PHYSICAL AND MOTOR

DEVELOPMENT OF
CHILDREN AND
ADOLESCENTS
 & MO TO R
HYSIC A L
P E NT
E VE LOP M
D
 EARLY CHILDHOOD

Age range: 2 to 6 years old

Known to us as "preschool age"
• Overall growth is clearly in height and weight. It is manifested
at the earliest stage usually following a cephalocaudal trend
in the lengthening of the neck and torso, followed by the legs.
Brain and neck develop earlier than legs and trunks, following
the proximodistal pattern; development occurs from the
center outward.
• According to Tanner(1990) genetic factors strongly
influence physical characteristics. However, growth is not
seen as influenced only by genetics factors but also by
nutrition, physical and psychological disorders and even
climate.
• Motor development improves
with age. Such motor skills
involve large muscle movement
or GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
along with FINE MOTOR
SKILLS, controlled by small
muscles.

• Examples of fine motor skills

are in-hand manipulation and bi-
manual coordination.
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Age range: 6 ~ 12 years

Known as ”Grade 1 to 6 pupils "
• It is between ages 6 and 12 that
children grow 2 to 3 inches high and
add 6 pounds each year.

• Children acquire hand-eye

coordination.

• Among school-aged children, this

development is seen in the fine
motor coordination as exemplified
in writing, drawing, cutting, and
other related school tasks.
• The uses of the hand are made
possible by the so-called maturation
of the wrist which is an earlier
occurrence among girls than boys.
(Tanner, 1990 as cited by Bee and
Boyd, 2002)

• Between the ages of 6 ½, 8 ½, and

10 years in girls and approximately
half a year later at 7, 9, and 10 ½ in
boys, growth occurs in spurts.
• Boys are generally taller than girls, but
at the end of middle childhood, the
growth trend in height will reverse.
• Girls tend to retain more fatty tissue
than boys in preparation for puberty.

• As children age, coordination both in

fine motor skills and those involving
large-muscle improves.
• Even gross motor skills and hand-eye
coordination are improve with agility
and balanced added.
 ADOLESCENCE

Age range: 12 to 19 years

• The early signs of maturation is the
adolescent growth spurt.

• There is a sharp increase in height

and weight seen among girls aged 9
½ and 14 ½ , and in boys between 10
½ and 16.

• Usually adult height is attained at age

14 or 15 for girls and 18 for boys.
• The male develops wider shoulder,
longer legs relative to trunk and
longer forearms relative to the upper
arms and his height.

• On the part of the females, there is a

widening of the pelvis to make child
bearing easier.

• Other obvious signs of growth are

eyes growing faster.
• Puberty brings about the physical differences that
differentiate females and males.

• The primary sex characteristics include growth in

ovaries in female and growth in testes for males.

• The changes in secondary sex characteristics

include the growth of pubic hair, enlargement of
breast in females, and growth of facial hair in
males.
• The sign of sexual maturation in boys is the
presence of sperm in the urine. Spermarche is the
first ejaculation of semen containing ejaculate for
the males.

• Menarche is the beginning of the menstrual cycle

for the female. Menstruation is the sign of sexual
maturation for girls.

• Adolescents can do more complex and

strenuous activities compare when they
were in their middle childhood.
 BR A IN
OP M EN T
DEVEL
Stages of Brain
Development
 1. NEURULATION AND NEUROGENESIS (Making the
brain cells)

Neurulation is the process of

developing the neural tube
leading to the development of the
brain and the spinal cord. It
starts during the 3rd and 4th
week of gestation. This process
is called primary neurulation,
and it begins with an open
neural plate, then ends with
the neural plate bending in
specific, distinct steps.
 1. NEURULATION AND NEUROGENESIS (Making the
brain cells)

The brain and spinal cord arise from a set of cells

on the back (dorsal part) of the developing
embryo called the neural plate. Two rows of
rapidly dividing cells arise from the plate on each
side along its length and fold over centrally into
the neural tube. The anterior or head end of the
neural tube forms a set of swollen enlargements
that give rise to the various parts of the brain—the
forebrain containing the cerebral hemispheres, the
midbrain containing important pathways to and
from the forebrain, and the hindbrain containing
the brainstem and cerebellum. The remainder of
the neural tube becomes the spinal cord,
peripheral nerves, and certain endocrine, or
hormone, glands in the body.
 1. NEURULATION AND NEUROGENESIS (Making the
brain cells)

Within the neural tube, the innermost

cells divide repeatedly, giving rise
first to the cells that primarily
become nerve cells, or neurons, and
later giving rise to both neurons and
the supportive tissue components
called glia(or glial cells, a non-
neuronal cell).

