DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

U21PH101 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-I: LASER

Laser characteristics –Spontaneous and stimulated emission– Pumping methods – CO2 Laser-
Semiconductor laser- Material processing –Selective Laser Sintering- Hologram- Medical
applications (ophthalmology).
INTRODUCTION:

The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation. As early as in 1917, Einstein predicted the existence of stimulated emission of
radiation by an atom. The process of stimulated emission was first successfully used in the
construction of a coherent optical source (MASER) by Basov and Prokhorov of Russia and
Townes of USA in 1954 and finally in 1960, Theodore Maiman of USA demonstrated the
first laser using a ruby crystal as the active material.

LASER CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Monochromatic:

Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength of light emission is single.

2. Coherence:

 In lasers the wave trains of same frequency are in phase, the radiation given out is in
mutual agreement not only in phase but also in the direction of emission and polarization.
Thus it is a coherent beam.
 Due to high coherence it results in an extremely high power.
3. Directionality :
 Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is 1m/m.
 Laser is highly directional and is angular spread is 1mm/m.
r2  r1
Divergence or angular spread is given by() 
d 2  d1
d1, d 2  are any two distances for the laser source emitted
r1, r2  are the radii of the beam spots at a distance d1, and d 2 respectively

4. Intensity:
 Ordinary light spreads in all directions. (Intensity is less)
 For Laser, due to high directionality, the intensity of laser beam reaching the
target is of high intense beam.
 Example: 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser appears to be brighter than the
sunlight.
Differences between ordinary light and Laser beam.

S.No Ordinary Light Laser light

The radiation are polychromatic The radiations are monochromatic

It is not a coherent beam and is not in It is a coherent beam and is in phase

phase.

3 In ordinary light the angular spread In laser beam the angular spread is less.
is more.

4 They are not directional. They are highly directional.

5 It is less intense It is highly intense
6 Example: Sun light, Mercury vapor He- Ne Laser, CO2 laser
lamp

SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION:

When an atom or molecule is exposed to light photons of energy
E1  E 2  h , three distinct processes take place.

a. Induced Absorption
b. Spontaneous emission
c. Stimulated Emission
Induced Absorption:
Ground state atom  E1   Photon absorption (h )  Excited state atom  E 2  .

Spontaneous Emission:
Excited state atom (E2)  Ground state (E1) + h (Light emission)
(Without external triggering).
Stimulated Emission:
 Excited atom (E2)  Ground state (E1) + h (Light emission)
(Triggered by spontaneously emitted photon)

Induced Absorption Spontaneous Stimulated

emission emission

Rate of absorption is Rate of spontaneous

emission is
R12  N1 v R 21 (sp)  N 2
R12  B12 N1 v .................(1) Rate of stimulated
R 21 (sp)  A 21 N 2 .................(2) emission is
B12  Pr obability of absorption A 21  Pr obability of R 21 (st)  N 2
transition per unit time spon tan eous emission R 21 (st)  B21 N 2 .................(3)
transition per unit time B21  Pr obability of
stimulated emission
transition per unit time

N1  Number of atoms in the ground level.

N 2  Number of atoms in the excited level.
v  Energy density of incident radiation.

Differences between Stimulated and spontaneous emission of radiation

S.No Stimulated Emission Spontaneous emission
An atom in the excited state is induced The atom in the excited state returns to the
to return to the ground state, thereby ground state thereby emitting a photon,
resulting in two photons of same without any external inducement is called
1
frequency and energy is called Spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission.
The emitted photons move in the same The emitted photons move in all directions
2 direction and are highly directional. and are random.
The radiation is highly intense, The radiation is less intense and is
3 monochromatic and coherent. incoherent.
The photons are in phase, there is a The photons are not in phase (i.e.) there is
4 constant phase difference. no phase relationship between them.
 Rate of stimulated emission= Rate of spontaneous emission =
5
R12  B12 N1 v R 21 (st)  B21 N 2

COMPONENTS OF A LASER SYSTEM

In general, a laser consists of three main components.

(i) The amplifying medium, (ii) the pump, and (iii) the optical resonator.

Amplifying medium:

 An amplifying medium contains atoms or molecules or ions. These will act as an

amplifier for light waves. In a normal state, the ground-level population is large;
 When light passes through this amplifying medium, some of the atoms or molecules
will absorb light and cause population inversion. Also, the atoms in excited state make
stimulated emissions as light passes through them. This causes the amplification of
emitted light.

Pump:

 The source of energy that keeps the amplifying medium in population inverted state is
called pump.

Optical resonator:

 This consists of a pair of mirrors, facing each other. One mirror is 100% reflecting,
and the other is partially silvered so that a small fraction of light will pass through it.
 These mirrors enclose the amplifying medium.
  The resonator provides optical feed back to the amplifier; the optical feedback
provided by the cavity makes the system into an oscillator.

POPULATION INVERSION:

 Usually in a system the number of atoms (N1) present in the ground state (E1) is larger
than the number of atoms (N2) present in the higher energy state. The process of
making N2 > N1 is called population inversion.
 Population inversion can be explained with three energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of a
system. Let E1, E2 and E3 be ground state, metastable state and excited states of
energies of the system respectively such that E1 < E2 < E3 .
 In a system, the population of atoms (N) in an energy level E, at absolute temperature
T has been expressed in terms of the population (N1 ) in the ground state using
Boltzmann’s distribution law:

 E 
N  N1 exp   
 K BT 
K B  Boltzmann Cons tan t
N1  Number of atoms in the ground level.
N  Number of atoms in the higher level.
T  Temperature.
E  Energy int erval
Conditions for population inversion:
 The system should possess at least a pair of energy levels (E2 > E1), separated by an
energy equal to the energy of a photon (hν).
 There should be a continuous supply of energy to the system such that the atoms must
be raised continuously to the excited state.
 The process of exciting atoms from lower energy state to higher energy state by
supplying energy from external source is called pumping.
PUMPING:
The process to achieve the population inversion in the medium is called Pumping action.
Methods of pumping action:
The methods commonly used for pumping action are:
1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)

2. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)

3. Direct conversion

4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms

5. Chemical method- Liquid Lasers.
Optical pumping:
 When the atoms are exposed to light radiations energy, atoms in the lower energy state
absorb these radiations and they go to the excited state.
Example: solid state lasers like ruby laser and Nd-YAG laser. In ruby laser, xenon flash
lamp is used as pumping source.

Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons):

 Electrical discharge method  electrons are produced in an electrical discharge tube.
 These electrons are accelerated to high velocities by a strong electrical field.
 These accelerated electrons collide with the gas atoms.
  Energy from the electrons is transferred to gas atoms. Some atoms gain energy and
they go to the excited state. This results in population inversion. This method is called
Electrical discharge method.

A  e*  A*  e
A  Gas atom in the ground state.
A*  Same gas atom in the excited state.
e*  Electrons with higher Kinetic energy
e  Same electron with lesser energy

Direct Conversion:

 Electrical energy applied in direct band gap semiconductor like GaAs.

 Recombination of electrons and holes takes place.
 During the recombination process, the electrical energy is directly is converted into
light energy.
 Example: Semiconductor Laser diode.

In elastic atom – atom collision

  In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A and B are used). The excited states
of A and B nearly coincides in energy.
 In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms of gas A are excited to their
higher energy state A* (metastable state) due to collision with the electrons .
A  e*  A*  e
 Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with B atoms in the lower state. Due to
inelastic atom - atom collision B atoms gain energy and they are excited to a higher
state B*. Hence, A atoms lose energy and return to lower state.
A *  B  B*  A
 Example : He-Ne Laser.

Chemical method:
 The atoms are excited by means of chemical reaction.
Example: H2  F 2  2 HF*
ACTIVE MEDIUM:
A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as active medium.
Example: In CO2 laser active medium consists of mixture of He, N2 & CO2
ACTIVE CENTER:

The material in which the atoms are raised to the excited state to achieve Population
Inversion is called Active Center.

Example: In CO2 laser active centre is CO2.

OPTICAL RESONATOR:

 An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which one is fully

reflecting (R1) and the other is partially reflecting (R2). The active material is placed in
between these two reflecting surfaces.
 The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of active material
are bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces.

Types of Lasers
Based on the type of active medium, Laser systems are broadly classified into the
following categories.
S.No Type of Laser Examples
1 Solid State laser Ruby Laser Nd:YAG laser
2 Gas laser He-Ne Laser, CO2 Laser, Argon – ion laser
3 Dye laser Rhodamine 6G laser, Coumarin dye laser
4 Semiconductor Laser GaAs laser, GaAsP laser

CO2 LASER : (MOLECULAR GAS LASER):

Principle:
The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition takes place
between the vibrational states of CO2 molecules.
Characteristics of CO2 Laser.
1 Type Four level molecular gas laser.
2 Active medium Mixture of CO2 , N2 and helium is used as active medium
3 Active center CO2.
4 Pumping method Electrical discharge method.
5 Pumping source Electrical power supply.
6 Optical resonator Two concave mirrors form a resonant cavity.
7 Nature of output Continuous wave or pulsed wave.
8 Wavelength of the output 9.6μm and 10.6μm. (far IR region)
Energy states of CO2 molecules.
 A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the center with two oxygen atoms
attached, one at both sides.
 Such a molecule exhibits three independent modes of vibrations.
a) Symmetric stretching mode.

b) Bending mode

c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

Symmetric stretching mode

 Carbon atoms are at rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate simultaneously along the axis of
the molecule departing or approaching the fixed carbon atoms.
Bending mode:

 Oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to molecular axis.

Asymmetric stretching mode:

 Oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically, i.e., oxygen atoms move in
one direction while carbon atoms in the other direction.
Construction:

 Discharge consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter.

 Discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2 (active medium), nitrogen and
helium with suitable partial pressures. (0.33:1.2:7 mm of Hg ).
 Role of N2 gas: to produce high population inversion in CO2 molecules. Here,
resonance transfer of energy from N2 gas molecules to CO2 gas molecules takes place
in the tube.
 Role of Helium: To avoid population in the lower laser levels by thermal excitation, it
is necessary that the temperature of CO2 should be low. For this purpose, helium gas is
passed through the tube along CO2 and N2 gases, because helium gas possesses high
thermal conductivity and helps to conduct heat away to the walls, keeping CO2
temperature low.
 Thus N2 helps to increase the population of upper level and helium helps to
depopulate the lower level.
 The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power supply.
 The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser
light generated will be polarized.
  The dissociation products contaminating the active medium are periodically removed
away by the vacuum pump.
 Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical
resonator.
Working:

 Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.

 When the power supply is switched on, electric discharge occurs in the gas
(Sufficiently high voltage of the order of 8 KV per metre length of the tube), the
electrons collide with nitrogen molecules and they are raised to excited states.

N 2  e*  N 2*  e
N 2  Nitrogen molecule in the ground state.
A*  Nitrogen molecule in the excited state.
e*  Electrons with higher Kinetic energy
e  Same electron with lesser energy
 N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground state and excite to
higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.

N 2*  CO2  CO*2  N 2
N 2*  Nitrogen molecule in the excited state.
CO2  Carbon dioxde molecule in the ground state.
CO*2  Carbon dioxde molecule in the excited state.
N 2  Nitrogen molecule in the ground state.
 Excited level of nitrogen is very close to the 0 0o 1 level of CO2 atom, population in 0
0o 1 level increases.
  As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously emitted photon
will trigger laser action in the tube.
 There are two types of laser transition possible.
I. Transition 0 0o 1 to 1 0o 0  Produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm
II. Transition 0 0o 1 to 0 2o 0  Produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm.
 Normally 10.6μm transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition.
Advantages:
1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple
2. The output of this laser is continuous.
3. It has high efficiency
4. It has very high output power.
5. The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas tube.
Disadvantages:
1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have some effect on laser action
2. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of
laser.
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible (infra red region) to our
eyes.
Applications:
1. High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing, welding, drilling, cutting
soldering etc.

2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes CO2 laser suitable for open air
communication.
3. It is used for remote sensing.
4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
6. It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.
SEMICONDUCTOR LASER: (injection lasers)

 A highly doped p-n junction diode made up of direct band gap semiconductor material
(GaAs) under forward bias emits photons from the junction due to the recombination
of conduction band electrons and valence band holes.
Principle:
 Electroluminescence: When a p-n junction is forward biased, the majority charge
carriers are injected into the depletion region. These injected charge carriers
recombine. As a result, photons are emitted.

