PRACTICAL MANUAL

ON

LIVESTOCK FARM PRACTICES

PART - I

[As per Veterinary Council of India

MSVE-Degree Course (B.V.Sc.& A.H.) Regulations, 2016]

For Third Professional Year

Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences

West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences
Mohanpur Campus, Dist. Nadia, West Bengal- 741252
Practical Manual on Livestock Farm Practices

[As per Veterinary Council of India MSVE-Degree Course (B.V.Sc.& A.H.) Regulations, 2016]

Published: February, 2021

Published by: Dean, Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, West Bengal University of Animal &
Fishery Sciences, Kolkata - 700037

Printed at: M/S USP, 3/2 Siddheswar Chandra Lane, Kolkata-700012

 PRACTICAL MANUAL

ON

Livestock Farm Practices

[As per Veterinary Council of India

MSVE-Degree Course (B.V.Sc.& A.H.) Regulations, 2016]

For Third Professional Year

Prof. Binoy Kanta Sil, Professor (LPM)

Dr. Dulal Chandra Roy, Asst. Prof. (Agronomy)
Dr. Aruna Pal, Asst. Prof. (AGB)
Dr. Chittapriya Ghosh, Asst. Prof. (LPM)
Dr. Amitava Roy, Asst. Prof. (Animal Nutrition)
Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Prof. (AGB)

Department of Livestock Farm Practices

Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences
West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences
Mohanpur Campus, Dist. Nadia, West Bengal- 741252
 West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences
Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences

Practical Manual on
Livestock Farm Practices

Name

Class Third Professional Year B.V.Sc.& A.H.

Roll No.

Registration No.

Signature of Student

Examiner(s) Head of the Department

 FOREWORD

In suppression of the previous Minimum Standards of Veterinary Education (MSVE) – Degree

Course (B.V.Sc. & A.H.) Regulations 2008, the Veterinary Council of India makes the new
regulations in 2016, which is being implemented in our university from the academic year
2016-17. According to the new VCI regulations the course of study has been increased from 5
years to 51/2years including 1 year internship programme; semester system of study has been
changed to professional year; and the syllabuses and examination patterns are totally revised.
As per the requirement, the teachers of the Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences prepared
the Practical Manuals for various professional years as per the new course and curriculum
(MSVE, 2016).

The present manual is one of this series entitled ‘Practical Manual on Livestock Farm
Practices’ for the Third Professional Year B.V.Sc. & A.H. students.

The presentation of this manual appears to provide useful guidelines to the veterinary students
for different practical activities. The contents of this manual have been prepared in simple
language and as per the syllabus of the said course prescribed by the VCI. As such I feel that this
manual would be of great help to the concerned students.

I appreciate the hard work done by the teachers of the concerned Department forpreparing
this manual. The effort of Prof Nilotpal Ghosh, Dean, Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Sciences of
this university deserves appreciation for publishing this manual.It is my pleasure to
recommend this manual to be used by the students of Veterinary Science and Animal
Husbandry.

Kolkata (Prof. Chanchal Guha )

15.02.2021 Vice Chancellor
West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences
68, Kshudiram Bose Sarani, Kolkata, West Bengal
 INDEX

PART - I
Dairy Farm Management Practice

Lesson
Date Name of the Practical Page no. Signature
No.
1 Routine farm operations in dairy farm
Animal behavior and restraining of dairy
2
animals
3 Common management practices in dairy farm
4 Housing for dairy animals
5 Feeding management of dairy animals
6 Breeding management of dairy animals
7 Breeding Strategy for Dairy animals
8 Conservation of Breed
9 Selection of Animals in Farm
10 Genetic improvement of large ruminants
Disease and health management of dairy
11
animals
Recording of respiration, pulse and rectal
12
temperature in farm animals
13 Dairy calf management
14 Milking and milking management in dairy cattle

Small Ruminant Farm Management Practice

Lesson
Date Name of the Practical Page no. Signature
No.
Selection of breedable animals in the sheep
1
and goat farm
2 Handling and restraining of sheep and goat
3 Identification methods of sheep and goat
Dentition and age determination of sheep and
4
goat
5 Farm management operations
Feeds and feeding management of sheep and
6
goat
7 Housing of sheep and goat
General health care and environmental
8
hygienic measures
Control of ecto and endo parasites – dipping
9
and deworming
10 Breeding Strategy for small ruminants
11 Conservation of Breed
12 Genetic improvement of small ruminants
Disease control measures and vaccination
13
schedules in the sheep and goat farm
14 Record maintenance in sheep and goat farm

1
 INDEX
Pig Farm Management Practice
Lesson
Date Name of the Practical Page no. Signature
No.

1 Routine and periodical operations in pig farm

2 Pig behavior, handling and restraining of pigs

Breeding management: detection of heat

3
and mating methods
Care and management of pigs during
4
gestation, farrowing and lactating sow
5 Care and management of piglets
6 Housing of pigs
7 Swine feeds, feeding and watering
8 Identification of pigs
9 Breeding Strategy for pigs
10 Conservation of Breed
11 Selection of animals in pig
12 Genetic improvement of pig
13 Disease control
14 Record maintenance

Fodder Production and Management

Lesson
Date Name of the Practical Page no. Signature
No.

Familiarization with some pre-kharif and

1
kharif fodders

Familiarization with some pre-kharif and

2
kharif fodders

3 Record keeping in fodder farm-I

4 Record keeping in fodder farm-II

5 Common implements used in fodder farm

2
 Method of planting and calculation of
6 amount of amount of cuttings/seeds of
fodder crops

Familiarization with fodder crop pattern and

7
cropping system

8 Calculation of herd strength

9 Calculation of green fodder requirement

Harvesting and estimation of yield of fodder

10
crops

11 Cost of cultivation for fodder

12 Preservation of fodder as silage
13 Preservation of fodder as hay
14 Determination of the capacity of silo

15 Production techniques of azolla

3
Practical Lesson– 1 Date:
ROUTINE FARM OPERATIONS IN DAIRY FARM
Learning objectives
 To know about routine farm operation in dairy farm
 To know about the labour management
Routine operation in Dairy farm:
 Cleaning/brushing of milch animals
 Feeding half of the daily concentrate ration just before milking
 Milking cows (Hand milking or machine milking or herringbone milking parlor)
 Delivery of raw milk (in cans) to milk pick up van of dairy plants and receiving previous day’s
empty cans
 Washing and disinfection of milking barns
 Cleaning of milk cow sheds.
 Feeding of dry/green fodder to milch stock
 Cleaning of farm premises
 Isolation of sick animals
 Isolation of “in-heat” cows for artificial insemination
Note: use milkers at the rate of one for every 12-14 cows, for all the above operations.
Milkers go off duty by 8 am and farm labour come on duty
 Cleaning calf, heifer, dry stock, bullock and bull sheds
 Feeding half of the daily concentrate ration to calves, pregnant cows and bulls
 Exercising and grooming of bulls
 Treating sick animals.
 Breeding cows that are “ in-heat”
 Harvesting, chaffing and feeding of green fodder to all the stock. Manger in all sheds should be
filled with green fodder
Note: animals should be taken for grazing (if practiced) between 9 a.m and 2 p.m. in
winter and between 6 a.m and 10 a.m. and again between 5 p.m. and 7 p.m. in summer
 Lunch cum rest period for labourers
 Miscellaneous jobs of dairy farm like stock identification, periodical vaccination, repair of farm
fences, fitting and repair of equipments, rope and halter making, weekly scrubbing and white
washing of drinking water tank, manure disposal/conservation, periodical spraying of animal
houses with suitable pesticides, periodical deworming of stock, dehorning of calves
Note: The farm dairy manager should plane the jobs well in advance in such a way that
they are evenly distributed over the week. Some jobs may require longer time and the
labour have to work extra time on such occasions.
 Milkers come on duty at 14.30 hours and remain up to 1730 hours whereas general farm labour
goes off duty at 17.00 hours.
 Washing/brushing of milch cows by milkers
 Feeding the other half of daily concentrate ration to milch cows just before milking
 Milking cows (Hand milking or machine milking or herringbone milking parlor)
 Cleaning calf, heifer, dry stock and bull sheds and feeding the other half of concentrate ration to
calves, pregnant cows and bulls
 Delivery of milk (in cans) to milk pick-up vans of milk plants and collection of morning’s empty
cans.
 Washing and disinfection of milking barns
 Feeding dry and green fodder to calves, dry stock and bulls
 Cleaning of milk cow shed.
 Feeding green / dry fodder to milch stock
 Cleaning of farm premises
 Night watchman on duty

Exercise:
What are the day today problems arising in dairy farms and solution for those problems?
Write down routine farm operation practiced in institute herd?
Practical Lesson– 2 Date:
4
 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND RESTRAINING OF DAIRY ANIMALS
Learning objectives
 To know about the behavior and handling of dairy animals
 To know about the restraining of dairy animals
ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
Cattle handling
 Cattle handling skills are essential for managing cattle. Good cattle handlers learn these skills
through observation and trial and error.
 Inefficient and rough handling causes financial losses because of bruising, poorer meat quality
and lower milk production.
Cow’s body language
 The tail is hanging down, she is relaxed.
 The tail is tucked between her legs, she is either in pain, scared or cold.
 The tail is raised; she is exploring or alert to possible threats.
 Galloping, her tail is straight out.
Blind spot
 Cows have a wide field of vision and they can look backwards without moving their heads
because their eyeballs are located on the sides of their heads.
 Cows have a blind spot located right behind them. Always try to avoid that “blind spot” when
approaching a cow.
Flight zone
 Animals are reacts approaching humans by first observing their movements and then turning
away to escape.
 The flight zone basically represents how close a person can get before the animal runs away.
 The size of the flight zone depends on the tameness of the animal. In dairy cows, it is about two
meters.
Avoid getting injured by a cow
 Always move slowly around cattle, be patient. Announce yourself when approaching a cow by
talking or touching her gently.
 Cows generally kick from the side. So never approach a cow from behind, you’ll be standing in
her blind spot.
 Always have a designated exit when entering the bull pen.
 Only trained animal handlers should work with cattle.
 If you have to treat a cow, make sure that she is properly restrained.
 Cow has mastitis in the left quarter, or has a sore left foot, try to approach her from the
 right side.
 A dairy cow’s flight zone can be 2 m or less

5
 Visual field (sight) Working (flight) distance

Balance point – Balance point

shoulder balance line backbone balance line

CASTING OF CATTLE
 Casting means throwing the animals on the ground by preventing its movements.
 Animals can be casted to either side and ruminants are usually cast to the right side because of
the presence of rumen on the left side. In rumen, fermentation produces gases.
 If the animal is cast to the left side, gas will accumulate and cause trouble to the animal and
casting is done if the animals are to be controlled for a long time.
Purpose
 Performing castration and other minor surgical operation
 Performing major operations like caesarean etc.
 Dehorning of cattle, branding etc.
 Shoeing or trimming of the overgrown feet.

Methods of casting
1. Lifting the fore limb
i)Lifting with hand
ii)By rope over withers
2. Lifting the hind limb
i). Pole method
3. Reuff’s method or Rope squeeze method
4. Country method

Exercise
Describe the different methods of casting with steps chronologicallyin Dairy unit.

6
Practical Lesson – 3 Date:
COMMON MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN DAIRY FARM

Learning objectives
 To know about various general management practices followed in dairy farm
I. IDENTIFICATION OF FARM ANIMALS
Objectives of identification:
 For maintaining proper records in the farm.
 Proper feeding of animals
 For loans and insurances
 Needed for registration of purebred animals into herd book
 In general, helps in better management practices in the farm.

Different types of identification:

 Ear tagging
 Tattooing
 Branding
a) Hot branding
b) Cold branding
 Ear mark
 Neck chain
 Electronic chips

Ear tagging
 Ear tag is a piece of numbered metal or plastic or polyurethane material which is fixed by means
of a hole in the ear.
 Metal ear tags are generally preferred by the banks and insurance company for their rigidity
and durability.
 Always fix the tag on the upper portion of ear (preferably left ear) with the number facing
outside.

Tattooing
 It is a permanent mark which is very difficult to alter and requires more effort. When the wound
heals the dye is retained under the skin and it leaves a permanent mark.
 It is usually placed on the ear; sometimes lip tattoo can also be made. In places where tattoo ink
is not readily available finely ground charcoal may used as a substitute.

Exercise
Describe the advantage and disadvantages of Ear tagging and Tattoingin cattle.

7
Branding
 It is a permanent method of identification used in animals.
 There are two types of branding methods viz., Hot and cold branding.

Exercise
 Describe different steps of Hot and cold brandingin cattle.

Ear marks
 Ear marks are permanent and easily recognized but unsightly. They may be administered with
either a sharp knife or mostly used ear notcher. Sometimes polled animals are individually
identified through ear notches.
 Some of the most common ear marks are crops, swallow forks, bobs, over bits, under bits and
splits.
Neck chain
 Neck chains are the most frequently used methods for polled cattle.
 It must be adjusted for the young animals according to the body growth or sometimes change in
body condition may also need adjustment.
Electronic chips
 The key to automated data acquisition, equipment control and knowledge – based data analysis
for livestock is electronic animal identification.
 Several strategies to achieve more than 99% identification are found in this system.
II. DENTITION AND AGEING
Determination of age is important for the following reasons.
1. To issue soundness certificate.
2. To select and purchase livestock
3. To know the breeding status of the animal
Eruption of permanent teeth in cattle

Determining the age of cattle by the teeth

At birth
Two or more of the temporary incisor teeth present. Within
to 1
first month, entire 8 temporary incisors appear.
month

As a long-yearling, the central pair of temporary incisor teeth or

2 years pinchers is replaced by the permanent pinchers. At 2 years, the
central permanent incisors attain full development.

2-1/2 Permanent first intermediates, one on eachside of the pinchers,

years are cut. Usually theseare fully developed at 3 years.

8
 3-1/2 The second intermediates or laterals are cut.They are on a level
years with the firstintermediates and begin to wear at 4 years.

4-1/2 The corner teeth are replaced. At 5 years theanimal usually has
years the full complement ofincisors with the corners fully developed.

5 to 6 The permanent pinchers are leveled, bothpairs of intermediates

years are partially leveled,and the corner incisors show wear.

At 7 or 8 years the pinchers show noticeable wear; at 8 or 9

7 to 10
years the middle pairs shownoticeable wear; and at 10 years,
years
the corner teeth show noticeable wear.

After the animal passed the 6th year, the arch gradually loses its
rounded contour andnbecomes nearly straight by the 12th year.
12 In the meantime, the teeth gradually becometriangular in
years shape, distinctly separated, and show progressive wearing to
stubs. These conditions become more marked with increasing
age.