Neurogenesis is the process by which

new neurons are formed in the brain.
2. CELL MIGRATION (Getting the cells to where they need to be )

Cell Migration is a common characteristic of development that places

cells in the correct spatial connections. Migration during the
development of the nervous system brings various classes of neurons
together so that they may interact effectively.

Brain cells migrate to where they belong in accordance with the roles
they will eventually fulfill, under the supervision of regulatory genes.
These genes provide developmental instructions to specific groupings of
cells in the embryonic brain, telling them what to do and where to go.
 3. NEURONAL DIFFERENTIATION AND PATHFINDING
(Growing axons and dendrites, which are structures needed to link
with other nerve cells)

Once the nerve cells are formed and

finish migrating, they rapidly extend
axons and dendrites and begin to form
connections with each other.

Neuronal differentiation is a complex

process that integrates many signals to
drive electrophysiological,
morphological, and transcriptional
changes. During the pathfinding, the
developing axon navigates through the
extracellular environment, extending
toward postsynaptic targets.
4. SYNAPTOGENESIS (Developing synapses or points of
communication with other cells)
Synaptogenesis refers to the
formation of synapses, the points of
contact where information is
transmitted between neurons. These
connections allow nerve cells to
communicate with each other. This
is integral for creating brain
networks, and for the overall
architecture of brain
connectivity. This process starts
prenatally and continues well into
the childhood years.
5. MATURATION AND PRUNING (Refining those synapses )

There is evidence in many different areas of the nervous

system suggesting the activity, or firing, of these connections,
plays a major role in determining the stability and strength of
these synapses.

Synaptic pruning means the brain eliminates extra synapses.

Synaptic pruning is thought to be the brain's way of removing
connections in the brain that are no longer needed. It occurs
between early childhood and the onset of puberty.
6. GLIOGENESIS OR MYELINATION (Forming the supportive
tissue that surrounds the nerve cells and makes for efficient
communication among them)

The neurons are nourished by

glial cells which are responsible
for the increase in brain size.

Another important function of the

glial cells is the production of
myelin, a fatty substance that
forms the covering of the axons of
the neuron.
6. GLIOGENESIS OR MYELINATION (Forming the supportive
tissue that surrounds the nerve cells and makes for efficient
communication among them)
The speed with which neurons
conduct nerve impulses is determined
by the development of myelin. By
insulating the nerve cell axon, myelin
increases conduction velocity. The
development of myelin is a prolonged
process extending well into the
postnatal period. The rate and extent
of myelination is also affected by
experience.
6. GLIOGENESIS OR MYELINATION (Forming the supportive
tissue that surrounds the nerve cells and makes for efficient
communication among them)
Most myelinated pathways
are laid down in the early
years, but for some, as in the
frontal cortex, myelination
continues into the third
decade of life. The unique
wiring diagram that brain
development produces in
each individual brain guides
thoughts, memories, feelings,
and behaviors.
 EARLY CHILDHOOD
• The brain continues to develop after birth. It
doubles in weight after 6 months at which time it
weighs about half that of the adult brain.

• There are 100 billion neurons or brain cells present

at birth which conduct nerve impulses.

• Children are born ready to start learning. Through

their first years of life, children’s brain are uniquely
wired to collect and process information much
faster than they will as adults.
 EARLY CHILDHOOD
• The critical period of learning and development is
said to be between the ages of 2-7.

• Around the age of 2, a child’s synapses begins to

grow as they are synthesizing new information
and being exposed to new stimuli. They have
about twice as many synapses as adults in this
period. This allows children at this age to learn
very quickly, such as picking up a new language
or playing a new instrument.
 EARLY CHILDHOOD

• The sensory and motor areas are the primary sites

of brain growth during the first spurt, associated
with the noted improvement in fine motor skills
and hand-eye coordination. Occur at ages
between 6 and 8.
• The second spurt of brain growth focuses the
developmental shift to the frontal lobes of the
cerebral cortex (Van der Molen and Molenaar, 1994
as cited by Bee and Boyd, 2002).
 EARLY CHILDHOOD