Construction:

 The active medium is a p-n junction diode made from a single crystalline material i.e.
Gallium Arsenide in which p-region is doped with germanium and n-region with
Tellurium.
 Homostructure Laser: If the energy gap width of the semiconductor material on one
side of p-n junction is the same as that on the other side of the junction.
 The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other. They
act as an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out.
  The upper and lower electrodes fixed in the ‘p’ and ‘n’ region helps for the flow of
current to the diode while biasing.
Working:

 When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected into
junction region.
 Active region: The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in
the conduction band and a large amount of holes in the valence band.
 Population inversion is achieved when large number of electrons in conduction band
than number of holes in valence band.
 During recombination a conduction band electron crosses the energy gap (Eg) and
combines with a hole present in the valence band.
 When the biasing current is low, then spontaneous emission takes place in all
directions due to recombination of electrons and holes & this recombination’s produce
radiation in the form of light.
 As the biasing current reaches threshold value, then stimulated emission occurs and a
monochromatic and highly directional beam of light is emitted from the junction.
  The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection
between two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other.
 This will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the release of
photons in phase. After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam.
 The wavelength of laser light is given by
hc
E g  h 

1.24
E g  eV  
  m 

Characteristics:

Type Homojunction Semiconductor laser

Active medium P-N junction diode
Active centre Recombination of electrons and holes
Pumping method Direct pumping
Optical Resonator Junction of diodes - polished
Power output 1 mW
Nature of output Pulsed or Continuous waveform
Wavelength 8400A0 – 8600A0
Band gap 1.44 eV

Advantages:
1. It is very small in dimension.

2. It exhibits high efficiency.

3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
5. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages:

1. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.

2. The purity and monochromacity are poor than other types of laser

3. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).

4. It has poor coherence and poor stability.

Appications:

1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication

2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation
3. It is also used as a pain killer
 4. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.
LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING:
Laser Welding:
 Welding is the process of joining two or more pieces into a single unit.
 Laser beam welding is a thermal technique, which is used to join two or more metal
parts.
 The joining of metals is established by solidification of metal at a common meting
point.

Construction:
 The experimental set-up used for laser beam welding is shown.
 The laser light output from the laser source is passed through the optical instruments
which helps to control the energy, focussing the laser beam and as well for
automation.
 The optical assembly helps to get a fine laser beam.
 In addition, at the laser focusing point a shield gas is used to molten material to favour
vaporisation and provides necessary cooing effect.
Working:
 Laser beam welding is a thermal technique, which is used to join two or more metal
parts.
 The joining of metals is established by solidification of metal at a common melting
point.
 The metal plates to be welded using laser beam are held in contact at their edges as
shown.
 The high intensity laser beam (Nd-YAG or CO2 ) is focussed using focussing lens
assembly.
 Highly concentrated laser beam heat the metal plate at the surface, metal plate start
melting.
 Thus metal plates fuse together at the points of contacts.
 The energy of the beam required to melt the metal plates are kept well below the
vaporisation temperature of work piece metal.
Advantages:
 Laser welding is a contact-less process and hence there is no possibility of
introduction of impurities into the joint.
 In the process, the work-pieces do not get distorted, as the total amount of input is
very small compared to conventional welding processes.
 The heat-effected zone is relatively small because of rapid cooling.
 Laser welding can be done even at difficult to reach pace.
Applications:
 Laser based spot welding is used to weld electronic components, thermocouple
junctions and electronic micromodules.
Laser Drilling:
Drilling: Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials.

Laser drilling:
 The high energy laser beam is used to obtain small holes in materials at high speed
with good quality.
 The high energy laser beam radiation is made to incident on the surface of the
material.
 When the laser radiation hit the material surface, the temperature of material is raised
and it reached the vaporisation temperature.
 When the material is vaporised, it creates a cavity in the material.
 If the vapour pressure reaches 100 Kpa, melt expulsion takes place.
 The high pressure vapour escapes from the area after producing a high recoil pressure
on the molten materials, which are present at the bottom of the hole.
Advantages:
 Non-contact process.
 It does not require drill-bit.
 It generates very low heat in the material during drilling.
 Its accuracy and consistency are very high.

 It is highly flexible to drill over a wide range of materials.

Selective laser sintering (SLS)

 Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing technology which uses

high-power laser source to sinter the polymer or metal powder into solidified 3D
design.
  In SLS, the energy provided by the laser is used to melt and fuse the powders
together and then stack them layer by layer to form a printed 3D model from the input
data.
 The polymer or metal powder quality significantly affects the performance of SLS
sintered parts and thus the powder design.

Working of SLS

 In SLS method, a thin layer of polymer or metal powder is applied using a roller.
 Then, the SLS uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as
nylon, elastomers and metals into a solid object as shown in the figure.
 The CO2 laser is often used to sinter successive layers of powder instead of liquid
resin. Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the
heat-fusible powder.
 A beam of laser then traces the pattern on the very first layer thereby sintering it
together. The platform is further lowered by the height of the second layer and powder
is again applied.
 This process is continued until the part is completed. The excess amount of powder at
each layer helps to support the part during its build-up.

Process involved in SLS

 Process flow of SLS

1. 3D model design: The scanning of the 3D model by the SLS printer software
2. Sliced layer: Transferring the 3D model as sliced layer data to the SLS system
3. Laser sintering: Using the Laser source and scanning system, the powder bed is heated
4. Building new layers: The heated region is hardened and based on the design one slice
layer is formed. Once again, the powder is supplied.
5. Scanning the layers: After completing each layer, the design check is done by
scanning the layers.
6. Final product: The final product will be the combination of all layers and exact replica
of the scanned 3D model.

SLS 3D printed components from metal and polymer

Applications of SLS

 Architecture, to include interior statement pieces

 Automotive, complicated parts reverse engineering
 Drone technology
 Fashion and accessories
 Luxury jewelry.

HOLOGRAPHY:

Introduction:

 The conventional photography records only the intensities of light coming from an
object. It fails to record the phases of the waves that come from the objects. Hence,
they show two-dimensional images of three- dimensional objects.
 In 1948, Dennis Gabor, a British scientist, developed a method of recording and
producing three-dimensional images of objects through interference phenomena of
coherent light known as holography.
 In Greek, ‘holo’ means ‘whole’ or ‘complete’, ‘holography’ means ‘complete
recording’ i.e., the intensities and phase of the waves that come from the objects are
recorded. In 1971, he received noble prize for his efforts.