Exercise: Determine the age of placed Dairy Cow

9
 III. DEHORNING OF ANIMALS
 Dehorning means removal of the horns of animals.
 Disbudding means arrest of horn growth at an early stage (3-15 days of age).

Reasons for dehorning

 Horns serve no useful purpose on dairy cattle.
 They can be a nuisance and cause many body injuries.
 Horned animals require more space.
 Hornless cattle are no longer discriminated against in show ring and sales.
Hot iron method:
 This comprised of applying a special designed hot iron to the horn buds of young calves.
 The dehorning iron is heated in a portable forge, where electricity is available.
 The electric dehorning iron can be used. It keeps an even temperature.
 Hot iron method is bloodless and may be used in any season of the year, but it can be used only
on young calves (below 3 months of age only).
IV. CASTRATION

 Castration is the process by which male animal s are made sterile by removing the testicles or
cutting the blood supply to the testicles.
 The best time of castration in cattle is between 8-10 weeks and in working animals less than one
year.
Age for castration

Species Age of castration

1. Calves Within 3 months
2. Bullock 1.5 Years of age
Indications
 To prevent indiscriminate breeding
 To make the animal docile and manageable
 The castrated animal meat will be of superior quality.

Exercise
How to castrate the animal by non surgical or closed method and narrate the precaution if any.

10
Practical Lesson – 4 Date:

HOUSING FOR DAIRY ANIMALS

Learning objectives
 Types of housing systems
 Lay out and designs for various buildings for dairy animals
 Floor space requirements

Types of housing systems

Practically there are two systems of housing for dairy animals viz,
1. Loose housing
2. Conventional barns

Loose housing
Loose housing widely is used in the country. In this system animals are kept loose in an open
paddock throughout the day and night except at the time of milking and treatment.Further, shelter
(single row system) is provided along one side of open paddock under which animals can retire when it
is very extreme climatic conditions or during rainy seasons.Common feed manger and water tank is
provided in the paddock.

Conventional barns or Stanchion barns

In this system of housing, the animals are confined together on a platform and secured at neck
by stanchions or neck chain.The feeding and milking will be done in the same barn.
1. Single row system:
In single row system, 12-16 numbers of animals can be kept.
2. Double row system
a) If the number of animals greater than 16 then double row system is preferable.
b) Two types of double row system
1. head to head or face–in
2. tail to tail or face–out

Floor space requirements

Type of animal Floor space requirement (m2) Maximum no of Height of the
Covered area Open area animals / pen shed (cm)
Bulls 12.0 24.0 1 175 cm. in
Cows 3.5 7.0 50 medium and
Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50 heavy rain fall
Down – calves 12.0 12.0 1 and
Young – calves 1.0 2.0 30 220 cm. in dry
Old – calves 2.0 4.0 30 areas.
(Source: E-learning Veterinary Education @ TANUVAS: Courses)

Exercise
Draw the diagram of double row cow shed (Tail to tail) and (Head to Head) with measurements:

11
Practical Lesson – 5 Date:

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Learning objectives
 Importance of feeding in dairy animal
 Dry matter requirement calculation
 Thumb rule method of feeding
 Good feeding practice
 Common feed supplements
Importance of feeding in dairy animal
a. Feeds require for animal body maintenance, growth and productions
b. Feeding cost accounts for around 70% of total cost of milk production
c. If animal not fed properly, animal can’t express full genetic potential and also develop
productive and reproductive disorders

Exercise
1. Calculate the dry matter requirement of animal (500kg body weight) and actual quantity
of requirement of concentrate and roughage.
2. Formulate ration for a Dairy Cow having 400 Kg body weight with 10 liter of milk
production (4% Fat).

Thumb rule method of feeding

The concentrate should contain DCP-16% and TDN-68-72%. Thumb rule method of feeding
practice not suitable for the animal which producing above 10 litres of milk per day. Along with the
concentrate, good quality green fodder at 20-30 kg and 5-6 kg of dry fodder should be fed to each cow.
If possible dairy animal may send for grazing 5 hrs daily.

Table 1. Thumb rule method of feeding for different categories of dairy animals.
S.No Category Cows (400kg) Buffaloes (500kg)
1 Maintenance 1.5 -2 kg 2-2.5 kg
2 Milk production 400g/litre of milk 500g/ litre of milk
3 Pregnancy (last 2 months) 2kg 2-2.5kg

Table 2. Feeding level for different categories of dairy animals

S.No Category Concentrates Green Dry fodders Grazing
(kg) fodders (kg) (kg) time (5hrs)
1 Older calves (6-12 month) 1-1.5 10 2 5
2 Heifers 2 15-20 4 5
3 Dry animals 2 20-30 5-6 5
4 Pregnant animals 4 20-30 5-6 5
5 Milking animals 400-500g 20-30 5-6 5
/litre milk

Types of compound cattle feed

1. Calf starter (DCP-20 to 22%) - increased protein content for high growth rate.
2. Adult feed (DCP-14 to 16%)
Good feeding practice
a) Always fed the animal with chaffed fodder. This avoids selection, minimize thewastage and
reduce quantity of feed required.
12
 b) Don’t changes feed suddenly; otherwise it does create digestive problem.
c) Better follow spilt up feeding for high producing animal
d) For high producing animal (>15 liters), better fed by pass protein
Common feed supplements
a) For high producing animal calcium supplement is important (Calsakthi or calcimust)
b) Area specific mineral mixture (Example- UAFSMIN-P (cattle- 30-40g/day, buffalo- 40-5040g/day,
sheep- 15g/day, goat- 15g/day).
Water requirements
Normally, an adult healthy dairy animal daily requires 75 to 80 litres of water. Further, for every
litre of milk produced, additional two and half litres water is required.

Exercise
Write the Feeding practice followed in dairy unit, LFC.

13
Practical Lesson –6 Date:

BREEDING MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Learning objectives
 Introduction to heat or estrus
 Heat detection in buffaloes
 Breeding policy of cattle and buffaloes
Heat/estrus
a) Heat/estrus is a period of acceptance for mating (sexual receptivity)
b) Estrus period of receptivity may last from 6 to 30 hours (24 hrs)
c) Estrus cycle occurs every 21 days on an average (range 18 to 24 days)
d) Cross bred cow will come to heat 40- 90 days, so if cow bred within 90 days after calving, will
enable us to produce a one calf per year

Exercise
Observe the cow/she buffaloes for any signs of heat maintained in the dairy farm and list out what are
the symptoms are noticed.

14
Proper time of insemination
a) Insemination (either natural service or by Artificial Insemination (AI) should be given ideally
after 10-12 hours, or maximum of 18 hours of first sign of heat.
b) If heat is seen in the evening, inseminate in the following morning or vice versa.
c) If heat persists in the following morning, another AI may be required on the same evening.
d) If the animal does not become pregnant, she will come into heat after 18-21 days
e) After 21 days of insemination the animal should be observed for symptoms of estrus, especially
during early morning and late evening hours.

Heat detection in buffaloes

a) Silent or quiescent heat : The behavioral manifestation of heat may be very weak or
imperceptible
b) Silent heat is very common in buffaloes
c) The vulva becomes edematous, swollen. The lower portion of vulva looks oily. The gap is seen
between vulvar lips and slight opening is seen.
d) Buffaloes in heat remain restless and remain off feed. Milk yield is reduced. The bellow is sharp
and for longer duration.
e) The buffaloes expose their teeth while bellowing which is very characteristic (Flehmen reaction).
f) 60-70 % of the buffalo come in heat from 6 pm to 6 am (after sunset and before sunrise), so
buffalo should be observed in the evening and early morning for expression of heat symptom.
g) The mucus discharge is thin on the day of heat, become thick as the time passes and changes
the colour from clear to white.
h) Use of teaser bulls can be a useful tool in detecting silent heat.

15
Practical Lesson –7 Date:

BREEDING STRATEGY OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Learning objectives
1. Breeding Strategy to be followed at Instructional Farm
(a) Breeding objective. (b) Breeding System

Breeding objective for dairy animals: Milk production.

However for cattle and buffalo, draught animals or dual purpose animals are also important.

Breeding system:

Selective Breeding

Cross Breeding

Practical applicability of Inbreeding for cattle and buffalo

Mating system:

Molecular Breeding :

Marker assisted selection:

Genomic selection:

16
Breeding policy of cattle and buffaloes recommended in India
Animal category Breeding policy
Cattle
Recognized breeds of milch, dual and drought cattle breeds Selective breeding (within the breed)
Non descript cattle Grading up with recognized improved Indian
cattle breeds
Cross breeding with exotic breeds followed by
selective breeding within cross bred animals
(exotic inheritance should maintain 50 to 62.5%)
Buffaloes
Recognized breeds of buffaloes Selective breeding (within the breed)
Non descript buffaloes Grading up with recognized improved Indian
buffalo breeds

Practical exercise for strategy to be followed for cattle/ buffalo in a particular

Breeding agro-climatic region

17
Practical Lesson –8 Date:

CONSERVATION OF BREED
Concept of Breed:

Breeds of Cattle
i). Indigenous breeds of cattle:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

ii) Exotic breeds of Cattle:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Breeds of buffalo
i). Indigenous breeds of buffalo:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Biomorphometry estimation and morphological characterization (Practical)

Indigenous breeds

Exotic breeds

Conservation

Preservation

In situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation

Effective population size

Practical exercise to be done by the student

18
Practical Lesson –9 Date:

SELECTION OF ANIMALS IN FARM

Selection:

Importance of selection:

Culling:

Basis of selection

Method of selection

Selection index

Commonly employed selection index

Practical exercise with Farm data:

19
Zractical Lesson –10 Date:

GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF LARGE RUMINANTS

Genetic gain:

Selection differential:

Intensity of selection

Generation interval

Heritability

Variance

Practical problems for calculation of genetic gain (Farm data provided):

Practical Lesson –11 DISEASE AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY ANIMALS

Date:
Learning objectives
 Management of ecto-parasite and endo-parasite infestation
 Deworming schedule for dairy animals
 Vaccination schedule for dairy animals
Worm infestation
a) Flat worms (trematode) b) Tapeworm c) Round worm

Ecto-parasites infestations
Mites (scabies/Mange), lice and ticks
Vaccination
a) Administration of antigenic molecules of infectious agent in order to develop immunity
b) Vaccination is a very effective method of disease control.

General information regarding vaccination

a) Newly born animal generally not required vaccine because of passive transmission of maternal
antibodies
b) Always first follow essential (core vaccine) vaccination against common infectious disease
c) If necessary go for optional vaccine (those disease endemic to particular area only)
d) Better avoid vaccine to very advance stage of pregnancy, very young one animal and heavily
parasitized/malnourished animals
e) Avoid vaccination in very extreme cold or heat condition
f) Always maintain cold chain of vaccine
g) Vaccination programme should cover minimum 80% population
h) Minimum interval between two vaccines is 21 days

Exercise
1. Write down the vaccination and deworming schedule followed for cattle and buffaloes in
dairy unit, LFC.
2. Mention various ecto-parasitic agents used in Institute Farm.

20
Practical Lesson 12 Date:

RECORDING OF RESPIRATION, PULSE AND RECTAL TEMPERATURE IN

FARM ANIMALS
Learning objectives
 To get idea about where to record the pulse, respiration and temperature in farm animals.
Respiration
 Breathing is drawing air into the lungs (inspiration) and expelling it from the lungs (expiration).
The respiration rate is the number of times per minute that air is inhaled and exhaled. When
animals breathe, air flows into the lungs, which lie freely in the thoracic (chest) cavity. If the rib
and chest increase in size, the lungs expand, due to air pressure within them and the inspiration
of air through the nostrils or mouth. Air is exhaled from the lungs by the contraction of the
thoracic wall and the action of the diaphragm, a flat muscle that aids in the breathing process.
 This can be observed by raise and fall of chest or flank. It can also be recorded by feeling the
breath at nostrils (expiration) with Back of the hand. Respiratory rate expressed as the number
of respiration per minute.
Pulse
 Pulse is the impulse of heartfelt through an artery.
 In horses: External maxillary artery at the site of lower jaw and median artery at the elbow and
digital artery along side of the cannon bone.
 In sheep, goat, dog, cats: Femoral artery inside the hind limb.
 In Cattle and Buffalo: Coccygeal artery at base of the tail
 In all animals pulse is recorded for at least 1 – 2 min and pulse rate expressed in number of
pulse per minute.
Rectal temperature
Rectal temperature is the sum of total conserved heat produced in the body resulting from
metabolic process in the body. Temperature is one of the basic signs of health which has to be
maintained within normal limits.
The plastic digital thermometers are generally easier to use and most of them beep when they
are ready. If an older mercury-type thermometer is used, shake down the mercury before taking the
temperature. The animal should be restrained by an assistant. Lubricate the tip of the thermometer with
petroleum jelly like Vaseline. Move the animal’s tail to the side out of the way and insert the
thermometer into the rectum, angled slightly towards the ground. For the most accurate reading, leave
a mercury thermometer in position for at least 3 minutes. Many digital thermometers work well in less
than 1 minute.

Exercise:
List out the factors affecting the normal body temperature of animal.Narrate the normal Physiological
Parameters (pulse rate and respiratory rate and body temperature) of ruminants.

21
Practical Lesson –13 Date:
DAIRY CALF MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
 To know about different practices involved in calf management

The feature of any herd is depends on how the calves are reared. Calf management starts from
the womb itself.
Care and management of pregnant animals
Successful calf rearing starts with the appropriate care of the pregnant animal, especially during
the dry period. Sufficient rest or dry period is necessary for a pregnant cow to deliver a healthy young
one.
Care during parturition
Utmost care is must when the animal approaches and during parturition. Assistance should be
given only if need arises. At nearing parturition, the cows need a clean and dry area. Clean pasture land
is favorable one for calving. If it is not possible, well bedded room is enough for normal parturition.

