12/11/24, 11:42 PM CHAPTER 8 - NotebookLM
Introduction
● The lecturer's interest in brain development stems from the ability to study visual processing in infants using
EEG, allowing for comparisons between infants and adults. 1
● Brain development is not predetermined and can be influenced by factors like family income, even after
accounting for age, sex, race, and parental education. Low family income is correlated with smaller cortical
surface areas. 1 2
Three Perspectives on Brain Development
● Perspective 1: Brain structure influences behaviour. As brain structures mature, their corresponding
functions emerge and are reflected in observable behaviours. 2 3
● Perspective 2: Behaviour can predict changes in neural circuitry. The emergence of new abilities in behaviour
can suggest underlying neural maturation. For example, infants' inability to learn language suggests that the
necessary brain structures are not yet developed. 3 4
● Perspective 3: Factors like language, injury, or socioeconomic status (SES) impact both brain structure and
behaviour. By studying these factors, we can understand their effects on both brain and behaviour. 3 4
Neurobiology of Development
● Embryonic Similarities: Early embryos of different species, including humans, show striking physical
similarities. This observation challenged the idea of preformation, which proposed that embryos are simply
miniature versions of adults. Embryonic vertebrate nervous systems are also similar across species. 5 6
7
● Prenatal Stages:
○ Zygote: Fertilisation to 2 weeks 6
○ Embryo: 2 to 8 weeks 6
○ Fetus: 9 weeks to birth 6
● Key Developmental Events:
○ Day 1: Development begins with the formation of the zygote. 8
○ Day 2: The zygote starts dividing. 8
○ Day 15: The embryonic disc begins to form. 8
○ Day 49: The embryo starts resembling a miniature person. 9 10
○ Day 60: Sexual differentiation takes place in genitals and brain regions. 9
○ Day 100: The brain develops a distinctly human appearance. 9
○ 7 months: Gyri and sulci begin to form. 9
○ 9 months: The brain resembles an adult brain, although cellular structures might still differ. 10
● Formation of the Neural Tube:
○ Neural Plate: A thickened region of the ectodermal layer that forms around 3 weeks after conception. It
gives rise to the neural tube. 8
○ Neural Tube: A structure formed early in brain development. The brain and spinal cord develop from the
neural tube. 8 9
● Origins of Neurons and Glia:
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○ Neural Stem Cell: A multi-potent cell that gives rise to neurons and glia. It lines the neural tube and has a
vast capacity for self-renewal. It divides to produce two stem cells, one of which dies while the other
continues to divide. This process continues throughout life. 7
○ Subventricular Zone: The lining of neural stem cells surrounding the ventricles in adults. 11
○ Progenitor Cell: Derived from a stem cell, it migrates and produces non-dividing cells. These can
differentiate into neuroblasts (forming neurons) or glioblasts (forming glial cells). 11
● Cell Differentiation and Neurotrophic Factors:
○ Gene Expression: Specific genes are activated to produce different cell types. This process is influenced
by methylation. 12
○ Methylation: A methyl group (CH3) attaches to cytosine in the DNA sequence, blocking transcription and
altering gene expression during development. 12
○ Neurotrophic Factor: A chemical compound that supports growth and differentiation in developing
neurons and may help keep certain neurons alive in adulthood. 12
○ Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF): Promotes the transition from stem cell to progenitor cell. 12
○ Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF): Promotes the transition from progenitor cell to neuroblast. 12
● Stages of Brain Development:
1. Cell Birth (Neurogenesis; Gliogenesis): Begins around 7 weeks after conception and is mostly complete
by 5 months, except in the hippocampus, which continues to generate new cells throughout life. The brain
can better cope with injuries during this period. 13 14
2. Neural Migration: Begins soon after the generation of the first neurons and continues for 6 weeks in the
cortex (and throughout life in the hippocampus). Damage during this period can have significant
consequences. Radial glial cells guide migrating neurons to their destinations. 14 15
3. Cell Differentiation: Neuroblasts differentiate into specific neuron types. This process starts after cell
migration begins and is essentially complete at birth. Differentiation depends on genetic instructions,
timing, and signals from nearby cells. 15 16
4. Neural Maturation (Dendrite and Axon Growth): Happens after neurons reach their destinations and
differentiate. Neurons mature in two ways: dendritic growth (branching and growth of dendritic spines for
synapse formation) and axonal growth (extending axons to targets for synapse initiation). Maturation
continues for years and may even persist throughout adulthood in some brain areas. 16 17
■ Growth Cone: The growing tip of an axon 17
■ Filopod: A process at the end of a developing axon that searches for a target or samples the
intercellular environment 17
■ Cell Adhesion Molecule (CAM): Found on target cell surfaces and in the intercellular space, they