Basic principle of holography:

 An object is illuminated with a beam of coherent light [object beam]. Then every
point on the surface of the object acts as a source of secondary waves.
 These secondary waves spread in all directions. Some of these waves are allowed to
fall on a recording plate [holographic plate]. Simultaneously, another beam of same
coherent light [reference beam] is allowed to fall on this holographic plate.
 In the holographic plate, both the beams combine and interference pattern will be
formed. This interference pattern is recorded on the holographic plate.
 The three-dimensional image of the object can be seen by exposing the recorded
holographic plate [hologram] to coherent light. This is the principle of holography.
Recording of image of an object on a holographic plate

 The monochromatic light from a laser has been passed through a 50% beam splitter so
that the amplitude division of the incident beam into two beams takes place. One beam
falls on mirror M1 and the light reflected from M1 falls on the object. This beam is
known as an object beam.
 The object scatters this beam in all directions, so that a part of the scattered beam falls
on the holographic plate.
 The other beam is reflected by mirror M2 and falls on the holographic plate. This beam
is known as reference beam.
 Superposition of the scattered rays from the object and the reference beam takes place
on the plane of the holographic plate, so that interference pattern is formed on the plate
and it is recorded.
 Condition for Interference: Path length differences between object and reference beam
should be less than the coherence length is required to obtain holographic interference
effects.
 The recorded interference pattern contains all the information of the scattered rays i.e.,
the phases and intensities of the scattered rays. For proper recording, the holographic
plate has to be exposed to the interference pattern for a few seconds.
 The entire setup need to be kept on vibration isolation table because vibrations may
prevent a hologram from forming.
 After exposing, the holographic plate is to be developed and fixed as like in the case of
ordinary photograph.
 The recorded holographic plate is known as hologram or Gabor zone plate. The
hologram does not contain a distinct image of the object. It contains information in the
form of interference pattern.

Reconstruction of image from a hologram:

 The hologram is exposed to the laser beam [identical to the reference beam used for
construction- reconstruction beam] from one side and it can be viewed from the other
side.
 The reconstruction beam illuminates the hologram at the same angle as the reference
beam.
 The hologram acts as a diffraction grating, so constructive interference takes place in
some directions and destructive interference takes place in other directions.
 A real image is formed in front of the hologram and a virtual image is formed behind
the hologram. It is identical to the object and hence it appears as if the object is present.
 The threedimensional effect in the image can be seen by moving the head of the
observer.
 During recording, the secondary waves from every point of the object reach complete
plate. So, each bit of the plate contains complete information of the object. Hence, image
can be constructed using a small piece of hologram.
 Applications of holography

1. The three-dimensional images produced by holograms have been used in various fields, such
as technical, educational also in advertising, artistic display etc.

2. Holographic diffraction gratings: The interference of two plane wavefronts of laser beams
on the surface of holographic plate produces holographic diffraction grating. The lines in this
grating are more uniform than in case of conventional grating.

3. Hologram is a reliable object for data storage, because even a small broken piece of
hologram contains complete data or information about the object with reduced clarity.

4. The information-holding capacity of a hologram is very high because many objects can be
recorded in a single hologram, by slightly changing the angle between reference beam and
holographic plate. For each different angle, different images can be stored.

5. In hospitals holography can be used to view the working of inner organs three
dimensionally. i.e., the beating of the heart, the foetus of the pregnant lady and fl owing blood
based on motion holography.

6. Holographic interferometry is used in non-destructive testing of materials to find flaws in

structural parts and minute distortions due to stress or vibrations, etc. in the objects.

7. Holography is used in information coding.

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS IN OPHTHALMOLOGY:

Lasers in ophthalmology have a diagnostic and therapeutic role.

DIAGNOSTIC USES:

 laser technology has been utilized in investigation techniques such as Confocal

scanning laser ophthalmoscope (CSLO), which is used for optic nerve head evaluation,
Optical coherence tomography (OCT), which is useful in the evaluation of retinal
pathology, corneal pathologies, etc. Laser retinal Doppler flow metry is useful in
evaluating the optic nerve head perfusion.
Cornea:

 Lasers have been utilized in procedures for refractive error correction like LASIK, for
the removal of surface irregularities, small corneal opacities.
 Laser in the ultraviolet spectrum (Excimer lasers) with a pulse length of femtoseconds
are used in refractive surgery of the cornea.

Cataract: A condition in which some portion of the intraocular lens becomes clouded is called
a cataract. The clouded area reduces vision and may cause blindness. Nd:YAG laser is used to
remove the cataract through small incision.

Glaucoma
 The aqueous humor in the anterior chamber between the cornea and the lens provides
nourishment to the cornea and lens.
  Normally the intraocular pressure is maintained about 15-20 mm Hg above atmospheric
pressure.
 The pressure may be elevated if anything interrupts the normal flow of aqueous humor.
This disruption of flow is called glaucoma
 The Argon ion and Nd:YAG lasers are used to treat glaucoma.

Diabetic retinopathy:

 Diabetic retinopathy occurs when changes in blood glucose levels cause changes in
retinal blood vessels. In some cases, these vessels will swell up and leak fluid into the
rear of the eye.
 In other cases, abnormal blood vessels will grow on the surface of the retina.
Unless treated, diabetic retinopathy can gradually become more serious and progress
from ‘background retinopathy’ to seriously affecting vision and can lead to blindness.
 The Argon ion and CO2 lasers are used to treat diabetic retinopathy.
 Part-B

1. List the properties of laser.

2. Define spatial coherence.
3. Compare laser source with ordinary light source.
4. Differentiate spontaneous and stimulated emission.
5. What are the conditions necessary for stimulated emission of radiation?
6. What is an optical resonator?
7.Define metastable state.
7. What are the conditions to produce laser?
8. Recall pumping?
9. List the different types of pumping.
10. Recall population inversion?
11. Distinguish active medium and active centre.
12. Define optical pumping.
13.Tell the applications of CO2 laser?
14. Give the applications of lasers in industry.
15.A semiconductor laser band gap is 0.8 eV. Find the wavelength of light emitted from it?
Part-C
1. Explain the construction and working of molecular gas laser.
2. Relate the fundamental modes of vibration of CO2 molecule.
3. Explain the principle, construction and working of a semiconductor diode laser. Mention its
advantages and disadvantages.
4. Exemplify the selective laser sintering.
5. Explain the construction and working of laser welding.
6. Extend the construction and reconstruction of hologram.
7. Summarize the application of laser in ophthalmology
 UNIT-II FIBER OPTICS

Total internal reflection - Numerical aperture and acceptance angle - Classification of optical
fibers based on refractive index, modes and materials – Fiber optic communication system-
Displacement and temperature sensor –Medical endoscopy.
Introduction:
 Fiber optics is a branch of physics deals with the transmission and reception
of light waves using optical fibers, which acts as a guiding media.
 A light beam is capable of carrying more information than radio waves and microwaves
because of its frequency. The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is
directly proportional to the frequency of the transmitted signals.
 Experiments were carried out on propagation of information through light waves in
open atmosphere. The communication is disturbed due to the atmospheric conditions. So,
the light which carries the information requires a guiding media known as optical fibers.