Exercise:
Describe the care of young one immediately after calving

22
Feeding management
When a calf is born it is virtually unprotected against infectious diseases until it absorbs an
adequate supply of colostrum. True colostrum is the “first milk” immediately after calving which is rich
in antibodies that provide the calf protection from diseases in early life until the calf’s own immune
mechanism becomes functional.
Colostrum substitute
If a calf has not received any colostrum from the cow, a substitute can be made from:
 600 ml whole milk
 300 ml water
 ½ teaspoon of castor oil
 1 egg beaten
 1 tablespoon of glucose.
The colostrum substitute should be fed three times a day for the first three days of life.
The egg contains someFeeding
immuno-globulins whichupmay
schedule of calves to 3assist
monthisofpreventing
age diarrhea.
Age of the calf Whole milk Calf starter Good quality roughage
1-3 days Colostrum @1/10th BW in three feeds - -
4-7 days Whole milk @1/10th BW in three feeds - -
8-14 days Whole milk @1/10th BW - -
15-21 days Whole milk @1/10th BW A little A little
22-35 days Whole milk @1/15th BW 100 g Ad lib
Up to 2 months Whole milk @1/20th BW 250 g Ad lib
2-3 months Milk is gradually reduced and tapered 500 g Ad lib

Feeding and watering space requirement

Type of Space per animal Total manger length in a pen for 100 Total water tank length in a pen
animal (cm) animals(cm) for 100 animals (cm)

Calves 40 – 50 4000 – 5000 400 – 500

Floor space requirement for calves

Age of Calves Floor space requirement Floor space requirement Number of calves
(months) covered area (m2) open area(m2) per pen
0-3 1.0 2 24
3-6 1.5 3 16
6- 12 2.0 4 12

Disease management
The health and management of replacement animals are important components of total herd
profitability.
 Navel infections
 Septicemia
 Scours
 Calf Pneumonia
 Worms and parasites

23
Practical Lesson –14 Date:
MILKING AND MILKING MANAGEMENT IN DAIRY CATTLE

Learning objectives
 On completion of this practical, the learner will be able to demonstrate cleaning of udder and
stimulation of milk let down, milking the animals by different methods

The milking of cows is an art. It requires skill and experience. The process of milking should be
conducted quietly, quickly, gently, cleanly and completely without any pain, annoyance or
inconvenience to the animal. Production of hygienic and quality milk is a basic function of cleanliness.
Ignorance of hygienic principles, lack of personal cleanliness and sanitary measures in the conduct of
milking operations lead to contamination of milk and spread of contagious disease in man such as
diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera and sore throat. Many milkers use incorrect methods of milking which
cause injury to teats and udder as well as spread infection from one animal to another.

Characteristic of good milking

 Milking at regular interval.
 Milking fast within stipulated period.
 Milking completely.
 Use of sanitary measures.

Methods of milking
 The two methods of milking dairy cows, buffaloes and goats are
o Hand milking and
o Machine milking.
 The actual operation of milking by hand may be performed by
o Full hand milking known as fisting.
o Stripping.
o Knuckling.

HAND MILKING METHODS

Full hand method Stripping method Knuckling Method

Exercise:
Describe full hand, stripping and knuckling method ofmilking

24
Machine milking
 Machine milking in modern dairy management is most common
Machine milking procedure
o Prepare animals properly before milking
o Attach the cups to clean, dry teats
o When necessary, apply teat disinfectant to each teat after milking according to
recommendations and regulations.
o Ensure the milkers’ hands are clean and dry
o Only use appropriate teat lubricants according to national recommendations and
regulations
o Use buckets that are non-corrosive, easy to clean and disinfect, and do not taint the
milk
Vacuum level
 The degree of vacuum in a milking system during operation, expressed as inches of mercury/Kilo
Pascal (mmHg / kpa) differential measured from atmospheric pressure and indicated by the
vacuum gauge.
 44 kPa to 50 kPa is the most commonly used vaccum level for milking cow
Pulsation rate
 The number of cycles of alternating vacuum and atmospheric air which occur per minute.
 It may vary between 40 to 60 cycles per minute on most machines.
Milking or Pulsation ratio
 The proportion of time spent under vacuum and atmospheric air and is usually approximately
60:40.

Exercise:
Draw the schematic diagram of milking machine used for dairy cattle.

25
 Practical Lesson –1 Date:

SELECTION OF BREEDABLE ANIMALS IN THE SHEEP AND GOAT FARM

Learning objectives
 Points to be considered in selection of animals for breeding purpose
 Selection of ewe/doe
 Selection of ram/buck
 Score card methods for sheep and goat
Points to be considered in the selection of animals for breeding
 It is better to purchase a goat/sheep with 2 dental ages.
 It will be better, if the sheep/goats can be purchased from a best farm or from an individual
farmer who maintained the sheep/goats in a best manner, instead of getting the stocks from
weekly shandies.
 Breeding ewe/doe of indigenous breeds should be 18to 24 months depending upon their body
condition.
 Breeding too young ewes/doe result in more weaklings and thus results in higher lamb/kid loss.
 As a guideline, females should be mated only when they reach 70 per cent of the average adult
body weight.
 Body weight of a ewe at breeding should normally be less than the adult body weight of that
breed.
 The libido of the ram/buck is very important to achieve desirable breeding. Poor libido may
result from inadequate feeding, extreme heat stress or ill-health.
Exercise
Prominent points to select good Black Bengal doe/ewe and buck/ram
SCORING OF GOAT
Scoring is performed in goats using a BCS ranging from 1.0 to 5.0, with 0.5 increments. It is
important to note that BCS cannot be assigned by simply looking at an animal. Instead, the animal must
be touched and felt. With practice, evaluating the BCS of an animal will only take about 10-15 seconds.
By adding BCS as a regular part of your management program, you can more effectively monitor your
feeding and herd health program for a healthy and productive herd [24]. . Scoring is done by using the
hand to feel for the fullness of muscling and fat cover over and around the vertebrae in the loin region.
The following skeletal check points were observed by palpation. Lumbar vertebrae have a vertical
protrusion (spinous process) and two horizontal protrusions (transverse process). Both are very
important for determining BCS.
1. The spinous processes in the centre of the goats’s back behind the last rib and in front of its hip bone.
2. The tips of the transverse processes.
3. The fullness of muscle and fat cover between spinous and transverse processes.
4. Hollow in the flanks below the loin (fat cover on the rib cage, on the ribs and intercostals (between
ribs) spaces.
5. Fat covering on the sternum.

POINTS OF CONSIDERATION

26
 AREA TO BE CHECKED FOR FAT COVER
ASSIGNING BCS
BCS PHYSICAL SKELETAL CHECK POINTS DIAGRAM (CROSS SECTION)
APPEARANCE
1 Emaciated and The spinous process is very prominent,
debilated animal, the and giving a boney appearance.
back portion is highly Very little muscle and no fat in
visible, the flank is between the skin and bone. A
hollow. Ribs are clearly prominent depression in the from the
visible. There is no fat spinous to transverse process. Half of
cover and fingers the transverse process clearly visible.
easily penetrate into The cartilage and joints joining ribs and
intercostals spaces. sternum are easily felt. BCS-1

2 Slightly bones are Spinous processes giving appearance of

distinct; the backbone prominent ridge. One third of the
is moderately visible transverse processes are visible and it
with a prominent is possible to pass fingers under with
ridge. Ribs are felt. pressure. The muscle area is of
Little bit fat cover on moderate depth and little bit fat
ribs. Intercostals covering between the two processes.
spaces are smooth but Flank is hollow.
can still be penetrated. BCS-2
3 The backbone is not so Spinous and Transverse processes are
prominent. Ribs are smooth and rounded appearance. The
not clearly visible; muscle area is full with moderate fat
covered with thin layer covering between two processes.
of fat. After applying Hollow in the flanks are barely concave.
pressure intercostals
spaces can be felt.
BCS-3
4 The backbone cannot Spinous processes are flat in
be seen. Ribs are not appearance. Transverse processes are
seen (covered with not visible and need considerable
distinct thick layer of pressure to find the ends of the
fat). The side of the processes. The muscle area is full with
animal is slightly round thick fat covering between the
in appearance. processes. Hollow in the flank below
the loin is not appreciated. BCS-4

5 The backbone is The thickness of the muscle and fat is

completely covered so great that demarcations on the
with fat. Ribs are not spinous process are completely lost.
visible. Curvature of There is bulging transition in between
flank is not seen. two processes. The thickness of the
Excessive fat muscle and fat is very distinct and
deposition on pelvic difficult to felt transverse process. The
region and sternum. sternal fat covers the sternum, joining
fat covering cartilage and ribs. BCS-5

Exercise: Assign BCS for mentioned Black Bengal Doe.

27
 Practical Lesson –22 Date:
HANDLING AND RESTRAINING OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Learning objectives
 To know about approaching and catching methods of sheep and goats
 To know about restraining methods of sheep and goats
Purpose
a) To examine the animal for
or treating the sick animal
c) To carry out vaccination and
b) To carry out shearing, hoof trimming and castration
Approaching and catching: deworming
To examine a particular sheep or goat in a flock the whole flock or part of it, if it is large one, should be
rounded up in a corner of the field or pen and packed tightly. One should keep his eyes fixed on the
animal needs to be caught. Hold the animal ababove
ove the hock and place the left hand underneath the jaw
and around the neck.

Horned sheep and goats can be held by horns. It is not recommended to catch a sheep by its wool – not
only is it painful to the sheep, but it will cause bruising to the carcass. Sheep can also be caught by
throwing the curved handle of a walking stick around their necks.
Setting
etting up sheep/goat on its rump:
While holding a sheep one should stand on its left side and keep his left hand under its jaw, keeping the
right hand
nd free to place behind it, to avoid the animal from running back.
After holding the animal in this position, the sheep’s fore leg should be raised off the ground
with left hand and with the right hand the animal should be brought to a sitting position in front of his
legs and supported against them.
Hornless sheep are held in this position by holding their fore cannons while horned ones can be
held by their horns. If sheep are to be controlled for a long time they are turned up with bare hands.

Handling of lamb/kid
Small lambs/kids are carried by placing one hand under the body and between the forelimbs to
support the sternum, and other hand around the neck.
28
 To hold a young lamb/kid for castration grasp both fore and hind cannons of the right side with
the right hand and left cannons in the left hand and rest the lamb
lamb/kid on some fixed objects in upright
position.

Straddling
Many procedures can be done by simply backing the sheep into a corner, straddling the animal
between the handler’s legs, and squeezing the sheep shoulders firmly between the legs. The head or
neck can be controlled in this position

Restraining of sheep and goat

Linton’s gag and portable sheep stocks are common devices used for restraining sheep and
goats.
Linton’s gag
Linton’s gag for sheep comprises of two mouth bits which after inserting into the mouth of a
sheep from behind can be opened wide by pressing the handles close, opening the animal’s mouth in
the process.
Portable sheep stocks:
A strong piece of wood is shaped like ‘Y’ (alternatively, a branching portion from the trunk of a
tree can be taken) the branches of which are far enough to admit a sheep’s head. Each branch is
provided with holes through which an iron peg can be passed. The lower portion of the vertical part of
‘Y’ is sharpened and driven into the ground. The metal rod is removed, the neck of the sheep is put
between the two branches and the rod is replaced to fix the sheep in the stocks.

Exercise
Practice the restraining procedure followed for burdizo method of castration in sheep and goats.
goats

29
Practical Lesson Date
IDENTIFICATION METHODS OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Learning objectives
 To know about various identification methods followed in sheep and goat
Purpose:
 To maintain proper records
 To carry out proper feeding.
 For better management of breeding and treatment.
The common identification methods used in sheep and goats are stenciling, ear tags tattooing
and neck chains.
Stenciling
This temporary method of identification is used on young lambs/kids shortly after birth to prevent
their separation from their dams and the resultant malnourishment. The lambs and their dam can be
given the same number with stencil of different sizes. Wool-branding paint should be used because it
will wash out of the wool when it is scoured or washed in processing.
1. Pour a small amount of wool-branding paint onto a cloth/burlap so as to saturate it.
2. Press the stencil onto the cloth until the figure is covered with paint.
3. Place the stencil on the back of the lamb or ewe so that it can be read from front to rear while
standing on the left side or from the left to right while standing at the sheep's rear.
4. Allow the paint to dry before moving or handling the animal.
5. Clean the equipment after use.

Ear Tags
Ear tags are usually made of metal or plastic with the numbers either stamped or painted on them.
1. Insert the self-piercing ear tag into the pliers/applicator.
2. Find the area on the inside of the ear that has the widest space between the ribs of cartilage.
There will be one rib below the area and two above it. Allow space for the ears of young lambs to
grow. Leave at least half inch between the edge of the ear and the ear tag.
3. Place the ear tag in the ear with the number facing forward. Clamp it tightly so that the tag is
sealed to prevent its loss from the ear.

Tattooing

30
 This is a permanent method of identifying sheep and goat. It requires a tattooing set, which
consists of a pair of pliers and a set of numbers or letters made in the form of dies with sharp, pointed,
needle-like projections which pierce the skin. A tattoo ink or paste is forced into the puncture and
remains visible after the wound heals. Tattoos can be seen best on animal that have white faces and
ears. Those with black pigment in the ears can be tattooed inside the rear flank. Earless goats may be
tattooed on the tail web. Place the number dies in the tattooing pliers in the proper order. Press the
pliers into a piece of cardboard to verify the number.
1) Select the site for tattooing.
2) Decide about the number and symbol to be tattooed.
3) Place the appropriate figures on the tattoo forceps.
4) Position the forceps at the ear carefully and firmly. Locate the widest spot in the ear above
the rib nearest the bottom
5) Proper restraining of the animal will help in clear tattoo marks.
6) Clean the place thoroughly with the help of grease removing swab e.g.alcohol.
7) After tattooing apply tattoo ink liberally.
8) Clean the equipment after use.
Do not tattoo young lambs/kids less than six months of age as the space is limited and the numbers
may become illegible as the ear grows.
Neck Chains
It consists of a chain or cord around the neck with an identification tag attached to it. The tags
can be made of metal, nylon or plastic. The chain should fit snugly with little or no free play when it is
resting against the neck-chest junction. Young, growing kids must be checked at weekly intervals to see
if the chains need loosening
Paint sticks, Chalks
Paint sticks, Chalks, and color Sprayshave many uses for temporarily marking animals. Sheep are
commonly marked with these on the back or head. They are commonly used to mark pregnant and open
ewes during pregnancy checks, as well as to mark animals that need treated or have been treated or
need sorted off from a group.
Branding
Branding is not yet a widely accepted method of identifying sheep and goats.
Ear Notching
Ear noticing is not a common method of identification in sheep and goats because it detracts from
the appearance of the animal.
Other identification methods
Recently radio collars have been introduced. This helps in knowing the details of a particular
animal at anytime and anywhere around the globe. Chips containing information about an animal are
used nowadays. Moreover muzzle printing (dermatoglyphic printing) has also become an important
method in the identification of animals.

Exercise: Practice the ear tag methods of identification in sheep and goats.