guide growth cones by either attracting or repelling them. 18
■ Tropic Molecule: Produced by target cells to attract specific growth cones. 18
5. Synaptogenesis (Formation of Synapses): The adult human cerebral cortex contains about 100 trillion
synapses. The general layout is genetically determined, with environmental cues and signals refining the
process. Simple synaptic contacts form around the 5th gestational month, followed by synaptic
development in deep cortical neurons by the 7th month. Synaptic development increases rapidly after
birth, particularly during the first year. 18 19
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6. Cell Death and Synaptic Pruning: The brain eliminates unnecessary cells and connections through
genetic signals, experience, reproductive hormones, and stress. The cortex thins in a caudal-rostral
gradient, mainly due to synaptic pruning. 19 20
■ Neural Darwinism Hypothesis: Cell death and synaptic pruning result from competition among
neurons for connections and resources. 20
■ Apoptosis: Genetically programmed cell death 20
7. Myelogenesis (Formation of Myelin): The formation of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes starts after most
neurogenesis is complete and continues throughout life. 20 21
■ Oligodendroglia: Forms myelin in the central nervous system 21
● Progress of Myelination:
○ Cortical myelination begins after birth and continues until at least age 20. Simpler functions are myelinated
earlier than complex ones. 21 22
● Unique Aspects of Frontal Lobe Development:
○ The frontal lobe matures last, extending beyond age 20. 22
○ Dendritic spine elimination continues well beyond age 20, stabilising around age 30. 22
○ The frontal lobe is highly susceptible to epigenetic influences. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) like
abuse or parental loss can predict physical and mental health in middle age. 22
○ Frontal lobe development trajectory correlates with adult intelligence. Two key features include cortical
thickness reduction and increased functional connectivity between medial frontal lobe regions, posterior
cingulate cortex, and lateral parietal lobe (known as the default network). 23
Behavioural Evidence of Neural Maturation
● Behaviours emerge only after the necessary neural structures have developed. Once in place, behaviours
develop rapidly through stages and are shaped by epigenetic factors. 24
● Motor Behaviours: Myelination of motor cortex neuron axons coincides with the development of reaching
and grasping. Finger movement control neurons myelinate around the time pincer grasp develops. Increased
motor dexterity is linked to decreased cortical thickness in the hand region of the left motor cortex in right-
handed individuals. 24
● Language Development: While language and motor skills typically develop together, language requires more
than controlled movements of the mouth, lips, and tongue. These movements develop well before children
can speak, and vocabulary development is gradual even with sufficient motor skills. 25
○ Age 1-2: Language onset; vocabulary begins expanding around age 2. 26
○ 15-24 months: Axons and dendrites in Broca's area become denser and more complex. 26
○ Age 2: Cell division and migration in language zones of the cerebral cortex are complete. 26
○ Age 2-12: Major changes occur in neuronal connectivity and myelination of speech zones. 26
○ Age 12: Language acquisition is largely complete. 26
● Development of Problem-Solving Ability: Children's strategies for understanding and exploring the world
change constantly. It's not just about acquiring new knowledge; there are fundamental shifts in how children
learn and solve problems. 27
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
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● Stage I: Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching,
mouthing); key phenomena include object permanence and stranger anxiety. 27 28
● Stage II: Preoperational (2-6 years): Representing things with words and images but lacking logical
reasoning; key phenomena include pretend play, egocentrism, and language development. 28
● Stage III: Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete
analogies, and performing arithmetical operations; key phenomena include conservation and mathematical
transformations. 28
● Stage IV: Formal Operational (12+ years): Reasoning abstractly; key phenomena include abstract logic and
potential for mature moral reasoning. 28
● Correlating Piaget's Stages with Brain Development:
○ Epstein (1979) identified five growth spurts in brain development. 28 29
○ The first four spurts align with the onset of Piaget's stages, while the last occurs around 14-16 years of
age. 29
○ These spurts are likely due to the growth of glial cells, blood vessels, myelin, and synapses. 29
Brain Development and the Environment
● Environmental experiences shape brain development, leading to structural differences that can impact
behaviour throughout life. 30
● Experience and Cortical Organisation:
○ Hebb (1947) proposed that stimulating environments enhance intellectual development. 31
○ Rats raised in enriched environments exhibit more and larger synapses, as well as more and larger