• Understanding brain
development in early
childhood is important
for teachers and
families because the
quality of learning
during this critical
period will impact
children’s ability to
succeed in school and
adulthood.
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
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 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
• Selective attention is a result of the continuous
myelination that allows the frontal lobes and
reticular formation to work together. It allows
children to focus cognitive ability on the elements
of a problem or situation.
• Full myelination of the reticular formation and the
frontal lobes enables the children between ages 6
to 12 to function more like adults in the presence
of possible distractions.
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
• Ninety-five percent of brain growth is reached
by the time a child reaches the age of 9. Such
growth is characterized by interrelated
process, namely: cell proliferation and cell
pruning.
• Cell proliferation takes place during the first
several years of life. It consist of the over
production of neurons and interconnections.
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
• Cell pruning is a continuous process in
childhood phase. It involves the selective
elimination of excess cells and the cutting back
of connections.
• The ability to identify and act a relationship
between objects in space. This results from
Lateralization of spatial perception occurring at
the right cerebral hemisphere. (start at 6 years
old)
 ADOLESCENCE
Two major Brain Growth Spurt

• Ages between 13 to 15
⚬ The cerebral cortex becomes thicker and neuronal pathway
become more efficient. This enables teens to think
abstractly and to reflect on their cognitive process.

• Ages beginning around 17 to early adulthood

⚬ Development of frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex which
helps in dealing problem solving.
 ADOLESCENCE
• The early years are a critical time for brain development, but
the brain still needs a lot of re-modelling before it can
function as an adult brain. This brain re-modelling happens
intensively during adolescence, continuing until your child
is in their mid-20s. Brain change depends on age, experience
and hormonal changes in puberty.

• The main change is that unused connections in the thinking

and processing part of your child’s brain (called the grey
matter) are ‘pruned’ away. At the same time, other
connections are strengthened. This is the brain’s way of
becoming more efficient, based on the ‘use it or lose it’
principle.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Life experiences
v Enriched environment can enhance the
growth and structure of the brain. Actually,
Brain damage is attributed to bad effects of
having to live in bad environments.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
Those who are living in enriched environment and
given a chance to deal with stimulating activities
have heavier brains, more connective cells, and
good brain cell connections. In contrary, living in
isolation have lesser connections.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
The midbrain and the medulla are the
most fully developed at birth, while the
least developed part of the brain at
birth is the cortex which involved in
perception, body movement, thinking,
and language.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
The corpus callosum, grows, and
matures during early childhood years at
a faster rate than any other period of
life. It is the brain structure through
which the left and right side of the
cerebral cortex communicate.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
As structure grows the functional
specialization of the left and right
hemispheres of the cerebral cortex is
achieved. This process ica called
lateralization.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
Among humans 95% of the brain
functions are lateralized through
pattern called left-brain dominance. The
remaining small portion of the
funstions that account for 5% are
reversed, this pattern is called right-
brain dominance.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation

In some people, the pattern can be

mixed dominance where some
functions follow the typical pattern
while some are reversed.
 Environmental Influences on
Development of the Brain

Increased stimulation
There is a weak association between handedness and brain
lateralization. It is believed that the prevalence of right
handedness is a result of genetic inheritance through a
dominance gene common in the human population, copy of it
may be received from both parents (Talan, 1998 as cited by Bee
and Boyd, 2002).
 F FE CTI NG
CTO R S A
FA EN T
EV E LO P M
D
Maternal Nutrition

Ø Mother supplies all the nutrients to the inborn fetus through

the food intake so that she should take care of her diet for her
sake and that of the fetus.

Child Nutrition

Ø Adequate nutrition contributes to a continuous brain growth,

rapid skeletal, and muscular development.
Early Sensory Stimulation

Ø Children under 6 years old of age tend to be farsighted,

because their eyes have not matured. After that age, the
eyes are more mature and can focus better.

Ø Minority of children’s vision does not develop properly.

About 10% of 6-year-olds have defective near vision,
and 7% have defective distant vision, and jumps to 17%
by 11 years of age.
 R S THA T
FA CT O
G RO W TH
AF FE CT
 Medical
Genetic Nutrition
Conditions

Emotional
Exercise Sleep
Well-Being
 P TI ON AL
EXC E
O P M EN T
D EVE L
 1 Physical Disability

Ø This is any impairment that hinders or limits

gross or fine motor ability. They need special
equipment or help in moving.
Ø Crippling disabilities include:
v Impairment of bone and muscle systems
which affects mobility and manual dexterity
difficult and impossible like amputees and
those with several fractures.
1 Physical Disability

v Impairment of nerve and muscle

systems making mobility awkward
and uncoordinated like in cerebral
palsy.
v Deformities or absence of body
organs and systems necessary for
mobility like in the case of the club-
foot or paraplegics.
1 Physical Disability

Causes of Handicaps:
1. Prenatal Factors
v Genetic or chromosomal aberrations
v Prematurity
v Infection
v Malnutrition
v Irradiation
v Metabolic disturbances
v Drug abuse
1 Physical Disability

Causes of Handicaps:
2. Prenatal Factors
Ø Birth Injuries
Ø Difficult labor
Ø Hemorrhage
 1 Physical Disability
Causes of Handicaps:
3. Postnatal Factors
ü Infections
ü Tumors and abscess in the brain
ü Fractures and dislocation
ü Tuberculosis of the bones
ü Cerebrovascular injuries
ü Post-seizure or post-surgical complications
ü Arthritis, rheumatism
2 Sensory Impairment

This means impairment of one of the senses.