31
 Practical Lesson –4 Date:
DENTITION AND AGE DETERMINATION OF SHEEP AND GOAT

Learning objectives
 To know the ageing of sheep and goats by dentition
Purpose:
 To determine the age of sheep and goat
Age is important for
 To issue soundness certificates
 To purchase of livestock
 To known the breeding status of animal
 To estimate the value of animals.
The age of an animal can be estimated from the date of birth available in registers or by
1. Dentition 2. Number of young one produced by the animal.
DENTAL FORMULA
Temporary dentition = 2 [I 0/4, C 0/0, PM 3/3, M 0/0] = 20
Permanent dentition = 2 [I 0/4, C 0/0, PM 3/3, M 3/3] = 32
No. of Permanent incisors Age Sheep/goat called as
8 milk teeth 6 months Lamb/kid
2 1 to 1½ years 2-teeth
4 1½ to 2 years 4-teeth
6 2½ to 3 years 6-teeth
8 3-4 years Full Mouth

 1 or 2 teeth fallen – Broken Mouth – around 6  If all teeth fallen – Gummers - above 6 years
Teeth (Sheep) Description Teeth (Goat) Description
These
incisors are
the teeth Dentition of a
that can goat 2 weeks of
easily be age. All the teeth
used to age are baby or
an animal. deciduous teeth.

Dentition of
Dentition of a
a yearling
goat 10 months
sheep. Two
of age. All the
incisors are
teeth are still
permanent
baby or
(black
deciduous teeth.
arrows)

Dentition of
a 2 year old Dentition at 1.5-2
sheep. Four years of age.
incisors are Four incisors are
permanent permanent (black
(black arrows)
arrows).

32
 Dentition of
a 4 year old
Dentition of a 3
sheep or
year old goat. Six
"full
incisors are
mouth." All
permanent (black
incisors are
arrows).
permanent.

Dentition of an
Dentition of aged goat (about
a 5- 6 year 6 years old). All
old sheep. the incisors are
Notice the permanent and
wide worn. The black
spacing arrow shows
between where this goat is
the teeth missing an incisor
tooth

Exercise
Familiarize the dentition of small ruminants and arrive the age of given five animals based on
their dentition.

33
 Practical Lesson –5 Date:
FARM MANAGEMENT OPERATIONS
Learning objectives
 To know about farm management operations likes Shearing, Castration, Hoof Trimming and
Disbudding methods
1. SHEARING
The process of removal or harvesting of wool from sheep is known as shearing.
Methods of shearing
Shearing can be done by any of the following methods.
1. Hand shearing
Shears with sharpened blades are essential to obtain uniform cuts and quick shearing. Now
shears with a better springing capacity is the handy one available, which saves a good deal of
energy and as a result shepherd does not get fatigued and can shear more sheep in a day.
2. Machine shearing
The shearing machine is a metal comb over which a cutter is driven. A system of flexible gut,
encased and broken by various joints, makes it possible to reach the various parts of the sheep.
These machines are either electric or diesel operated.
3. Chemical shearing
Feeding 24 mg of cyclophoshamide (CPA) per kg live weight. Chemical removes the wool within
3 days starting from 12th day after drug administration. As the wool comes off in patches the
sheep will have to be confined for the days when the wool is shedding.
Time of Shearing:
 Most flocks are usually shorn twice a year, i.e. March-April after the winter and September-
October after the rains.
 In some states like Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan sheep are shorn thrice a year, although this
is not a correct way as it produces wool with very short staple length.
 To prevent canary coloration of wool, they should be shorn in February and July in semi-arid
areas.
 Shearing at an improper time of the year affects the health of the sheep adversely.
Preparation of animals for shearing
 The animals must be washed 4-5 days prior to shearing in clean water to remove the soiled
materials.
 The animals should not be either over-fed or underfed before shearing.
 They should be shorn on a clean floor.
 The climate should be neither very hot nor very cold at shearing.
Care of sheep after shearing
o Sheep should be protected from intense heat after shearing.
o The feed and water intake increases by 13 to 23% and 11 to12%, respectively after shearing.
Sheep should provide with quality pasture and sufficient drinking water.

2. CASTRATION
Castration is the removal of testicles from the ram/buck. In most cases, non-breeding males and
males not slaughtered at a young age need to be castrated.
Purpose
 To render the animal docile
 Castration is done to control mating by preventing inbreeding and inferior males from breeding
 for production of fattened carcass
 To prevent certain genital diseases.
Methods
I. Burdizzo method
II. Surgical method
III. Elastrator ring

Exercise
Procedure the different methods of castration of small ruminants
3. HOOF TRIMMING
Procedure

34
 1. A sharp knife or hoof shears can be used for hoof trimming. First use the point of the hoof
trimmers to remove any dirt from the outside and the bottom of the hoof.
2. The front of badly overgrown hooves can then be removed.
3. The sides of the hoof should be cut back evenly with the sole of the foot. Continue to trim the
sides around one toe and repeat the process on the other toe.
4. Trim the frog and heel flat until the sole is parallel to the hairline of the pastern. Trim off thin
slices.
5. A good rule to follow is to stop when you see pink. If blood appears, stop trimming and finish the
trimming at a later time.

4. DEHORNING
Kids should be disbudded as soon after birth as possible, usually 3 to 7 days. The most common
and recommended method of disbudding is with an electric disbudding iron.
Procedure:
1. The kid is usually placed in a holding box for the procedure, but a second person is needed to
steady the head during the procedure.
2. Desensitize the horn buds with local anesthetics.
3. The areas over and around the horn bud should be clipped prior to the iron being placed on the
kid's head.
4. Applying hot iron on horn bud for l0 - 15 seconds.
5. Allow the heated side to cool well before putting the iron back to the kid's head to do the other
side. You will see a “copper-colored" ring around the horn bud if the procedure went as it
should.

35
 Practical Lesson –6 Date:
FEEDS AND FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Learning objectives
 Fodder production for sheep and goat
 Concentrate feeds
 Nutrient requirements
 Feeding management

Fodder production for Sheep and Goat

1. Legume Fodders
 Cowpea, Lucerne, Stylo
2. Cereal Fodders
 Fodder maize, Fodder sorghum / Jowar
3. Grass Fodders
 Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, Para Grass, Blue buffel grass
4. Tree fodders
 Subabul, Glyricidia, Sesbania, Agathi, Jack fruit
Concentrates
1. Energy feeds.
 Grains and seeds: Maize, Barley, Sorghum etc.
 Mill by products: rice bran, wheat bran
2. Protein feeds
 Plant source: Groundnut oil cake, Cotton seed oil cake etc.
 Animal source : Blood meal, other offals from slaughter house
 Marine by products : Fish meal
 Brewer’s grains and yeast
3. Supplements
 Minerals – Mineral mixtures, salt licks
 Vitamins
 Additives – Antibiotics, hormones etc.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP

The most economical way of feeding sheep is to maintain them on grazing only. They require 8
hours of grazing daily. It is a common practice to let the sheep graze until dusk. Sheep have an
inclination to graze more towards the evening hours. Even though long grazing hours satisfy the
nutritional needs of the sheep to some extent, supplementation with concentrate feed during certain
adverse periods of the year to certain category of sheep will bring profound advantage in economic
traits.
Concentrate feed is prepared using locally available feed ingredients. A model feed mixture may
consist of the ingredients in the following proportions.
Ingredients Creep feed (parts) Sheep ration(parts)
Maize 50 59
Wheat bran/ Rice bran 16 28
Groundnut oil cake/ Soyabean meal 31 10
Mineral mixture 2 2
Common salt 1 1

36
 Depending on the age and physical stage of the animals, the following quantity of concentrate
feed could be fed to the sheep

Age group Recommended quantity of feed (gm)

15-30 days 50
3-12 months 120
Pregnant ewes&Breeding rams 200
Lactating ewes 250

FEEDING MANAGEMENT OF GOAT

The goats are kept on grazing during day light for 8 hours a day. The concentrate mixture is
provided to goats in morning prior to sending them for grazing. However, pregnant does and bucks are
given additional concentrate during breeding season.
Colostrums should be fed to newly born kids with in half-an hour after birth to ensure supply of
immunoglobulin. Colostrums feeding should continue for 3 to 4 days. In case of dam’s death, another
doe may be used as a foster mother to ensure colostrums. After 4 day, the kids may be given whole milk
at the rate 1/6th of their body weight for the first 30 days, the total quantity being distributed in 4 equal
feedings. The quantity of the milk may be reduced to 1/8th of the body weight during next 4 weeks and
to 1/10th to 1/15th of the body weight during third month.
From the 2th week onwards, an easily digestible concentrate mixture of high nutritive value (kid
starter) with maximum of 20 per cent digestible crude protein (should not contain urea) and 70 per cent
of total digestible nutrients and good quality green leguminous fodder may be offered to kids. Milk
feeding can be completely stopped after the third month. Salt licks are also provided to meet out the
mineral requirement. Post weaned kids are sent for grazing along with other goats.
Feeding schedule for kids
Age of kid Quantity of milk to Quantity of kid starter to be Quantity of green fodder
be given (g) given (g) to be given (g)
Birth to 4 days Colostrum -
5 – 30 days 300 – 500 Small quantity Small quantity
30 – 60 days 400 – 500 50 250 - 500
60 – 90 days 350 - 400 50 500 – 750
Concentrate
Ingredients Parts
Maize 50
Cumbu 37
GNC 10
Mineral mixture 2
Salt 1
Total 100

Goats are, by preference, browsers rather than grazers. Hence, the tree fodder and grasses are
fed by tying them at a higher level using iron rod which will be placed on the tree and the tree which
serves like hangers and the tree fodder will be placed on these. Two or three wooden planks will be
placed around the tree and goats will be allowed to stand on the wooden planks and consume the tree
fodder as they do in the natural environment.

Exercise
What areflushing and its importance?

37
Practical Lesson –7 Date:
HOUSING OF SHEEP AND GOAT
Learning objectives:
 To know about the importance of shelter to the animals and its components
 To follow scientific management farm practices like feeding, watering, health management etc
Sheep and goats do not require any elaborate buildings. Provision of simple shade with low cost
housing materials is enough for sheep and goat for its optimum production efficiency. Open type
housing with a covered area and run space is generally enough.The run space should be covered by
chain links.The covered area is used for shelter of animals during night and adverse climatic conditions.
When the animals are taken for grazing during the day time and sheltered only during night, the covered
space will be enough. When the animals are housed intensively, the pen and run system of housing is
suitable.
The shed site should be easily approachable and spacious, dry, elevated, well-drained and
protected from strong winds. For a comfortable house east-west orientation with generous provision for
ventilation to dry the floor will be suitable one. Thatched roof is best suited one due to cheaper cost.
However corrugated asbestos sheets can also be used for organized farms to minimize the recurring
costs and to have longer durability. Gable roofing is generally preferred.
Floor space requirements
Sl. Type of animal Min. floor Sl. No. Type of animal Min. floor
No. space (m2) space (m2)
1. Ram or buck in groups 1.8 6. Yearling, individual 0.9
2. Ram or buck, individual 3.2 7. Yearlings in groups 0.9
3. Lamb or kids in groups 0.4 8. Ewe or doe in groups 1.0
4. Weaner in groups 0.8 9. Ewe or doe, individual 1.2
5. Weaner, individual 0.9 10. Ewe with lamb 1.5

Feeding and watering space requirements (in cm)

Type of animal Space per animal Width of manger/ Depth of manger/ Height of inner
Water trough water trough wall of manger/
water trough
Sheep/Goat 40-50 50 30 35
Kid/Lamb 30-35 50 20 25
Details of sheds required in an organized sheep and goat farms are described hereunder.
Requirements for building units are more or less same for sheep and goats.
Flock shed
 Adult breeding ewes or nannies are housed in this shed.
 The shed shall be 15 x 4 x 3 m high and accommodate not more than 60 ewes or nannies.
Ram or buck shed
 Rams or bucks used for breeding purpose are housed in these sheds.
 The shed shall be 4 x 2.5 x 3 m high and accommodate not more than three animals.
 The shed shall be partitioned lengthwise to form three equal compartments with wooden
planks.
Lambing or kidding shed
 These are maternity pens. Pregnant ewes or nannies are housed individually in these sheds.
 The shed shall be 1.5 X 1.2 X 3 m high.
Lamb or kid shed
 Lambs or Kids from weaning up to attaining maturity are housed in these sheds.
 The shed shall be 7.5 x 4 x 3 m high accommodate not more 75 animals.
 By making suitable partitions, unweaned, weaned but immature and nearing maturity lambs can
be housed separately.
Sick animal shed
 Away from the other sheds one or more sick animal sheds for segregating ailing and disabled
animals.
 The shed shall be 3 x 2 x 3 m high may be constructed.
38
Shearing and storeroom
 Shearing room is required only on farms where sheep are kept for wool. The shearing and
storeroom consist of two compartments with a dividing wall.
 One room may be exclusively meant for storing wool and shearing equipment and the other for
keeping feed and medicines.
 The room may be 6 x 2.5 x 3m high. There shall be a door one metre wide and two metres high
in the front side of the room.
 The door leaf may be made of wooden battens. It may also have two windows, one on each side
of the long sides of the room.
 Each window may be 0.7 m wide and 1,2 m high. The windows may DC covered with wire
netting.
Exercise
Draw a lay out for having 50 goat under cage system of management.

39
Practical Lesson –8 Date:
GENERAL HEALTH CARE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENIC MEASURES
Learning objectives:
 To know about the measures to be undertaken to maintain health of animals
 To know about the measures to be undertaken to maintain hygiene of farm
To maximize the productivity of Livestock, it’s essential to take necessary steps to protect the
health of the livestock. Monitoring the livestock and following good farming practices are the best ways
to reduce the risk of disease among sheep or goats.
General Health management
 Before onset of breeding, problematic animals should be culled from the flock.
 Manage and apply treatment to sick animals only after you have had all necessary contact with
your healthy livestock. If this is not possible disinfecting between moving from sick animals to
healthy should be undertaken.
 Neonatal mortality can be prevented by improving the level of nutrition in advanced stages of
pregnancy (last 6 weeks), ensuring hygienic condition in the kidding sheds, providing proper
bedding, and ensuring early feeding of colostrums.
 Does with chronic pneumonia, mastitis, and disabling arthritis, poor body condition should be
culled from the flock.
 Undernourished sheep/goats are likely to develop pregnancy toxemia and may deliver kids with
poor livability. So pregnant animals should be fed with additional level of food.
 Chronic diseases in adult goats like gastrointestinal infection (Coccidiosis. Mycobacterium
paratuberculosis) and gastrointestinal parasites (Haemonchussp., tapeworm and immature
amphistomes) affect the digestive tract, retard the growth, weaken the physic and stunt the
animal. The affected animal act as a carrier hence should be removed from the flock.
General farm hygiene and maintenance
 The sheds should require seasonal spraying with disinfectants to protect the flock from
ectoparasites particularly prior to kidding operation.
 Ensure farm equipment is clean and disinfect in between use on individual animals.
 Clean / disinfect equipment before and after use.
 The earthen floors may need replacement for every three months besides disinfection with
carbolic acid, which takes care of snakes and other reptiles.
 Annual white washing with lime prior to winter may be suggested.
 Painting of sheds is recommended prior to monsoon.
 The shed area should be dry and clean and should be free from stagnated water, bushes etc.
Biosecurity
Biosecurity at the farm level can be defined as the management practices enabling producers to
prevent the movement of disease-causing agents. Good biosecurity is a vital part of keeping disease
away from animals.
General biosecurity measures should include:
 restricting and controlling movements of people, vehicles and equipment into areas where
sheep or goats are kept
 cleaning and disinfecting equipment, vehicles, protective clothing and footwear before and after
contact with farm animals
The potential benefits of implementing biosecurity practices in livestock farms
 Greater productivity on farm – better livestock health generally leads to higher productivity
 Reduced risks to the farm – less diseases, pests and weeds entering farm and requiring action
 Early detection and management of any pests or diseases
 Reduced costs if there is an outbreak of disease, pests or weeds – early detection and sound
farm biosecurity practices may result in faster eradication and shorter quarantine periods.