Radio waves – 106 Hz Microwaves – 1010 Hz Light waves – 1015 Hz

FIBER OPTICS:
 Fiber optics plays an important role in the field of communication to transmit
voice, television and digital data signals from one place to another.
 The transmission of light along the thin cylindrical glass fiber by total internal
reflection was first demonstrated by John Tyndall in 1870 and the application of
this phenomenon in the field of communication is tried only from 1927.
 Today the applications of fiber optics are also extended to medical field in the
form of endoscopes and to instrumentation engineering in the form of optical
sensors.
FIBER OPTIC CABLE FEATURE:

 It is light in weight.

The size of the fiber ranges from 10 µm to 50 µm, which is very small. The
space occupied by the fiber cable is negligibly small compared to
conventional electrical cables. Small in size and flexible, so it can be bending
to any position.

 It has high bandwidth.

 The capacity of the transmission system is directly proportional to the
frequency of the transmitted signals. In coaxial cable, the bandwidth range
is upto 500MHz only, whereas in optical fiber the bandwidth range is 105
GHz.
 The transmission loss is very low in optical fibers which is 0.2 dB/km.
 The optical fibers are made up of silica which is available in abundance. So, it is
less expensive.
 The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. It cannot be drawn
from the fibers without tampering it. Thus, it provides 100% signal security.
 There is no short circuit.
 Fiber can withstand to any range of temperature and moisture condition.
 They are free from any electromagnetic interference and radio frequency
interference.
 Crosstalk is negligible even many fibers are cabled together.
 It is non- conductive, non -radiative, and non- inductive.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION:

 When light ray encounters a boundary separating two media of different refractive index, it
gets reflected & refracted.
 This is due to velocity change of light in two different medium.
n1 sin   n 2 sin 
  Angle of incidence ray and normal
  Angle of refracted ray and boundary
REFRACTIVE INDEX:

 Light transmission through any transparent material depends mainly on an important

fundamental quantity, i.e. its refractive index.
Velocity of light in vaccum (c)
Refractive index n 
Velocity of light in medium (v)
 The medium for which Refractive index is more is denser medium and the medium for
which refractive index is less is rarer medium.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

 Light undergoes refraction and/or reflection whenever there is a change of refractive index
in its path.
  If a ray of light propagates from a high/low refractive index medium (n1) to a low/high
refractive medium (n2), then a portion of the light will be reflected back to medium (n1) and
another part of the light will be refracted into medium ‘n2’

Conditions for TIR:

 Light must travel from denser to rarer medium
 Angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than critical angle (   c ).
Case (i): Angle of incidence is less than critical angle.

 When a ray passes from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium, it bends
away from normal.
 Because of this, the angle of refraction on the rarer medium is greater than the
corresponding angle of incidence in the denser medium, refracted light will bend towards
the boundary separating two medium.
Case (ii): Angle of incidence is equal to critical angle.
 As angle of incidence  is gradually increased,  (angle of refraction) rapidly increases
and at a certain stage it becomes 90° or gracing the boundary.
 Refracted ray will lie on the boundary separating two medium.
  Critical angle: The angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the refracted ray
graces the boundary is called critical angle
Case (iii): Angle of incidence greater than critical angle.

 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is increased beyond the critical angle, there
is no refraction possible into the rarer medium.
 The phenomenon in which the incident light is completely reflected within the incident
medium itself is called total internal reflection.
n1 sin   n 2 sin 
n1 sin c  n 2 sin 90o sin 90 o

1
n1 sin c  n 2
n2
sin c 
n1
n2
c  sin 1 ( )
n1
  Angle of incidence
  Angle of refraction
n1  Refractive index of core
n 2  Refractive index of cladding
Optical fibers:
 Optical fibres are thin, transparent cylindrical glass or plastic objects whose diameter is
very smaller than its length and which allows light to be guided (total internal reflection)
from one end to the other end with minimal loss.
Structure of Optical fiber:

 Core (centre part of fiber with higher refractive index)

 Cladding (next layer to core having slightly less refractive index than core)
 Buffer (protective part of the fiber)
ACCEPTANCE ANGEL AND NUMERICAL APERTURE:

Acceptance angle:
Acceptance angle: The maximum angle at which a ray of light can enter through the fiber so that
the light will be totally internally reflected.
 The light rays contained within the cone having a full angle 2im are accepted and
transmitted along the fiber. Therefore, the cone is called the acceptance cone.
 Light incident at an angle beyond im refracts through the cladding and the corresponding
optical energy is lost.
 Acceptance angle depends on the refractive indices of the core n1, cladding n2 and the outer
medium no (air).
Numerical Aperture (NA) :

NA is the measure of amount of light rays that can be accepted by the fiber.The sine of the
acceptance angle of the fiber is called numerical aperture.
Condition for TIR: Signal in the form of light is made to incident inside the core-cladding
boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle. Hence, it undergoes repeated total internal
reflections.
OA  Incident ray from air medium to fiber core.
AB  Re fracted ray into core.
n 0  Re fractive index of air.
n1  Re fractive index of fiber core.(Denser medium)
n 2  Re fractive index of fiber cladding (Rarer medium)
  Angle of incidence in core with respect to normal.
c  Critical angle.
  Angle of refraction into core / cladding.
O A A '  Accep tan ce cone.
i max  Accep tan ce angle.
Applying Snell’s law, at point of entry of ray OA (a ir  core int erface)
n 0 sin i  n1 sin ..................................(1)
n1
sin i  sin 
n0
sin i  n1 sin  [n 0  1]
sin i  n1 1  cos 2 ...........................(2)
Applying snell’s law at point B  core cladding interface 
n1 sin   n 2 sin ...................................................(3)
n1 sin c  n 2 sin 900
n1 sin c  n 2
n2
sin c  ............................................................(4)
n1
When the angle of incidence in core is equal to criticalangle
, the refracted ray lie on core  cladding boundary,   900
 From  ABD
c  900  ..............................................(5)
Substitute the value of equation (5) in equation (4)
n
sin (900  )  2
n1
n2
cos   .................................................(6)
n1
Substitute the value of cos  in equation (2)
n 22
sin i m  n1 1 
n12
i  i m (Maximum angle  Accep tan ce angle)
n12  n 22
sin i m  n1
n12
n1 2
sin i m  n1  n 22
n1
sin i m  n12  n 22  NA
sin i m  NA....................................................(7)
Numerical aperature  sin of accep tan ce angle.