1. Visual Impairment – Visual problem that

calls for specific modification or adjustments
in the student’s educational program.
2. Blindness - the inability of the person to
see anything.
2 Sensory Impairment

The most common visual problems of students are:

Ø Reduced visual acuity (poor sight)

Ø Amblyopia (lazy eye)
Ø Hyperopia (farsightedness)
Ø Myopia (nearsightedness)
Ø Astigmatism (imperfect vision)
 2 Sensory Impairment
Other visual impairments which may affect students are:

Ø Albinism
Ø Cataracts
Ø Macular degeneration
Ø Diabetic retinopathy
Ø Astigmatism (imperfect vision)
Ø Glaucoma
Ø Retinitis Pigmentation
Ø Retinopathy of prematurity (deterioration of the retina)
2 Sensory Impairment

3. Auditory Handicaps (Hearing Impairment / Hearing

disability)
- are hearing impaired which most always manifest in their poor
language development. The speech difficulties are caused by the
inability of the person to hear himself or others. In the case of deaf
children, most of their vocalization will cease completely within the
first year.
2 Sensory Impairment

Deafness can either be:

v Prelingual - deafness present at birth or occurring
before language or speech development.

v Postlingual - deafness occurs after speech or

language development.
 Prenatal causes

• toxic conditions
• viral diseases
• congenital defect Perinatal causes

Causes of • injury sustained

during delivery

Deafness
• anoxia
• heavy sedation
postnatal causes • blockage of infant’s
respiratory passage
• diseases
• accidents/ trauma
falls
Classification of Hearing Impaired Children
According According to
to age at place of
onset of impairment
deafness
According to
a. conductive According
a. congenitally language
development hearing loss to degree of
deaf hearing loss
b. sensory
b. adventitiously neural hearing
a. Prelingually
deaf loss
deaf slight, mild,
b. Postlingually moderate,
deaf severe,profound
3 Learning Disability

Ø Includes problems related to disorder in

understanding and using spoken and/or written
language. Such disorders manifest in the
inability to listen well, process information
readily, inability to talk, read, write, spell, and
even add numbers.
3 Learning Disability
Ø Also referred to as perceptual handicaps, brain
injury, brain dysfunction, developmental
aphasia and specific sensory motor
dysfunction.
Ø It could be a symptom of sensory integration or
sensory dysfunction ~ the ability of the
individual to process information coming from
the environment and make use of the
information in the process.
Different Types of Learning Disabilities

dyslexia- reading

dysgraphia- writing
dysarthria- stuttering
visual agnosia - sight
auditory agnosia - hearing
motor aphasia- speaking

olfactory agnosia - smelling

dyscalculia - math
 Problematic
pregnancy
Biochemical
Causes of imbalanced
Learning cause by
food intake
Disabilities
Environmental
factors
4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)

It is a neurodevelopmental disorder
that affects a person’s ability to focus
(inattention), regulate activity level
(hyperactivity), and inhibit
behavior(impulsivity).
4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• This syndrome is manifested early in preschool or early

elementary years but can persist into adolescence and
occasionally into adulthood.

• Recently, ADHD has been classified into three subtypes:

Ø Predominantly inattentive
Ø Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive
Ø Combined type
4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• Children with inhibited behavior, inattentive, and

without focus tend to be withdrawn, polite, and shy.

• In the absence of hyperactivity, they are likely referred

to as having Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD).
4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

WHAT CAUSES ADHD?

v According to some research studies, the disorder
results from an imbalance in certain neurotransmitter
(most likely dopamine and serotonin). These
substances help the brain to achieve focus and
regulatebehavior.

v It is also associated with symptoms in children like

difficult pregnancies and problem deliveries.
 What do
educators need
to consider?
First, educators must
start identifying
areas where
difficulties occur.
Teachers need to be
active, positive, and
well-versed in
problem solving.
Teachers need to be
understanding,
patient, and
compassion.
T h a n k
yo u !