Exercise
Write a note on mode of disposal of dead animal in controlling the hygiene of farm.

40
Practical Lesson –9 Date:
CONTROL OF ECTO AND ENDO PARASITES – DIPPING AND
DEWORMING
Learning objectives:
 To know about the methods to control endo and ecto parasitic control in a sheep and goat farm.

Internal and external parasites pose a significant threat to the health of small ruminants.
Internal Parasites can damage the gastrointestinal tract, and result in reduced reproductive
performance, reduced growth rates, less productive animals in terms of milk, meat and fibre; and even
death. Several types of internal parasites affect sheep and goat and they are round worms, tapeworms
and flukes. The most common internal parasite is the round worm that lives in the abomasum and small
intestine of sheep and Goats. Therefore it is essential to deworm the sheep and goats regularly to
control Internal Parasites. Ecto-parasites are arthropods such as Flies, Ticks, Mites and Lice etc., harm
the animals directly by biting, blood sucking, irritating etc as well as indirectly by transmitting bacterial,
viral and protozoan diseases. External parasites may damage the fleece and reduce pelt value. Control of
these external parasites is as important as the control of internal parasites. Periodical dipping of animals
with suitable insecticides is necessary to eradicate ecto-parasites in sheep and Goats.
Dipping
Purpose : To eradicate ecto-parasites, cure and prevent spread of sheep scab, ward off attacks by sheep
blow-flies, remove waste material and dung from the fleece prior to shearing, thus facilitating
production of clean wool.
Time : In India, sheep can be dipped immediately before the post-winter shearing and/or before the
post-autumn shearing. In addition, they can be dipped 1-4 weeks after shearing, when the fleece has
grown long enough to retain dip solution and also allow cuts and scratches incidental to shearing time to
heal. Generally sheep and goats are to be dipped at least twice in a year. The frequency between
dipping depends on the disease risk.
Dipping chemicals : Nowadays several organophosphate insecticides like malathion, parathion etc are
available which are very destructive to insects but are quite toxic to animal as well. Newer generation
synthetic pyrethroids like Deltamethrin, Cypermethrinetc are available in the market. They are
comparatively less toxic and cheaper. Recommended dosage is 1 to 2 ml/ litre of water for external
application.
Dipping tanks :-
a) Hand bath: In case of small flocks, a tank of galvanized iron (1.2 x 1.0 x 0.5 m) can be used.
Sheep can be lifted one by one into the bath and kept for two minutes. The sheep are removed
and placed on a drain board to drain off surplus dip back into the dip tank.
b) Swim bath: In large flocks, the dipping tank can be constructed. The measurement of
Dipping tank depends on the number of animals kept, but in general they are 1.5 m deep, 2.5 to
3 m long at top, 1.5 to 2 m long at bottom and 1 m wide. They usually made of concrete, at the
ground level or slightly raised. At one end is suited a collecting pen and at the other end a
draining pen. The draining pen should have a gradient towards the dip tank. The sheep should
be completely immersed in the liquid (including their heads and ears).

Precautions :-
 Ewes and Does in advanced stage of pregnancy should not be dipped.
 Dipping should be done during sunny day so that the treated animals will dry quickly
 Always water and rest the animal before dipping so that the animal will not drink dip
solution.
 Care should be taken to avoid contact of eyes and mouth with the solution·
 Avoid dipping of sick animals, sheep with wounds and young lambs (<1 month old)
 Avoid dipping of rams in breeding season to guard against injury to penis or scalding of
thigh.
 After dipping place the animal in the draining pen for quick drying
Deworming
To reduce the worm burden or eliminate the different stages of worms in internal organs
deworming is done with administration of anthelmintics. Anthelmintics are drugs that either kill egg
41
laying adults or kill larvae before they become adults and capable of laying eggs. There are three classes
of drugs that are currently used as anthelmintics in sheep and goats. These three are avermectins
(Ivermectin), Benzimidazoles (Albendazole and fenbendazole) andimidothiazoles (Levamisole). Rotation
between different classes of anthelmintics can slow the development of resistance. The most suitable
time of deworming is the early stages of infection when the worm load is less. Anthelmintics can be
used in conjunction with rotational grazing and proper pasture management to lower the number of
parasites that the herd is exposed to. All the animals should preferably be fasted for 24 hours before
giving anthelmintic. Young animals should preferably be dewormed every month. Adult stock can be
dewormed at 3 months interval. Ewes and does should also be dewormed prior to breeding and
approximately two weeks prior to and one week after lambing or kidding to help combat pre-parturient
egg rise.

Exercise
1. Mention the commonly used drugs in management of endo and ecto parasites with dose and
mode of application.
2. Write deworming schedule for sheep and goat.

42
Practical Lesson –10 Date:
BREEDING STRATEGY FOR SMALL RUMINANTS
Learning objectives
1. Breeding Strategy to be followed at Instructional Farm
(a) Breeding objective. (b) Breeding System

Breeding objective for Sheep and Goat : Meat and/or Milk or Wool production.

Breeding Objective differs for species and also for breed concerned.

Sheep are raised for wool or mutton or both-depending upon the breed, objective differs
Goat are reared for chevon, milk, fibre and sometimes skin as valuable by product.

Practical for Formulating Breeding objective for particular breed for sheep/goat:

Breeding system:

Selective Breeding

Cross Breeding

Practical applicability of Inbreeding for sheep and Goat

Mating system

Molecular Breeding
Marker assisted Selection
Genomic selection

Concept of breeding strategy for Disease resistance:

Concept of breeding strategy for Drought resistance/Heat tolerance:

Breeding policy of Sheep and goat in Indian context

Animal category Breeding policy
Sheep
Recognized breeds Selective breeding (within the breed)

Goat
Recognized breeds Selective breeding (within the breed)

Practical Exercise for breeding strategy to be followed for particular breed of Sheep/goat in particular
agro-climatic region

43
Practical Lesson –11 Date:
CONSERVATION OF BREED
Concept of Breed:

Breeds of sheep
i). Indigenous breeds of sheep:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

ii) Exotic breeds of sheep:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Breeds of goat
i). Indigenous breeds of goat:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

ii) Exotic breeds of goat:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Biomorphometry estimation and morphological characterization (Practical)

Sheep

Goat

Conservation

Preservation

In situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation

Effective population size

Practical exercise for Sheep /goat:

44
Practical Lesson –12 Date:

GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF SMALL RUMINANTS

Genetic gain:

Selection differential:

Intensity of selection

Generation interval

Heritability

Variance

Practical problems for calculation of genetic gain (Calculation from data provided)

45
Practical Lesson –13 Date:
DISEASE CONTROL MEASURES AND VACCINATION SCHEDULES IN THE
SHEEP AND GOAT FARM
Learning objectives:
 To know about the control measures to be followed in a sheep and goat farm
 To know about the vaccination schedule to be followed in a sheep and goat farm to prevent the
diseases outbreak
Prevention of disease plays a major role in increasing profitability in a sheep or goat farm. The
first step in controlling a disease is its diagnosis. Once the disease is known control measures should be
based on the knowledge of the nature of the causal agent, the way it is excreted from the animal body
and the mode of transmission. Hence, the farm manager should observe his animals daily and any
incidence of ill health should be promptly studied and necessary measures taken. Help of a veterinarian
should be sought whenever there is problem.
As soon as an outbreak occurs-
1. Segregate sick animals
2. Stop all animals, animal products, vehicles and persons coming into and out of the farm
3. Adopt containment vaccination
4. Avoid grazing in a common place
5. Ban all visitors to the farm
6. Provide foot dips containing disinfectants at the entry of the farm and gear up sanitation
and hygiene.
Vaccination
Prevention of disease plays a major role in increasing profitability in a sheep or goat farm.
Vaccination against infectious diseases is an important component of health management. Vaccination
is a practice of artificially building up in the animal body immunity against specific infectious diseases by
injecting biological agents called vaccines. The term vaccine is used to denote an antigen (substance
from organisms) consisting of a live, attenuated or dead bacterium, virus or fungus and used for the
production of active immunity in animals. The term also includes substances like toxins, toxoids or any
other metabolites etc. produced by microbes and used for vaccination. When a vaccine for any
particular disease is injected into the animal body, after an interval of 14 – 21 days, antibodies against
the particular disease are produced that cause active immunity against the disease. When handling
vaccinations, it is important to follow label directions, as vaccines must be stored, handled, and
administered properly. Only healthy livestock should be vaccinated.
Exercise
Discuss the vaccination Schedule for Sheep & Goats.

46
Practical Lesson –14 Date:
RECORD MAINTENANCE IN SHEEP AND GOAT FARM
Learning objectives:
 To assess the growth and reproductive performance
 Help in systematic breeding programme for improvement of flock
 Price fixation for sales and purchase of livestock and products
 For better supervision and management
 Ascertaining the income and expenditure of sheep and goat farms

Record Keeping is an essential part of good animal farm business management. It will serve
as an important source for monitoring and evaluation. A business can be efficiently managed, only if
proper recording of data is carried out periodically. The record maintained is primarily a documentation
of accountability and secondarily a data system for management. They should be reliable and relevant.
This relevant information, when recorded, should be made available at any time. Records should be
simple, easy to understand, without repetition; but must provide all the needed information. The
records should be able to clearly state, where and how the enterprise stands.
Farm records are essential for ascertaining the pedigree, implementing the breeding
programme for improvement of the herd, keeping track of various farm efficiency indicators,
economical feeding of animals, culling of under-productive animals, stocking and sale of products, and
computation of financial data.
TYPES OF RECORDS
There are numerous different types of records that can be kept. However, the producer should
keep records of information relevant to the type of enterprise he/she is operating and limited to
information that can be utilized. There are two general categories of sheep/goat farm records namely:
• Production records: Production records for a sheep and goat enterprise should, for example, consist
of information on herd health, performance of the herd as well as the performance of the individuals
within the herd over successive years. These records should also include information on fertility,
prolificacy, rearing or mothering ability and milk production directly or indirectly estimated through
lamb/kid growth rate to a given age.
• Financial records: relate primarily to money or economic interactions on the farm. There are some
lending institutions that will require detailed business and personal information on all farm assets as
well as the status of unpaid financial obligations. Financial records justify or prove farm income or
expense transactions. Examples of financial records are product sales, operating expenses (feed cost,
veterinary expenses, forage seeds etc.), equipment purchases, accounts payable, inventories,
depreciation records, loan balances and price information.
Exercise
What are the names of different Register to be maintained in an organized sheep and goat farm?

47
Practical Lesson –1 Date :

ROUTINE AND PERIODICAL OPERATIONS IN PIG FARM

Learning objectives
 To understand day to day activities of the farm
 To understand the periodical operations followed in pig farm
 To allot duties to the labourers
Farm routines and operations
 Cleaning of all pig sties
 Cleaning of farm premises
 Feeding half of the daily concentrate ration to breeding and growing stock
 Isolation of sick animals.
 Identification of “in-heat” animals for hand matting
 Periodical / Seasonal work
 Periodical weighing of the stock
 Piglet care and management - Cutting needle teeth, Castration, identification by ear notching,
iron injection.
 Vaccination and deworming of stock
 attending to sale and purchase of livestock and their transportation.
 Exercising and wallowing
 Periodical spraying of animal houses with suitable disinfectants
 Washing of pigs by hosing
 Disposal/ Conservation of manure
 Treatment of sick animals
 Lunch cum rest period
 Feeding the other half of daily concentrate ration to breeding and growing stock
 Making daily entries in farm records
 Cleaning of farm premises
 Transfer of near-parturition sows and gilts into farrowing pens
 Checking nursing sows and gilts in farrowing pens
 Weaning of piglets
 Repair of farm fences, fitting and repair of equipments
 Weekly scrubbing and white washing of the interiors of feed and water troughs
 Attending to farm purchases

Exercise
Observe and record the farm routines in institute Pig farm.

48
Practical Lesson –2 Date:

PIG BEHAVIOR, HANDLING AND RESTRAINING OF PIGS

Learning objectives
 To record physiological parameters (Rectal temperature, Pulse rate and Respiration rate) and
Blood collection
 To examine the skin surface and treat simple wounds
 To determine the stage of pregnancy and surgical operations
 To identify the animal numbers
 For easy transportation of animal (During loading and unloading)
Procedure
Handling:
 First level of handling by simple human animal contact by making your presence is to use
voice.
 One of the best ways of second very important aid to good husbandry is touch (Confined
adult animals).
 These two associated with feeding. These three procedures, the use of voice, touch and
food will enable even an in experienced stock person to keep it still and in one place along
enough for treatment to be carried out.
Use of aids:
 The simplest form of aid is a small wooden board with a handle – hole near the top. This
board can be used to apply pressure to the side, near ( or ) front of the pig to indicate the
direction you wish to take
 Large board is very useful for restraining a single large pig ( or ) several smaller pigs in a
corner of the pen by firm grasp of the tail with a little forward pressure will help to direct
the pig along a desired pathway ( or ) keep it in a particular position.
Restraining:
Restraint varies from confinement in an unnatural enclosure to complete restriction of muscular activity.
Methods:
1. Physical
2. Chemical
I. Physical restraint
a. Smaller groups (up to 20 kg) -
1. Held against operator’s chest
2. Restraining the pigs by holding its front leg
3. Restraining the pig by holding its rear leg
b. Medium pigs
1. Restraining the pigs on its side
2. Trough method
c.Heavier pigs
1. Snout snare 2. Hog shackle method 3. Hobble method 4. Tongs method
5. By rope method
Snout snare
The most useful method to restraint a large pig for these procedures is to use a small wire (or) rope
that has a running loop at one end. The loop is slipped over the upper jaw and positioned behind the
tusks so that when it is tightened by pulling back on the handle, the pig’s head in a forward and upward
direction. It cannot slip off if the pig pulls vigorously (or) shake its head.