Fractional Index Change ( ): It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to
the refractive index of core.
n1  n 2
 ..........................................(8)
n1
n1   n1  n 2 ......................................(9)
NA  n12  n 22
NA  (n1  n 2 ) (n1  n 2 )..................(10)
Substitute the vlaue of equation (9) in (10)
NA  (n1  n 2 ) n1 
n1  n 2
NA  (n1  n1 ) n1 

NA  2 n12 
NA  n1 2 .......................................(11)
Equation 11 relates NA and fractional refractive index change
CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER:

1.Glass fiber:

 Silica is the commonly used material for the manufacture of a glass fibre. The glass
employed in a fiber-optic cable is ultrapure, ultra transparent, silicon dioxide or fused
quartz.
 Glass fibre-optic cable has the lowest attenuation and comes at the highest cost.
Example:
Core: SiO2 Cladding: SiO2-P2O5
Core: GeO2- SiO2 Cladding: SiO2
2. Plastic fiber:
  These are low-cost optical fibers. They have a large NA and a large acceptance angle,
because of the ease of having a large refractive index variation between the core and the
cladding.
 Plastic fibre-optic cable has the highest attenuation; because of the nature of the material
they offer larger signal attenuation than glass fibres.
Example:
Core: polymethyl methacrylate : Cladding: Co- Polymer
Core: Polystyrene Cladding: Methyl methacrylate

Modes:

 Light propagates as electromagnetic waves through an optical fiber.

 All waves, having ray directions above the critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due
to total internal reflection.
 However, all such waves do not propagate through the fiber. Only certain ray directions are
allowed to propagate. The allowed directions correspond to the modes of the fiber.
 The light rays path along which the waves are in phase inside the fiber are called modes.

S.No Single mode fiber Multimode fiber

Core diameter : 5-10μm Core diameter : 50-350μm

Cladding : Generally around Cladding : 125μm - 500μm
diameter 125μm diameter
Protective layer : 250 to 1000μm Protective layer : 250 to 1100μm
Numerical : 0.08 to 0.10 Numerical : 0.12 to 0.5
 aperture aperture
Band width : More than 50MHz Band width : Less than 50MHz
km. km.
In single mode fiber only one mode can In multimode it allows a large number of
2 propagate through the fiber paths or modes for the light rays
travelling through it.
The single mode fibers are step – index The multimode fibers are useful in
3 fibers. manufacturing both for step – index and
graded index fibers.
It has smaller core diameter and the It has larger core diameter and refractive
4 difference between the refractive index of index difference is larger than the single
the core and cladding is very small. mode fiber.
Advantages: Dispersion is more due to degradation of
5 No dispersion(i.e. there is no degradation of signal owing to multimode and
signal during propagation)

Since the information transmission capacity Information can be carried to shorter

is inversely proportional to dispersion distances only.
6
 1
 T   the fiber can carry information to
 D
longer distances.
Disadvantages: Advantages:
7
Launching of light and connecting of two Launching of light and also connecting
fibers difficult. of two fibers is easy.
8 Installation (fabrication) is difficult as it is Fabrication is easy and the installation
more costly. cost is low.

S.No Step index fiber Graded index fiber

The refractive index of the core is made

to vary gradually such that it is
 In step index fibers the refractive index of the maximum
core medium is uniform through and undergoes at the center of the core.
an abrupt change at the interface of core and
cladding.
The shape of propagation of the optical signal is The shape of propagation of the
2
in zigzag manner. optical signal appears in the helical
or spiral manner

3 The diameter of core is about 10 micrometers in The diameter of the core is about 50
case of single mode step index fiber and 50 to micro meters.
200 micrometers in multimode step index fiber.

4 The transmitted optical signal will cross the fiber

The transmitted optical signal will
axis during every reflection at the core cladding
never cross the fiber axis at any time-
boundary- meridional rays
skew rays
5 Attenuation is more for multimode step index
5. Attenuation is very less in graded
fibers but Attenuation is less in single mode
index fibers.
step index fibers.
Explanation:
Explanation:
When a ray travels through the longer distances Here the light rays travel with different
there will be some difference in reflected angles. velocity in different paths because of
Hence high angle rays arrive later than low angle their variation in their refractive indices.
rays causing dispersion resulting in distorted At the outer edge it travels faster than
output. near the center. But almost all the rays
reach the exit at the same time due to
helical path. Thus, there is no
dispersion.
6 Numerical aperture is more for multimode step
Numerical aperture is less in graded
index fibers but it is less in single mode step
index fibers
index fibers

 Based on refractive index profile fiber can be classified into step index and graded index
fibers.

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

An optical fiber communication system consists of the following components. The major
components of an optical fiber communication system are

1. Encoder
2. Transmitter
3. Wave guide.
4. Receiver.
5. Decoder
1. Encoder:

 Encoder is an electronic system that converts the analog information like voice,
figures, objects etc., into binary data.
 Encoder is an electric circuit where in the information is encoded into binary
 sequences of zeros and one. In the light wave transmitter each ‘one’ corresponds
to an electrical pulse and ‘zero’ corresponds to an absence of a pulse.

2. Transmitter
  It contain two parts, they are drive circuit and light source.
 Drive circuit supplies the electric signals to the light source from the encoder
in the required form.
 These electrical pulses are used to turn a light source on and off very rapidly

 The light source converts the electrical signals into optical form. With the help of
specially made connector optical signals will be injected into wave guide from
the transmitter.
3. Wave guide.
 The optical fiber acts as a wave guide and transmits the optical pulses towards the
receiver, by the principle of total internal reflection.
 With the help of specially made connector optical signals will be received
by the receiver from the wave guide.

4.Receiver.
 It consists of two parts; they are photo detector and amplifier.

 The light detector receives the optical pulses and converts them into electrical pulses.
 The amplifier amplifies the electric signals as they become weak during the
 long journey through the wave guide over longer distance.

5.Decoder
It converts electric signals into the analog information.

