all his concerts.
Temporal prepositional phrase (PP) = P + S
VP-adverbials vs S-adverbials
VP-adverbials
[34] Things will be rather dull if Hieronimo leaves.
adverbial clause of condition
[35] Taxes are rising because the bankers need huge bonuses.
adverbial clause of reason
NOTE:
Adverbial clauses are VP-adverbials if they describe the condition, purpose,
reason, effect, etc. of the VP.
VP-adverbials vs S-adverbials
S-adverbials
Adverbial clauses are S-adverbials if they express the speaker’s opinion, idea,
comment, feeling, etc. when he/she is speaking.
Ex:
[38] Unless I’m gravely mistaken, you are King Kong.
[39] Since you ask, my name is Ozymandias.
[40] That’s my toothbrush, in case you were wondering.
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
EXAMPLE: ACA for [41]
[41] Until you mentioned it, it had not struck me that the
book would make a good film.
of
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1 (main clause)
He told me S2 at our first meeting
Ives had composed several symphonies
(S2 = complement of V told: direct object)
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1 (main clause)
S2 came as a surprise
That anyone would actually like his paintings
(S2 = Subject)
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1 (main clause)
The big idea is S2
that we all become rich as quickly as possible
(S2 = complement of V is: subject predicative)
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1 (main clause)
The announcement S2 will be made after S3
that Frank has resigned the plane takes off
(S3 = complement of N (S3 = complement of P after)
announcement)
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1
It’s well-known S2
that Max thinks S3
syntax is good for the brain
S1 = main clause
S2 = extraposed subject, S1 has expletive it as subject
S3 = complement of trans V thinks: direct object
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1
Before S2, the gallery had been certain S3
the exhibition opened his paintings would sell extremely well
S1 = main clause
S2 = complement of P before
S3 = complement of A certain
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1
S2 is a direct consequence of Lorenzo’s insistence S3
That Savonarola came to power that his sermons were harmless
S1 = main clause
S2 = Subject
S3 = complement of N insistence
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1
S2 , the exhibition closed
Once it was certain S3
that all the paintings were copies
S1 = main clause
S2 = VP-adverbial
S3 = exposed subject in VP-adverbial (S2)
PRACTICE
Draw ACA for the following sentences and tell the functions of
subordinate clauses.
S1
The gallery’s defence was S2
that they didn’t realise S3 until S4
they were copies it was too late
S1 = main clause
S2 = complement of V was : subject predicative
S3 = complement of N insistence
S4 = complement of P until