II. Chemical restraint:

This method of restraining used for blood collection, radiography and other diagnostic procedures.
i) Acepromazine – 0.22 mg / kg body weight I/M provides mild sedation
ii) If immobilization is necessary ketamine – 10 – 20 mg / kg body weight
iii) Tiletamine / Telazol – 2 -4 mg / kg body weight
Smaller pigs may be physically restrained and masked down by isoflurane inhalation anesthesia for
less than 10 kg body weight animal.
49
 Pig catcher By Board method Snout snare

Rope method Restraining the pig by its rear legs

Exercise
1.Observe the pig behavior
2. Handle and restrain the different age group animal

50
Practical Lesson –3 Date
BREEDING MANAGEMENT: DETECTION OF HEAT AND MATING
METHODS
Learning objectives
 To know the time of insemination / mating
 To avoid indiscriminate breeding
 To get more litter size
 To know the reproductive cycle of gilts/sows
 To know estrous symptoms in pigs
Procedure
Detection of heat
Successful swine breeding and high conception rate depends on the ability to identify the sow or
gilt in heat
i. Vulval swelling, reddening of vulva is noticed 2-6 days prior to estrus. reddening are
readily detectable in gilts but more difficult to identify in case of sows
ii. In some case vaginal discharge is noticed
iii. The animal will be excited, restless and the activity level will be increased and a typical
grunt indicates pig in heat
iv. Oestrus gilts frequently mount on other sows and allow them to be mounted
v. ‘Standing heat reflex’ will be exhibited during estrus. Which describes the female mating
stance and this consist of immobilization, arching back and in some breed cocking of ears
are noticed.
vi. Another important symptom which known as standing heat test or riding test or back
pressure test in is the sow remains immobile with erected ear when normal pressure is
applied to lumbo sacral region. This test can be performed in front of boar or adjacent to
a boar pen. This method is the ideal method for heat detection in pigs.
vii. Reduced appetite, frequent urination, mounting and standing for mounting can also be
considered as heat symptom
Flushing
Increase the daily feed from 2 weeks before until one week after breeding is called flushing.
Flushing has been found to increase litter size. Gilts should be flushed by increasing the conventional
ration about 3 kg per day. This will increase the percentage of estrusoccurrence, improvement in
physical condition of female, prominent heat symptoms, prompt post weaning estrus, increase
ovulation rate, litter size and more uniform litter sizeand minimum embryonic loss.

standing heat test or riding test or Hand mating

back pressure test

Mating management
Different method of mating is
51
 Hand mating: In this method bring the sows to the boar for individual service when they are in
standing heat. It most common method of mating in pure bred herds. In this method the boar is
more efficiently used. The farrowing rate is more accurate. The repeat breeder and sterile sows can
be detected easily and culled regularly. Breeding defects can be detected easily.
 Pen mating: in this method one boar is allowed in the sow pen (8-10) for detecting heat and mating.
There is a chance for over usage of boar. Record maintenance in this method is difficult.
 Flock or herd mating: in this method the boar is permitted for run with the sows. Mature boar can
usually satisfactorily serve 15-20 sows in pasture mating system. Young boars not more than 8 to 10
gilts.
Exercise
1. Identify the estrus of sow/gilt and do the standing heat test
2. Allow the estrus animals to hand mating

52
 Practical Lesson –4 Date :
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF PIGS DURING GESTATION,
FARROWING AND LACTATING SOW
Learning objectives
 To know the signs of gestation and farrowing
 To know how to get healthy litter
 To know the care and management of pregnant animals
 To know the gestation problem
 To know the farrowing problem
Care and management of sows during gestation
 Record the date of mating to determine the expected date of farrowing. Pregnancy can be
detected either by visual inspection or by means of an ultrasound device.
 Keep sty clean, dry, non-slippery and provide 2.7m 2 space per animal.
 Do not allow to mix pregnant gilts/ sows with other animals to avoid fighting which may
lead to skidding.
 Provide an adequate physical environment for bred females to avoid stress.
 Provide bedding 8 – 10 cm chopped straw under covered area.
 Allow the animal for grazing to leguminous greens. Feed bred females a 16 % protein ration
at a rate of 2.0 to 2.5 kg per day for first 75 days after breeding.
 Do not over feed, increase the feeding level to 3 to 3.5 kg per day last 35 to 45 days of
gestation.
 Gestational weight gain should be 25 to 35 kg.
 Vaccinate bred sows/gilts for infectious disease of swine, 20 to 30 days before farrowing.
 Deworming gilts and sows 3 to 4 weeks before expected date of farrowing.
 Control external parasites, particularly lice and mange infestation give medicated wallow
only after they have been watered.
 Keep plenty of clean water available at all times.
 Provide sufficient exercise to the pregnant sows during the gestation period it will reduce
difficulty at farrowing.
Care and management of sows before and during farrowing:
 Seven to ten days before the expected date of farrowing the advanced stage of pregnant
animals should be moved to farrowing sty.
 Before moving, the farrowing pen should be prepared. Farrowing pen should be thoroughly
scrubbed, cleaned and disinfect the farrowing quarters, use farrowing crate or stalls to limit
the movement of sows and thereby reduce crushing of piglets.
 The sow should be kept calm and comfortable as possible. Do not disturb the sow once
farrowing has begun.
 Provide with ad-lib clean water, the ration should be made bulky by substituting one third of
the regular ration with wheat bran. The amount of ration fed should also be reduced one
third till the sow farrows.
 The sow should be closely watched for determine the approximate time of farrowing and
feed should not be given 12 – 24 hours before farrowing because it will interfere with
expulsion of fetus.
 The farrowing pen should be fitted with ‘guard rails’ or ‘farrowing crate’ to protect the
young piglets from crushing by the mother. The rails should be 9 inches from the floor and
12 inches from the wall.
 An attendant should be there when sow farrow, which will help to prevent loss of piglets
during farrowing
 The placenta drops one after another and within two hours this will complete
 The piglets should be allowed to suckle after birth. Normally they suckle 8 to 10 times in 24
hours in the initial period.
Signs of pregnancy and farrowing
1. Female become more docile during pregnancy and the physical activity will be reduced due to
increase in weight during advanced pregnancy
53
 2. The development of mammary system is another indication of pregnancy. Secretions in the
lumen of the duct begin by 75th day of pregnancy and by 90th day the enlargement of gland is
easily visible. By about 114 days [a few hours before parturition] the glands are full of colostrum
and lactation begins when the first piglet is born. Normally gilts will show some signs of udder
development after 2 months of pregnancy. A sow normally shows signs of new udder
development some 2 to 3 weeks before farrowing.
3. Some time pregnant sow may show signs of excitement and often bite walls and fences seeking
outlet
4. 1 to 3 days before farrowing the pitch of voice may be lowered and the sow may begin to
prepare nest for her litter
5. Farrowing in the morning and early afternoon is a rare thing; normally farrowing appears to
follow a diurnal pattern, more frequently in late afternoon and most frequently at night.
6. Duration of farrowing varies from 2 to 24 hours in normal parturition. The sow often takes rest in
between expulsion of piglets.
Management of lactating sows
1. The weight as well as the vigorous of weaning pig is dependent to a great extend on the care
and management of lactating sows. During the lactation period heavy nutrient loss may occur
through the milk. Nearly 180 to 185 kg milk produced during the lactation period (56 days). The
peak milk yield attains at 3 weeks of age. Hence up to 1 month of lactation high nutrient diet is
essential.
2. Ad libitum clean drinking water should be provided at all times.
3. Keeping the farrowing sty clean, cool and dry to avoid MMA syndrome (Mastitis, metritis and
agalactia).
4. If the litter size is large the litter may be split into two or three groups, based on their size, allow
the smaller group first followed by the larger. This type of milk feeding is called “split up
suckling” or split milk feeding.
Exercise
1. Note down the pregnant animal behavior
2. Observe the furrowing and suckling

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 Practical Lesson –5 Date :
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF PIGLETS

Learning objectives
 To know the care and management of Suckling piglets
 To know the method of identification followed at farm
 To improve the feeding behavior of the piglets
 To give the healthy environment
Procedure
Management of suckling piglets
The baby pig begins to explore his environment within a few minutes after birth and soon finds
his way to nipple and begins to suckle. Because of his curiosity, it is essential that the pen environment
should be clean to minimize chance of exposure to disease and parasite. Normally individual piglets
identify themselves with a particular teat during the first few days of life and jealously protect their
access to it. The teat order will be set within 10 days. But in small litter it is common for a piglet to claim
more than one nipple. On the other hand in larger litters, the weakest pig may starve because they
cannot compete for a nipple.
The temperature regulatory mechanism is ill-developed in newborn piglets. The baby piglet’s
body temperature falls very rapidly when environmental temperature falls. Normally they have
subnormal body temperature during first 30 minutes and it returns to normal during next 48 hours.
Hence the pen should be maintained at 24 to 28C until the piglets are three to four days old. This can
be achieved by providing artificial lighting using electric bulbs or infrared bulbs. This can be provided at
the creep feeding space.
1. To measure the production performance of the sow piglets birth weight should be measured.
2. To prevent ‘naval ill’ the naval card should be tied off to prevent loss of blood and it should be
cut 3-5 cm distal to the legation and this portion should be dipped in a solution of 2% iodine.
3. The ‘needle teeth’ should be clipped. The baby piglets have four pair of sharp teeth two on each
jaw called needle teeth or wolf teeth. They are of no practical value to the pigs themselves and
they may irritate the sow’s udder during nursing and cause injury to other piglets while fighting
or playing. Therefore it is advisable to clip these needle teeth shortly after birth [within 3 days].
4. Male piglets not required for breeding are generally castrated as this operation generally
facilitates easy of management and prevent indiscriminate breeding. This operation should be
done within 2 to 3 weeks. Pigs are mostly castrated with knife. Hold the piglet in a convenient
position and wash the testicles. With a sharp knife, slit the scrotum on each side, as each testicle
is pressed outward. Extends both cuts well down to allow for proper drainage and cut deep
enough to extend through the scrotum. Expose the testicles, grasp it and along with its
membranes pick the cord out and break it by twisting or cutting. Scrotum and surrounding parts
must again by disinfect thoroughly. Pour little antibiotic powder to prevent infection or other
complications.
5. Cutting of tails is advisable whenever pigs are to be raised in total confinement. This can be
done at the time of needle teeth clipping using side cutting pliers.
6. Provide supplemental iron injection 2 ml I/M at third day and third week. Because of low body
storage in the newborn piglets. Pigs are born with only 40 to 50 mg of Fe. The actual need is 7 to
16 mg of absorbed Fe/day. Due to low iron content of colostrum and milk (Fe content of
colostrum - 2 ppm and Fe content of milk - 1 ppm) . Thus, pigs receive no more than 1 mg/day
from milk vs the requirement of 7-16 mg.
7. Feed an 20 per cent crude protein pig starter beginning at two to three weeks
8. Orphan Pigs:
The ‘orphan pig’ results when the sow dies after farrowing, mastitis, lactation failure or litter
larger than the sow is able to raise.
Two possibilities are there to raise ‘orphan pigs’
[1] adaptation by a foster sow
[2] raising by cow milk or sow milk replacer

Adaptation by a foster sow: if another sow has farrowed within a short period before or after
birth of the orphaned litter, the piglets may be transferred to her. This transfer must be done within
few days after farrowing because those mammary glands that are not used soon stops their milk
production. To insure acceptance of new pigs, the sow should be separated from her own litter while
55
the new pigs are combined, and a disinfectant or other odorous materials should be sprinkled on all the
pigs to disguise odour.
Raising by cow milk or sow milk replacer: Pigs raised on cow milk or sow milk replacer have a strong
suckling instinct and will suckle the ear and naval of other pigs when kept together causing unrest that
drains their strength. This can be avoided by housing them individually for the first two weeks.
 Feeding should be as frequent as possible to stimulate normal nursing pattern
[ feeding once in every hours for few minutes]
 The first feeding should be given during the first 12 hours if possible
 The piglets should be trained to drink from shallow bowl. It can be done by pushing their
snout into the milk. After one or two feeding they learn to consume milk quickly from the
bowl.
Diet composition of a sow milk replacer
Sl no Constituent composition Sl no Constituent composition
1 Casein 44.3 4 Soya lecithin 2.00
2 Glucose 44.1 5 Vitamin and mineral 10.60
3 Lard 33.00 6 Water To one liter

A readily available sow milk replacer is one egg thoroughly mixed in 1 lit of cow milk with 1/8
teaspoon full of ferrous sulfate.

External heat source Castration

Naval card / Umbilical card cutting

Ear notching Ear Notcher

56
 Needle teeth cutting Iron Injection

Ear Tagging Piglet Weighment

Exercise
Do the needful care and management of day old piglets.

57
 Practical Lesson –6 Date:
HOUSING OF PIGS
Learning objectives
 To know about the importance of shelter to the animals and its components
 To follow scientific management farm practices like feeding, watering, health management etc
The accommodation for pigs is called piggery or pigsty. Well designed houses are necessary for their
intensive system of rearing.
Location
The piggery unit should be 15 meters average from dwelling and 30 meters away from dairies,
animal and poultry hours and food grain storage.
The pigsty can be classified into,
1. Dry sow and gilt sty.
2. Farrowing sty.
3. Board sty.
4. Fattening / Weaner sty.
5. Sick sty.
Dry Sow and gilt sty:
It is meant for housing dry sow and gilt Each sty shall normally have not more than 40 pens
under one roof and these pens shall be arranged in two rows. Each pen shall accommodation fire to ten
(better five animals) depending upon the stage of pregnancy.
Farrowing Pen
1. It is meant for housing sow /gilt in advance storage of pregnancy. We construct on farrowing pen
for each five sows or gilt.
2. Each farrowing pen shall normally contain not more than 40 pen under one roof and each pen
shall accommodate not more than one animal with litter.
3. Fittings in the farrowing pen
a) Farrowing crate:The farrowing crate is made of steel pipes or round steel rods and
should be designed in such a way to allow enough free space behind her for easy
farrowing and to prevent piglets from being overlaid. Enough walking space for the
piglets should also be allowed
b) Guard rails – guard rails are fixed on the sides of the wall to prevent the crusting of
young piglets by the movements of the sow Guard rails are up to iron with 2 ½ inches
thickness and fixed 12 inches from the floor and 9 inches from the wall in all sides of the
pen.
c) Creep Feeding Champers - Creep feeding is the special palatable feed with high protein
18-22% provided to the young piglets. It is provided in the creep feeding space so that
sow cannot take the creep feed lighting arrangement can also be done at the creep
feeding space to give warmth to the young piglets.
Boar Sty:
Each boar sty shall normally have not more than 24 pens under one roof and each pen shall
accommodation not more than one animal.