FIBER OPTICAL SENSOR

 An optical sensor is a device which converts one form of physical parameter into
another form of physical parameter that can be conveniently and accurately
measured.
 Fiber-optic sensors consist of an optical source, waveguides, modulator and
optical detector. A typical fiber-optical sensor is shown.
 The optical fibers are used as waveguides to guide the optical signals, and hence
are known as waveguides.
 The optical source which produces the optical signal is coupled with the
transmitting fiber.
  The optical signals are received by the transmitting fiber and then they are
connected to the modulator.
 The modulator modulates the optical signals for any one of the properties such
as wavelength, intensity and phase, depending on therequirements. The
modulated signals are received by the receiving fiber and thenconnected to the
detector.
 The modulated optical signals are detected by the optical detector. Fiber-optic
sensors find wide applications in different fields.

ACTIVE OR INTRINSIC SENSOR

 In an active or intrinsic sensor, the physical parameters to be sensed act directly on

the fiber with respect corresponding modulation in the transmitted physical
parameter.
 The change into the optical propagation is measured.
 Simultaneous sensing and measurement are possible in active sensors.

PASSIVE OR EXTRINSIC SENSOR

 In extrinsic optical fiber sensors, separate sensing elements and optical fibers are
used as guiding media, i.e., to transmit radiation to and fro fromthe point or region
to be sensed.
 The modulation of the light transmitted through the fiber is carried out externally
either by induced or environmental changes.
 Thus, the modulated signal is transmitted through a second fiber.
 In a passive sensor, the fibers are used only as transmission media
TEMPERATURE SENSOR

 The temperature sensor is an example of active sensors.

 The principle behind the temperature sensor is interference, i.e,, the path difference
between the reference beam and the beam passing through theenvironment.
 A schematic representation of a temperature sensor is shown. It consists of alaser source,
beam splitter, reference fiber, test fiber and optical components.
 High-energy laser light from the source S is made incident on the beamsplitter B, which
is kept at an angle of 45o to the incident light.
 The beam splitter splits the incident light into two components.
 The light beam emerging out of the beam splitter is made to pass through the
reference fiber with the help of a converging lens L1.
 The reference fiber is protected from environmental changes.
 Thus, the incident light emerges out of the reference fiber at the other end withoutany change in
phase.
 The beam which is reflected from the beam splitter is made to pass through thetest fiber using the
converging lens L2.
 The test fiber is exposed to the environment.
 Any change in the environment, temperature makes a corresponding change in the phase
of the laser light which is passes through the test fiber.
 The laser light emerging from the test fiber is made incident on the lens L3.
 Therefore, a path difference between the light emerging from the reference andtest fibers
is observed.
 The observed path difference between the reference and test beam is due to thechange in
parameters such as pressure or temperature on the test-fiber environment.
 The path difference between the two beams produces an interference patternwhich is
used to measure the change in pressure or temperature accurately.

DISPLACEMENT SENSOR

The displacement sensor is an example of a passive sensor.

CONSTRUCTION

 In this method, two separate sensors are used one for transmitting the light on the moving
object and the other, to receive the reflected light from the object.
 The displacement sensor consists of a light source S, a transmitting fiber T, a receiving
fiber R, an object O and the detector D.
 The transmitting and receiving fibers consist of a bundle of fibers which are coupled
properly to the source and detector.

WORKING

 The light energy from the He–Ne laser source is made incident on the movingobject
after passing through the transmitting fiber.
 The light reflected from the moving object O is received by the receiving fiberand the
same is detected at the other end by the detector.
 The change in the magnitude of the light detected by the detector is used tomeasure
the movement of the object.
 An increase in intensity of light is noticed when the object is moved towards the sensor.
 On the other hand, if the object is moving away from the sensor, the intensity of the light
 decreases.
 Thus, the change in intensity of the light is used to measure the displacement of the object.
MEDICAL ENDOSCOPE

 Optical fibers are very much useful in medical field. Using low quality, large diameter and short
length silica fibers we can design a fiber optic endoscope or fibroscope.
 A medical endoscope is a tubular optical instrument, used to inspect or view the internal parts of
human body which are not visible to the naked eye. The photograph of the internal parts can also
be taken using this endoscope.

Construction Figure shows the structure of endoscope. It has two fibers viz.,

1. Outer fiber(fo)
2. The inner fiber (fi)

Outer fiber:

 The outer fiber consists of many fibers bundled together without any particular order of
arrangement and is called incoherent bundle.
 These fiber bundles as a whole are enclosed in a thin sleeve for protection. The outer fiber is used
to illuminate or focus the light onto the inner parts of the body.

Inner fiber:

 The inner fiber also consists of a bundle of fibers, but in perfect order. Therefore this arrangement
is called coherent bundle.
 This fiber is used to collect the reflected light from the object.
  A tiny lens is fixed to one end of the bundle in order to effectively focus the light, reflected from
the object. For a wider field of view and better image quality, a telescope system is added in the
internal part of the telescope

Working:

 Light from the source is passed through the outer fiber (fo).
 The light is illuminated on the internal part of the body.
 The reflected light from the object is brought to focus using the telescope to the inner fiber (f i).
 Here each fiber picks up a part of the picture from the body. Hence the picture will be collected bit
by bit and is transmitted in an order by the array of fibers.
 As a result, the whole picture is reproduced at the other end of the receiving fiber as shown.
 The output is properly amplified and can be viewed through the eye piece at the receiving end.
Part-B

1. Give the features of fiber optic cable.

2. Recall total internal reflection?
3. Define critical angle.
4. Give the conditions for total internal reflection.
5. What is numerical aperture?
6. Define acceptance angle
7. What is meant by fractional index change?
8. What are the advantages of fiber optic communication?
9. List the types of optical fibers based on the refractive index profile.
10. What is the principle of medical endoscopy?
11. Compare single mode and multi mode fiber.
12. Give the applications of fiber optic system.
13. Find the numerical aperture of an optical fiber whose core and cladding are made of materials of
refractive indices 1.6 and 1.5 respectively.
14. Give any two differences between step index and graded index fiber.
15.A maximum angle of acceptance for an optical fiber is 11.54°. Find the refractive index of cladding if
the core refractive index is 1.60.

Part-C

1. Explain the propagation of light through an optical fiber.

2. Obtain an expression for numerical aperture and acceptance angle.
3. Classify the optical fibers based on modes, material and refractive index profile?
4. Show the construction and working of pressure and displacement sensors.
5. Explain the construction and working of medical endoscope.
6.Outline the block diagram of fiber optic communication system.
 UNIT -3 ULTRASONICS

Properties of ultrasonic waves – Piezoelecrtic generator – Acoustic grating –

Applications of ultrasonics in industry– SONAR – NDT – Ultrasonic scanning
methods – Fetal heart movement
INTRODUCTION

Vibrating body produces sound. Human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Sound waves of frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz are
called ultrasonic waves. Human beings cannot sense this sound.