astrocytes, compared to those raised in standard cages. 31 32
○ Rats raised in Hebb's kitchen outperformed caged rats in problem-solving tasks, highlighting the benefits
of enriched environments. 32
● Prenatal and Postnatal Effects:
○ Chemoaffinity Hypothesis (Sperry, 1963): Neurons or their axons and dendrites are guided towards a
signalling chemical (e.g., tropic molecules) that indicates the general pathway. The final location is
determined by activity during postnatal experience. Adjacent retinal neurons that are active
simultaneously tend to seek the same location. 33
○ Ocular Dominance Columns: Fine-tuning of neural connections is activity-dependent. 33 34
○ Amblyopia: Reduced vision in one eye due to disuse, often caused by misalignment of the eyes. The lazy
eye's input does not contribute to neural connection fine-tuning. 34
● Critical Periods for Experience and Brain Development:
○ Critical Period (or Sensitive Period): A developmental window where certain events have long-lasting
effects on the brain. 34
○ Imprinting: A process where an animal forms attachments to objects or animals during a critical period,
leading to enlarged synapses in the forebrain. 35
○ Adolescence: A critical period characterised by gonadal hormone release, increased brain plasticity, and
vulnerability to various experiences. 35
● Gonadal (Sex) Hormones:
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○ Testosterone (Androgen): Controls masculine characteristics and alters the brain during a brief period of
prenatal development. 36
○ Estrogens: Play a similar role in female characteristics. 36
○ Both testosterone and estrogen impact brain development, influencing factors like neuron formation and
death, cell growth, dendritic branching, synaptic growth, and synapse activity. These effects extend
beyond brain areas related to sexual behaviour and can influence higher functions like cognition. 36
● Sex Differences in Brain Volume:
○ Certain brain areas are larger in females, while others are larger in males. 37
○ These differences are related to the distribution of estrogen and testosterone receptors. 37
● Gut Bacteria and Brain Development:
○ Microbiome: The gut bacteria that interact with the enteric nervous system (ENS). 38
○ The early postnatal period might be crucial for microbiota-brain interactions. 38
○ Manipulating gut bacteria in a mouse model of autism restored normal vocalizations, demonstrating the
influence of gut bacteria on behaviour. 38
○ Psychobiotics: Treatments using live bacteria (probiotics) or compounds that promote gut bacteria
growth (prebiotics). 38
Abnormal Experience and Brain Development
● Early deprivation of sensory experiences can lead to dendritic atrophy, while early social deprivation can
severely affect intellectual and social behaviours later in life. Short-term deprivation might be overcome with
intervention. 38
● Early life stress is associated with:
○ Increased amygdala size 39
○ Decreased hippocampus size 39
○ Development of depression and anxiety disorders later in life 39
● Effects of Adverse Experience on Prenatal Development:
○ The effects of fetal experiences vary depending on the developmental stage, with the central nervous
system being particularly vulnerable between weeks 4 and 8. 40
○ Stress at or near birth can lead to behavioural abnormalities in children and adults. 40
○ Even preconception experiences can have epigenetic effects on offspring, with the father's preconception
experiences having a greater impact due to sperm's continuous renewal compared to the early formation
of eggs. 40
● Injury and Brain Development:
○ The worst time for brain injury is during the last half of the intrauterine period and the first few months
after birth, coinciding with the completion of cell migration. 41
○ The brain is more resilient to injury during the first few years after birth, showing better recovery from
language impairments compared to adults. 41
○ Studies in rats show that frontal cortex damage at birth leads to atrophied cortical neurons in adulthood,
while damage at 10 days results in expanded dendritic fields and denser spines. 41
● Abnormal Cell Migration and Differentiation:
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○ Faulty connections during development can cause various problems. For example, schizophrenia is
associated with disorganized pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus. 42
○ Having too many synapses (due to pruning failure) can also lead to neural dysfunction. 42
○ The behavioural effects of brain damage to a particular area might not be evident until that area matures.
For instance, frontal lobe damage effects might not appear until adolescence because the frontal lobes
continue to develop. 43
● Developmental Disability:
○ Purpura (1974) found reduced dendritic growth in children with mental retardation compared to typically
developing children, suggesting fewer brain connections. 43
● Developing a Normal Brain:
○ Plasticity: The brain's ability to repair minor developmental abnormalities. 44
○ Brain development falls within a range of normality, with most individuals developing a brain within this
range. 44
○ Plasticity continues into older adulthood.
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