Fattening Sty:
Each fattening sty shall normally have not more than 20 pens under one oneroof and each pen
may have 30 animals kept for fattening purpose.

Sty for weaner / Growing piglets:

Each sty shall normally have not more than 30 pens under one roof. Each pen many
accommodate 10-20 animals of age ranging from 2 months to 6 months. Normally for each need a
grower pen.

Sick Sty:
The number of pens under this sty shall depend upon the number of animals kept in farm.
Type of Animal Floor space (m2) Maximum animal per pen
58
 Covered area open
Boar 9 12 one
Dry sow/gilt 1.8 1.8 5 to 10
Farrowing pen 9 12 one
Grower pen 0.9 0.9 10 to 20
Feeding space and watering space requirement
Type of Feeding space watering Width of the feeder Depth Inner height
Animal (cm) space(cm) &waterer(cm) (cm) (cm)
Adult pig 60-75 6-7.5 50 20 25
Growing pig 25-35 2.5-3.5 30 15 20

Exercise
Draw a model sty for maintaining 10+2 breeding stock and its piglets up to market at 9 months.
DRAW
DD
DD

59
 Practical Lesson –7 Date :

SWINE FEEDS, FEEDING AND WATERING

Learning objectives
 To know about different feeding programme of swine
 To know about different feeding and watering practices to be followed in swine farm

International standard of feed requirements and growth expected in pigs

Amount of feed
Weight Crude protein Daily gain
Period Days neeed per pig
(kg) % expected
(kg)
Pre Starter 2-5 1-21 24 1.5-2.0 150
Starter 5-15 22-56 22/20 9.0-11.0 300
Grower 15-35 57-90 18 50-60 580
Grower and
35-90 91-80 14 140-150 600
Finisher
Feeding of Boar:
The protein requirement for breeding board is 14% and during the non breedingseasons
2Kg of concentrate is sufficient six to eight week prior to breeding season the ration can be increased to
2.5 Kg.
Feeding of Sow:
Feed should contain 14% crude protein for pregnant sow around 2 Kg concentrate with good
quality legume pasture is sufficient and increased to 2.5 Kg during last 3-4 weeks prior to farming.
Exercise
1. Formulate a swine feed formula for fattening purpose
2. Write a note on swill feeding in swine

60
 Practical Lesson –8 Date:
IDENTIFICATION OF PIGS
Learning objectives
 To study about the different methods of identification of swine.
 To know about the merits and demerits of each method of identification

Pigs can be permanently identified by notching or tattooing their ears. Tags are more often used
to renumber stock already identified by notching or tattooing.
Ear tags
Once gilts and boars have been selected from within the herd or brought into it, they can be
identified with easy-to-read numbered plastic tags. There are varying shapes and types of ear tags.
Some tags are pre-numbered, others are supplied blank and can be numbered with a special pen.
Several colour choices are available to increase coding possibilities. Tags are applied with special
applicator pliers, usually in the front of the ear to reduce risk of the tag being torn out e.g. by fighting.
Advantage: Most reliable method very easy to apply and read tags
Disadvantage Numbered ear tags are not suitable for pigs penned together as the tags can be lost
Ear notching How to number it
Ear notching is best done on piglets a few days after farrowing. The notches must be carefully
done so they can be easily read when the pigs get older. Notches at the base of pigs' ears need to be cut
deeper than those nearer the tip otherwise they may grow over in time. If notches are too near the
curved base of the ear they could pass around the curve with age and be overlooked. On the other
hand, notches clipped near the tip of the ear should not be too deep otherwise the tip of the ear may
droop. Shallow notches in this upper section of the ear are easily read. Ear notching should not be done
too close to the head along the top of the ear or the ear may droop.Basically, a position notched in the
ear corresponds to a number. In some systems, notches are required close together (double-notching)
in the same position.

The combination of numbers can:

 identify a litter with the same number as their dam e.g. all piglets from sow number 51 would
have that number notched in their ears.
 identify a litter with its own litter number - one ear could be notched with the birth week
number and the other with the order of birth in that week e.g. the fifth litter born in week 44
would be marked 44 in the left ear, 5 in the right.
 identify each pig in the litter - this numbering system is used in research institutions and in some
piggeries where individual pig performance is measured. One ear is notched to identify the dam,
week or litter number, while the other ear shows a within-litter pig number.
Advantage: Ear-notched pigs can be easily identified from a short distance and the notching remains
visible for the life of the pig
Disadvantage: Mismarking and Misreading may occur especially initially with inexperienced staff.
Ear tattooing
The equipment required is a set of tattoo pliers, three or four sets of 9 mm needle blocks
numbered from 0 to 9 and a suitable tattooing ink or paste. The thinner part of the lower ear (inside or
outside) is most suitable for tattooing. The needle points of the tattoo must be covered with tattooing
ink; a toothbrush is useful for this, alternatively, dip the needle blocks into an ink-soaked pad. The
needles should completely pierce the pig's ear, avoiding veins where possible. After tattooing,
thoroughly rub ink into the puncture marks.

61
Advantage: It is as permanent and applied once in an animal’s lifetime. It can be used on animals of any
age, whether small or large stock
Disadvantage: Tattoos are hard to read require close examination Ear tattoo equipment (pliers and
numerals) is more expensive than ear notching pliers.
Electronic identification
Thistechnologyisto identify pigs through electronic implants. An injectable radio transponder,
which contains the pig's identification number is implanted before weaning. The best site seems to be
under the skin of the neck at the base of the ear. Alternatively, the transponder may be embedded in an
ear tag. A receiver unit must be able to detect signals from the transponder at a distance of 30 to 60 cm
from the pig, preferably without touching the animal. The number may be picked up on a portable
receiver unit or stationary antenna at gates or fences. These units can then be attached to computers
for information retrieval. The transponder is removed and destroyed after slaughtering the pig.
Advantage: The electronic identification provide accurate information for management purposes and
easy for recording different data
Disadvantage The system is costly if a large initial outlay is required, as computers, software, data
communication and individual transponders are required.

Exercise
1. Write the purpose of pig identification
2. Draw the diagram showing animal number 150 by ear notching method

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Practical Lesson –9 Date:
BREEDING STRATEGY FOR PIGS
Learning objectives
1. Breeding Strategy to be followed at Instructional Farm
(a) Breeding objective. (b) Breeding System

Breeding objective for Pig : Production of pork (meat)

Breeding system:

Selective Breeding

Cross Breeding

Practical applicability of Inbreeding for pig

Mating system

Molecular Breeding
Marker assisted Breeding

Genomic selection

Breeding policy of Pig followed in Indian context

Practical exercise for the formulation of Breeding strategy for pig in particular agroclimatic region with
particular breed available

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Practical Lesson –10 Date:

CONSERVATION OF BREED
Concept of Breed:

Breeds of pig
i). Indigenous breeds of pig:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

ii) Exotic breeds of pig:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Breeds of pig
i). Indigenous breeds of pig:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

ii) Exotic breeds of pig:

Name of Breed Breeding tract Unique features

Biomorphometry estimation and morphological characterization (Practical)

Indigenous breeds of pig

Exotic breeds of pig

Conservation

Preservation

In situ conservation

Ex-situ conservation

Effective population size

Practical exercise for pig:

64
Practical Lesson –11 Date:

SELECTION OF ANIMALS IN FARM

Selection:

Importance of selection:

Culling:

Basis of selection

Method of selection

Selection index

Commonly employed selection index

65
Practical Lesson –12 Date:

GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF PIG

Genetic gain:

Selection differential:

Intensity of selection

Generation interval

Heritability

Variance

Practical problems for calculation of genetic gain:

66
Practical Lesson –13 Date:
DISEASE CONTROL
Learning objectives
 To know about different diseases affecting swine
 To know the vaccination schedule followed in a swine farm
Removing existing source of infection
1. Most of the disease producing organisms will not survive outside the body of pig for long time
hence keeping the pen empty 3 to 4 weeks will remove most of the organisms.
2. Rotational use of pasture, farrowing pen, and feeding area also help in minimizing the number
of parasite eggs and in turn the possibility of re infection.
Disinfecting the building and equipment
1. All the manure should be removed completely from the floor and wall through scrubbing, All the
equipments should be scrubbed and then washed with hot water and lye [sodium hydroxide
solution normally 2% is sufficient]
2. Drinking bowels and feed trough should be scrubbed individually and washed with standard
disinfectant.
3. Partition, floor, wall, manager, feed rack should be applied with heavy even coating of lime wash,
which can be prepared by mixing 0.45 liter of water along with standard disinfectants.
4. If the flooring is made up of earth, it is better to remove 15cm of topsoil and it should be replaced
with good clean fresh soil.
5. Effective disinfectants available in the market are cresol [2-3%]; phenol [1-2%] and Lysol.
Exercise
Write vaccination schedule ofpig.
Write prevention strategy against Piglets anemia.

67
 Practical Lesson –14 Date:
RECORD MAINTENANCE
Learning objectives
 To assess the growth and reproductive performance
 Help in systematic breeding programme for improvement of herd
 Price fixation for sales and purchase of livestock and products
 For better supervision and management
 Ascertaining the income and expenditure of pig farms
List of registers to be maintained for pigs
1. Birth register
2. Young stock register
3. Adult stock register
4. Live stock account register
5. Mortality register
6. Disposal register
7. Veterinary register
8. Feed register
9. Farrowing and growth record
10. Record of service
11. Boar performance
12. Sow performance
13. Feed efficiency record

Exercise
Write a detail report on role of records in piggery farming

68
Practical Lesson –1 Date:

FAMILIARIZATION WITH SOME PRE-KHARIF AND KHARIF FODDERS

Learning objectives:
To get familiarized with somePre-kharifandkharif fodders and record some information on
them
Procedures:
i. Visited a fodder farm
ii. Collected plant sample, seeds, leaves etc. and got myself familiarized with them
iii. Collected information are kept accordingly in the note book

Exercise
Common name Scientific name Family Variety (Annual/ Other
perennial ) characteristics

69
Practical Lesson –2 Date:

FAMILIARIZATION WITH SOME PRE-KHARIF AND KHARIF FODDERS

Learning objectives:
To get familiarized with some Pre-kharifand kharif fodders and record some information on
them
Procedures:
i. Visited a fodder farm
ii. Collected plant sample, seeds, leaves etc. and got myself familiarized with them
iii. Collected information are kept accordingly in the note book

Exercise
Common name Scientific name Family Variety (Annual/ Other
perennial ) characteristics

70
Practical Lesson –3 Date:
RECORD KEEPING IN FODDER FARM-I
Learning objectives:
i) To preserve information for future use
ii) To get knowledge on importance of record keeping in a farm

Exercise

Sl. no Name of the register Purpose

1. Agricultural input Register :

2. Fodder production Register :

3. Individual fodder crop Register :

4. Fodder selling/Sale proceed of fodder :

5. Daily operation Register :

6. Cash book

7. Attendance register of farm labourer

8. Tractor/Power tiller log book

9. Stock register for permanent asset/Dead

stock

10. Implement Register

71
Practical Lesson –4 Date:

RECORD KEEPING IN FODDER FARM-II

Learning objectives:
1. To keep all entries pertaining to cultivation of fodder in a scientific manner.
2. To facilities the cultivation of cost cultivation of individual fodder.
Procedure
Individual fodder crop register
Exercise

Plot Area Name Date Human Cost of Bullock Cost of Tractor Tractor
No (acre/ha of the of Labour labour unit bullock power charge
) crop operatio (mandays) (Rs) (Rs/Pair) power (Rs/hour) (Rs)
(1) (3) n (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
(2) (4)

Canal Electric Diesel Land Land Miscellaneous Crop yield Remarks

charges, charge charge for rent revenue input charge, qt/acre/ha
Irrigation (Rs) shallow (Rs) seed fertilizer, 1st cutting
(Rs) pump(Rs) insecticides 2nd 3rd
etc,
(11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18)

72
Practical Lesson –5 Date:

COMMON IMPLEMENTS USED IN FODDER FARM

Learning objectives:
i) To acquire knowledge on implements commonly used in a fodder farm for different agronomic
practices
ii) To be acquainted with the parts of those implements and their usage

Exercise
Write uses of different implements demonstrated in the fodder farm

73
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Practical Lesson –6 Date:

METHOD OF PLANTING AND CALCULATION OF AMOUNT OF AMOUNT

OF CUTTINGS/SEEDS OF FODDER CROPS
Learning objectives:
i) To plant the fodder crop in proper spacing so as to ensure better aeration, light penetration and
growth of the crop.
ii) To estimate the no. of stem cuttings/rooted slips/suckers etc. required for a fodder farm prior to
planting.
Materials required:
i). Measuring tape, ii) Coconut rope, iii) Pegs, iv) Large sickle or chopper, v) Tynes, vi) Full
grown plant stem formaking ‘cuttings’ or rooted slip/suckers

Name of the crop: Hybrid napier, Nature of the crop: PerennialVariety:CO3

Method of planting:LineSpacing: 1 m X 1 m

Preparation of stem cuttings: Generally 3 budded stem cuttings are used for planting. With the help of
large sickle or ‘chopper’ stem of a full grown plant is cut into pieces in a way so that each piece contains
atleast 3 buds.

Amount of cuttings required:

Plot size: 15 m X 10 m Spacing: 1 m X 1 m
Required number of cuttings for the said plot = 150/1 x 2 [put 2 cuttings in a spot]
= 300
Note:
1 ha = 10000 sq. m = 2.5 acre = 7.5 bigha
1 acre = 100 decimal = 3 bigha
1 bigha = 20 cottah (katha)
1 cottah = 720 sq. ft

Exercise:
1. Find out the number of cuttings of guinea grass required for3 bighas of land(spacing of guinea grass 1
m x 0.5 m).