Classification of Sound waves:

 Less than 20 Hz –Infrasonics
 20Hz-20000Hz- Audible
 Above 20000 Hz-Ultrasonics
PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:

 Ultrasonic waves are highly energetic.

 They travel through longer distance.
 They are reflected, refracted and absorbed similar to ordinary sound waves.
 When ultrasonic waves are passed through liquid, it produces stationary wave pattern and makes
the liquid to behave as acoustical grating element.
 When an object is exposed to ultrasonic waves for a long time it produces heating effect.

Piezo electric crystals:

The crystals which produce piezo-electric effect and converse Piezo electric effect are termed as Piezo
electric crystal.
 Example: Quartz, Tourmaline, Rochelle Salts etc.
 At typical example or a piezo electric crystal (Quartz) is as shown .
 It has an hexagonal shape with pyramids attached at both ends.
 It consists of 3 axes. Viz.,
(i) Optic Z axis, which joins the edges of the pyramid
(ii) Electrical axis(X axis), which joins the corners of the hexagon

X-CUT AND Y CUT CRYSTALS

 X-Cut crystal:

 When the crystal is cut perpendicular to the X-axis, as shown, then it is called X-crystal.
Generally X-cut crystals are used to produce longitudinal ultrasonic waves.

Y-Cut Crystal:


 When the crystal is cut perpendicular to the Y-axis then it is called Y-cut crystal. Generally, Y-
Cut crystal produces transverse ultrasonic waves.

Piezoelectric Effect

If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces of certain crystals like quartz,
equal and opposite electrical charges appear across its other faces. This effect is called as piezo-electric
effect.
Inverse Piezoelectric Effect

If an electric field is applied to one pair of opposite faces of piezoelectric crystal, the
corresponding changes in the dimensions of the other pair of faces of the crystal are produced. This
effect is known as inverse piezo electric effect.

PIEZOELECTRIC OSCILLATOR:

Inverse piezoelectric effect:

If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces of piezoelectric crystal, the corresponding
changes in the dimensions of the other pair of faces of the crystal are produced. This effect is known as
inverse piezo electric effect.

Construction:

 Piezo electric generator consists of battery, npn transistor, variable capacitor C1 and inductor coils
L1,L2 & L3, Metal plates A, B and quartz crystal.
 Negative terminal of battery is connected to n-type emitter & positive terminal of the battery is
 connected to collector through coil L2.
 The coil L1 and variable capacitor C1 form the tank circuit of the oscillator.
 The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned oscillator circuit.
 The coils L1 and L2 of oscillator circuit are taken from the primary of a transformer T.
 The collector coil L3 is inductively coupled to base coil L2.
 The quartz crystal is placed between two metal plates A and B.

Working:

 When battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency alternating voltage.
 Due to the transformer action, an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil L3.
 This high frequency alternating voltages are fed on the plates A and B.
 Inverse Piezo-electric effect takes place and the crystal contracts and expands alternatively. The
crystal is set into mechanical vibrations.
 The variable condenser C1 is adjusted such that the frequency of the applied AC voltage is equal
to the natural frequency of the quartz crystal, and thus resonance takes place.
Resonance condition:

Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating crystal

1 P E
fr  
2 L1 C1 2 
f r  Resonance frequency
E  Young 's mod ulus of the rod
 Length of the ferromagnetic rod
  Density of the rod.
P  1, 2,3, 4 etc., fundamental, first over tone etc.,

The vibrating crystal produces longitudinal ultrasonic waves of large amplitude.

Advantages:

 Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 500 MHz can be obtained with this arrangement.
 It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
 Both Longitudinal and transverse ultrasonic waves can be produced by this method.
Disadvantages
 The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high
 The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.
VELOCITY OF ULTRASONICS WAVES IN LIQUID USING ACOUSTIC GRATING

Principle

 Acoustic grating: When ultrasonic waves are passed into liquid medium, the density of
the liquid varies layer by layer and the liquid will act as a diffraction grating.

 This grating which is formed in liquid due to acoustical waves propagation is called as
acoustic grating.
When a monochromatic light is passed through this grating, the light gets diffracted. By determining the
diffraction parameters, the velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined.
Construction
 The experimental setup consists of a glass tube filled with the liquid.
 A quartz crystal which is connected to an oscillating circuit is placed at the bottom of the
glass tube.

 A monochromatic source of light and lens is arranged at right angle to the tube.

Working
(i) Initially the piezoelectric crystal is kept at rest
 The monochromatic light is focused in the glass tank filled with the liquid.
 A single image is observed on the telescope i.e., there is no diffraction.
(ii) When the piezoelectric crystal is set into vibration
 At resonance, ultrasonic waves are produced and are passed through the liquid.
 These ultrasonic waves are reflected by the bottom surface of the glass tank and then the
stationary wave pattern is produced.
  At nodes and antinodes, the density and the refractive index of the liquid are maximum and
minimum respectively and liquid act as an acoustical grating element.
 Now, the monochromatic light is passed through the acoustical grating, the light gets diffracted.
 The diffraction pattern consisting of central maxima and principle maxima on either side is
viewed through the telescope as shown.
 The velocity of ultrasonic waves can be determined using the diffraction condition
2d sin   n ......................................................................................(1)
d  Dis tan ce between successive nodes (or) antinodes
   Angle of diffraction
n  Order of spectrum
  Wavelength of the monochromatic source of light.
 If  u is the wavelength of ultrasonic, then
 u  2d.............................................................................................(2)
Substitute  u valuein equation (1)
 u sin   n 
n
u  .........................................................................................(3)
sin 

We know, ultrasonic velocity = (frequency of ultrasonic) x (wavelength of ultrasonics)

Velocity of ultrasonics   u  u .....................................................................................(4)
Substituting equation (3) in (4)
 n
Velocity of ultrasonics  u ...................................................................................(5)
sin 
Thus the velocity  or  wavelength of the ultrasonics can be determined using acoustical grating.

Part-B

1. What are ultrasonic waves?

2. List the properties of ultrasonic waves.
3. What are the different methods to produce ultrasonic waves?
4. Why the ultrasonic waves are not audible to humans?
5. Define piezoelectric effect.
6. Differentiate X-cut and Y-cut crystal.
Part-C

1. Explain the production of ultrasonic waves by piezoelectric generator.

2. Determine of velocity of ultrasound using acoustic grating