2. Calculate the amount of seeds required to sow 1 bigha of land with sorghum. (seed rate of sorghum
50 kg)

77
Practical Lesson –7 Date:

FAMILIARIZATION WITH FODDER CROP PATTERN AND CROPPING

SYSTEM
Learning objectives:
1. To gather knowledge about different patter of growing crops simultaneously on the same piece
of land.
2. To know the way to obtain green fodder throughout the year.
Agricultural Seasons Month
Kharif Mid June to mid October
Rabi Mid October to mid February
Prekharif/Zaid Mid February to mid June
Monocropping: It is a system of growing of a single crop on a piece of land. e.g. Growing of sorghum
only.
Mixcropping: It is a system of growing two or more crops simultaneously on a piece of land without
having definite row system. e.g. Growing of berseem along with fodder brassica (Chinese cabbage).
Intercropping: It is a system of growing two or more crops simultaneously on a piece of land in definite
row ratio. e.g. Growing of berseem in between the rows of hybrid napier.
Cropping system: Types or nature of crops grown in an area or a land varies in season to season of a
year depending upon the climatic condition, soil and local demand. The sequence of crops grown on a
piece of land in throughout the year is called crop rotation/cropping system.
Relay/ ‘Paira’ cropping: Sometimes sowing of crop is done few days before harvesting of previous crop
so that the seeds of the crop can germinate by using the residual soil moisture. This system is called
relay or ‘Paira’ cropping. e.g. Sowing of lathyrus (khesari) in paddy field.
Under irrigated conditions
Northern India.
i. Napier grass+Berseem/Fodder brassica - cowpea
ii. Lucerne+Jowar
iii. Maize+Cowpea/Bajra+Cowpea
iv. Jower+Cowpea/Jower+Guar
v. Berseem+Oat
vi. Maize+Cowpea
Central &Westtern India
i. Lucerne+Jowar
ii. Maize+Cowpea – Oats-bajra+Cowpea
iii. Maize+Cowpea – Oats - Cowpea
iv. Hybrid Napier+Cowpea-berseem
v. Jowar+Guar-Maize+Cowpea
Eastern India
i. Maize+Cowpea-Oats
ii. Maize+Cowpea - Berseem
iii. Maize+ rice bean - Berseem+fodder brassica
iv. Hybrid Nappier+Berseem – cowpea - ricebean
v. Maize+Cowpea-Berseem+Oats
Southern India
i. Hybrid Napier +Cowpea - Berseem
ii. Maize+Cowpea – Maize+Cowpea
iii. Sorghum + Cowpea-Maize+ Cowpea
Limited irrigation facility
i. Bajra+ Cowpea (Summer)
ii. Sorghum+ Cowpea (Kharif0)
iii. Oats (Rabi)
Dry Land Conditions
i. Jowar-fallow
ii. Bajra-fallow
iii. Guar-fallow
Exercise
Write few fodder based croppingsystems suitable for the state of West Bengal.

78
Practical Lesson –8 Date:
CALCULATION OF HERD STRENGTH
Learning objectives:
1. To know the equivalent livestock unit for each type of animal.
2. In order to calculate the requirement of green fodder in a farm, it is necessary to follow a
uniform practice.
3. It would be helpful to plan the copping scheme throughout the year.

Producers
1. It is found that in a dairy of 100 cows following will be the proportionate numbers of different
types of livestock’s.
Sl. No. Type of Animal Proportion Numbers
1. Cows Milk ¾ of total number i.e. ¾ ×100 75
Dry ¼ of total number 25

2. Followers Pregnant heifers (2- 1/5 of total number 20

3 years)
Breeding Heifers (1- ¼ of total number 25
2 years)
Below 1 year Nearly 1/3 of total number 30

3. Bulls 2
4. Bullocks 10

2. Calculate of herd strength based on body weight.

Sl. No. Type of Animal Number Average/Ani Body weight (kg)
mal Total
1. Cows Milch 75 400 (75×400)= 30,000
Dry 25 400 (25×400)= 10,000

2. Followers Pregnant heifers 20 300 (20×300)= 6,000

Breeding Heifers 25 200 (25×200)= 5,000
Below 1 year 30 100 (30×100)= 3,000

3. Bulls 2 500 (2×500)= 1,000

4. Bullocks 10 500 (10×500)= 5,000
Total 187 60,000
3. Calculation of herd strength based on livestock unit
One livestock unit = 400kg
Type of animal Equivalent livestock unit
Animal above 3years of age (cow, bullock, bull) 1.0

Heifers above 2years of age 0.80

Heifers 1to 2years of age 0.50

Calves below one year of age 0.35

Sl. No Type of Animal Number Equivalent Total Livestock

livestock unit Unit

1. Cows Milch 75 1.0 75

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 Dry 25 1.0 25

2. Heifers Heifers 20 0.80 16

(above 2 years of age)
Heifers (1 to 2 years of age) 25 0.50 12.50
Heifers (Below 1 year) 30 0.35 10.50

3. Bulls 2 1.00 2.00 2.00

4. Bullock 10 1.00 10.00
Total 187 151

3. Calculation of herd strength based on thumb rule

If a farm is having 100 mature cows then there will be another 100 animals which are young calf heifers,
bull and bullocks.
Say, we refer them as followers of mature cow. As a thumb rule we consider 2 follower = 1 mature cow;
then 100 followers – 50 mature cows. The total heard strength will be 100 + 50= 150 animal unit.

Exercise
1. Calculate the herd strength of a dairy farm of 60 adult milch cattle.

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Practical Lesson –9 Date:
CALCULATION OF GREEN FODDER REQUIREMENT
Learning objectives:
1. To know the way to calculate the requirement of green fodder round the year
2. To be acquainted with the season of cultivation of fodders as well as their yield.
3. To meet the demand in lean season.

Procedures
1. Calculate the daily requirement of green fodder in the farm having 100 cows, based on herd
strength. An average cow consumes 35-37 kg green fodder/day (when only green fodder is given
as feed)
Then for 100 cows dairy farm the requirement will be as follows
Adult cow = 100
So, Followers = 100 ≡ 50 adult cows
Total livestock unit = 150
They consume 150×36 kg/head/day
=5436kg (54qt/day green fodder)

2. Green fodder requirement in different seasons (when silage is feed in lean season)
Sl. No. Month Duration of Requirements of Remarks
month green fodder (qtl.)
1 August- September 2 54×2×30=3240
2 October-march 6 54×2/3×6×30=6480 Rest 2/3 will be
supplied
through silage
3 April-July 4 54×1/3×4×30=2160 Rest 1/3 will be
supplied
through silage
Total 12 month 11880qtl.

3. Calculation of green fodder required to produce silage

A mature cow consume 8.5 kg silage /day (When silage is only feed)
Total silage requirement/day = 150×18.5kg = 27.75 qtl.
Sl. No. Month Duration of Silage required Remarks
month (qt)
1 August- September 2 Nil
2 October-march 6 27.75×1/3×6×30 Rest 2/3 will be
=1665 supplied through
silage
3 April-July 4 27.75×2/3×4×30 Rest 1/3 will be
=2220 supplied through
silage
Total 12 month 3885 qtl.
We know that there is 20% shrinkage in silage making; so in order to produce 3885 qt of silage the green
fodder requirement is 3885×100 = 8456 qtl.
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Total green fodder requirement for the farm in one year = (11880+4856) qtl.
= 16736 qtl.
Exercise
1. Calculate the required amount of green fodder for a dairy farm having 60 adult cows.
i) When only green fodder is given.
ii) When silage is given in lean season.

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Practical Lesson –10 Date:

HARVESTING AND ESTIMATION OF YIELD OF FODDER CROPS

Learning objectives:
1. To harvest the crop at proper stage of growth so that it can give maximum nutritional output
2. To calculate the yield of green biomass of the fodder crop

Implements required
1. Measuring tape 2. Sickle 3. Balance

Procedure
Name of the fodder crop:
Stage of harvesting Plot size Yield /plot Yield (fresh
biomass/ha)

Main crop yield

1stratoon crop/1st cut yield
2ndratoon crop/2nd cut yield
3rdratoon crop/3rd cut yield

Total

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Practical Lesson –11 Date:

COST OF CULTIVATION FOR FODDER

Learning objectives:
1. To study the cost of production of different annual and perennial fodder crops
2. To decide the selling price of fodder and to determine the profit or loss of the crop
Name of crop =

Area =

Name of the Amount/No./Duration Cost per unit Total Cost(Rs.)

Operation

1.Ploughing
(Power tiller)

2.Bullock pair for

Laddering

3.Mannering
Organic-
Inorganic-

4.Seed
5.Irrigation
6.Labourer for seeding,
interculturaloperation
etc.
7.Labourer for
harvesting

8.Cost of carrying
Miscellaneous
(a)Rent (4….) /Land
Revenue
(b)Interest on
workingCapital@9%
(c)use of Insecticide
(d) Depreciation (10%)

Income = Total cost =

Net Return =

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Practical Lesson –12 Date:
PRESERVATION OF FODDER AS SILAGE
Learning objectives:
i) To preserve the green fodder for feeding during lean seasons,
ii) To avoid the wastage of green fodder
Material Required:
Green fodder, Urea, Molasses, Additives, Plastic bag or pit
Classification of Silage
1. Very Good Silage
It is clean, the taste is acidic, and has no butyric acid andmoulds. The pH is between 3.5 and
4.2. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen should be less than 10 per cent of the total nitrogen.
Uniform in moisture and green or brownish in colour. Taste is pleasing.
2. Good Silage
The taste is acidic. There may be traces of butyric acid. The pH is between 4.2 and 4.5. The amount
of ammoniacal nitrogen is 10-15 per cent of the total nitrogen. Other qualities are same as that of
very good silage.
3. Fair Silage
The silage is mixed with a little amount of butyric acid. There may be slight proteolysis along
with some mould. The pH is between 4.5 and 4.8. Colour of silage varies between tobacco brown to
dark brown.
4. Poor Silage
It has a bad smell due to high butyric acid and high proteolysis with pH is above 4.8. The silage
may be infested with moulds. Colour tends to be blackish and should not be fed.

Exercise
Write down the steps of preparing good quality silage and draw a picture of a silo.

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Practical Lesson –13 Date:

PRESERVATION OF FODDER AS HAY

Learning objectives:
i) To preserve the green fodder for feeding during lean seasons,
ii) To avoid the wastage of green fodder
Materials required
Green fodder, drying yard/rakes and Baler/storage place
Selection of Crop and Suitable Stage of Harvest
The quality hay can be prepared from the forages having soft and pliable stem. Oat is the best
crop for hay making as the crop has soft and pliable stem. Annual and perennial grasses are also suitable
for hay making. Legumes are also used for hay making but the problem of leaf shattering should be
taken care of by careful handling. Legumes like berseem, lucerne, cowpea etc., can be used for hay
making.
The crop should be harvested during the day time after the dew has dried off so that
plants when spread over the ground may dry evenly. Another factor which needs attention is
that the field should not be wet, otherwise uniform drying will not be effected. The crop cut
early is higher in protein, lower in crude fibre, contains more of vitamins, is more palatable and
leaf shedding will be less. The best time for cutting a crop for hay making is when it is one-third
to a half in blossom.

Exercise
Write down different methods of hay making with suitable drawings

85
Practical Lesson –14 Date:
DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY OF SILO
Learning objectives
i) To determine the capacity of silo so as to produce the required quantity of silage throughout the
year
ii) To build the silo accordingly
Procedures
Annual requirement of silage of a farm throughout the year
Adult cattle (when silage is the only feed) = 18 kg./day/head
Adult cattle (when 1/3 of ration comes from silage) = 10 kg./day/head
Adult cattle (when ½ of ration comes from silage) = 15 kg./day/head
 Carrying capacity of silage in rectangular or vertical silo is 18-20 kg/cu. ft (approx.)
 Carrying capacity of silage in trench silo is 14-18 kg/cu. Ft(approx.)

Calculations:
Determine the capacity of a vertical silo measuring 40 ft in height and 18 ft in diameter.

Volume of vertical silo = Area of base x height (h)

= π r2 h, where r=d/2=9 ft, h=40 ft

= 3.14 x 92 x 40 cu ft
= 10174

Carrying capacity of vertical silo is 20 kg/cu.ft (approx.)

Therefore, 10174 cu ft. silo pit can hold 10174 x 20 kg = 2034.8 qtl of silage.

Exercise:
i) Calculate the capacity of a rectangular pit silo measuring 6 cu. M (1 cu ft=0.0283 cu m)

ii) Calculate the measurements of a vertical silo pit for keeping 15000 kg silage. Given
height:diameter of the silo is 5:1.

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Practical Lesson –15 Date:
PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES OF AZOLLA
Azolla is a free floating water fern. It is a common bio-fertilizer in rice crop. The blue-green algae
(Anabaenaazollae) grow in symbiotic association with this fern and are responsible for nitrogen fixation.
Learning objectives
 To know about the production technology of azolla
Materials required
Polythene sheet or pit, soil, cow dung, super phosphate, seed material (azolla)
Requirements for growth:
Generally, Azolla needs 25 to 50 per cent of full sunlight for its normal growth. Water is the
basic requirement for the growth and multiplication of Azolla and is extremely sensitive to lack of water.
Maintenance of adequate water level (at least 4 inches in the pond) is essential. The species vary in their
requirement of ideal temperature. In general, the optimum is 20 C to 30 C. Temperatures above 37 C
will seriously affect the multiplication of Azolla. The optimum relative humidity is 85 to 90 per cent. The
optimum pH is 5 to 7.
Selection of location for the pond:
A suitable water source should be nearby for regular water supply. The site under partial shade
is ideal or else, shade has to be created to reduce the evaporation of water and also, for better growth
of Azolla.
Pond size and construction:
The size of pond depends on factors like number of animals, quantity of supplemental feed
required and availability of resources. For small holders, an area of 6 X 4 feet for Azolla cultivation can
produce about one kg of supplemental feed per day. Selected area should be cleaned and levelled. After
spreading the durable plastic sheet (Silpauline, a polythene tarpaulin) in the pond, all the sides have to
be secured properly by placing bricks over the side walls.
Production of Azolla
Sieved fertile soil mixed with cow dung and water need to be spread uniformly in the pond.
About one kilogram of fresh Azollaculture is needed for a pond of 6 X 4 feet size. It has to be applied
uniformly in the pond. Biogas slurry can also be used instead of dung. The depth of water should be four
to six inches.
Maintenance of the pond:
Application of about one kg of cow dung and about 100 grams of super phosphate once in two
weeks will ensure better growth of Azolla. Any litter or aquatic weeds seen in the pond should be
removed regularly.
Harvesting and feeding of Azolla:
Depending on the initial quantity of culture added, environmental conditions and nutrition,
Azolla's growth in the pond will be complete in about two to three weeks time. It can be harvested daily
after the full growth. Plastic sieves can be used to harvest the biomass from the pond's surface. About
800 to 900 grams of fresh Azolla(mean yield per day in a season) can be produced from an area of 6 X 4
feet. Azollacan be fed to the livestock either in fresh or dried form. It can be given directly or mixed with
concentrates to cattle, poultry, sheep, goat, pigs and rabbits. Azollahas to be washed thoroughly with
fresh water to remove the smell of dung.

Exercise
Feeding schedule of Azolla of different livestock

87