11.

Thermal Properties of
Matter
Grade XI
2024-25
What are Thermal Properties of
Materials?
Thermal properties are properties related to the thermal
capacity and heat conductivity of matter. They deal with
heat fluctuation.
Major Components of Thermal Properties

Heat Capacity: The amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a unit

change in its temperature.

Thermal Expansion: Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in

shape, volume, and area in response to a change in temperature.

Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity refers to the intrinsic ability of a

material to transfer or conduct heat.

Thermal Stress: Thermal stress is mechanical stress created by any change in the
temperature of a material.
Heat
It is an energy transfer from one system to another or
from one part of a system to another.

The SI unit of heat is Joule (J) and the CGS unit of heat is
Calorie (cal)

Here 1 calorie is defined as the heat energy required to

raise the temperature of one gram of water by 1° C

1 cal= 4.18J
Temperature
● Temperature is the measurement of how hot or cold
something is, and it's a physical quantity. It's expressed in
terms of scales like Celsius or Fahrenheit.
● Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
the particles in a substance. When particles move quickly,
the temperature is higher, and when they move slowly, the
temperature is cooler.
● Temperature indicates the direction in which heat energy will
flow, from hotter to colder bodies
● Temperature is measured with a thermometer or calorimeter.
● Temperature can be perceived by touch, but this sense is
unreliable and limited
● Temperature and volume are related because of kinetic energy.
Heated particles expand, and cooled particles compress
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction

It is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent

parts of a body because of their temperature difference.

Suppose one end of a metallic rod is put in a flame, the other

end of the rod will soon be hot. Here heat transfer takes place
by conduction from the hot end of the rod through its
different parts to the other end.
Convection

It is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is

possible only in fluids.

Convection can be natural or forced. Convection involves bulk

transport of different parts of the fluid.

Example: Heat transfer in a closed room, forced-air heating

systems in the home, the human circulatory system, and the
cooling system of an automobile engine
Radiation

In radiation, heat transfer occurs through electromagnetic

waves without involving particles.

The heat transfer mechanism in which no medium is required

is called radiation. It refers to the movement of heat in waves,
as it does not need molecules to travel through.
Radiation

The object need not be in direct contact with one another to

transmit heat. It is the process of heat transfer from a hot
body to a cold body in a straight line without affecting the
intervening medium
Important Terms
Melting and Melting Point

● The process of change of state from solid to liquid is

called melting.
● The temperature at which a solid starts to liquefy is
known as the melting point of that solid.
● The melting point of a substance at atmospheric pressure
is called the normal melting point.
Fusion and Freezing Point

● The process of change of state from liquid to solid is

called fusion.
● The temperature at which liquid starts to solidify is
known as the Freezing Point of that liquid.
Vaporization and Boiling Point

● The process of change of state from liquid to vapour is

called Vaporization.
● The temperature at which liquid starts evaporating is
known as the Boiling Point of that liquid.
● The melting point of a substance at atmospheric pressure
is called the normal melting point
Sublimation

● The process of change of state directly from solid to

vapour is known as sublimation.
● The reverse process of sublimation is not possible.
● Examples of this can be evaporation of Naphthalene
balls directly from solid state.
Measurement of temperature
Measurement of temperature of a body is very
important. It is also necessary to be able to measure both
high and low temperatures.

To make this possible it is necessary to construct a

suitable scale of temperature. The scale chosen must be
precise and consistent. The temperatures measured on
this scale must be accurate.
Measurement of Temperature can be obtained using a
thermometer. A thermometer, such as mercury in glass
thermometer, is a device whose readings depends on hotness or
coldness of an object. A thermometer is a reliable device for
measurement of temperature than our senses.

The temperature of an object is not a fixed number but depends

on the type of thermometer and on the temperature scale
adopted. Construction of thermometers generally requires a
measurable property of a substance which monotonically
changes with temperature.
common type of thermometers:

Mercury in a glass thermometer:- The height of mercury in the tube is

taken as thermometric parameter.

Constant Volume gas thermometer:- Gas in bulb is maintained at

constant volume. The mean pressure of gas is taken as thermometric
parameter.

Constant Pressure gas thermometer:- Gas in bulb is maintained at

constant pressure. Volume of gas is taken as thermometric parameter.
Resistance thermometer:- Electric resistance of a metal wire increases
monotonically with the temperature and may be used to define
temperature scale. Such thermometers are resistance thermometers.
Electric resistance of metal wire increase monotonically with temperature
and may be used to define the temperature scale. If R0 and R100 are
resistance of metal wire at ice and steam point respectively then
temperature t can be defined corresponding to resistance RT as follows

T = (RT - R0) 100 / (R100 - R0)

A platinum wire is often used to construct a thermometer which is known

as platinum resistance thermometer.
Let's Solve
The temperature of the surface of
sun is about
65000C. What is the temperature
on (i) the Rankine scale and (ii) on
the Kelvin Scale?
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
zeroth law of thermodynamics defines temperature.

The concept of temperature as an indicator of thermal

equilibrium is framed by the zeroth law of
thermodynamics.
What is thermal equilibrium?

When two bodies come into contact, they are said to be in

thermal equilibrium if there is no heat transfer.

The temperature of two objects that are in contact with each

other does not change when they are in thermal equilibrium.
State Zeroth Law of thermodynamics

Statement - If two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium

and A and C are also in thermal equilibrium then B and C are
also in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal equilibrium between two systems is the condition

under which two substances in physical contact with each
other exchange no heat energy.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics significance

1. The significance of the Zeroth law of thermodynamics

lies in its application of defining and conceptualizing
temperature.

The concept of temperature is derived from the concept of

thermal equilibrium or the Zeroth law. All bodies in thermal
equilibrium share a common property that has the same
value for all of them. This property is known as temperature.
2. Temperature is the property of a body that tells us
whether it is in thermal equilibrium with another given
body or not.

As a result of the preceding discussion, the temperature

of a system can be defined as the property that
determines whether the body is in thermal equilibrium
with the neighboring systems.
So, if a group of systems is in thermal equilibrium, a
common property of the group can be represented by a
single numerical value called Temperature. If two
systems are not in thermal equilibrium, their
temperatures are different.
Verifying Zeroth law of thermodynamics:-

1. Suppose there are two bodies A and B and a third body C (

assume it to be a thermometer).
2. Consider two bodies A and B , isolated from from each other.
3. Now we want to know whether A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
4. For this we would put body A in contact with body C
(thermometer) till they both are in thermal equilibrium .
5. At that stage reading of thermometer will become
constant.

6. Thermometer is now put in thermal contact with body

B.

7. We will wait till it is in thermal equilibrium with body B

and note the temperature.

8. If two readings are same, then A and B are thermal

equilibrium with each other.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics examples

● After a while, a cup of hot tea goes colder. This is due to the
cooler air in the room surrounding the hot tea. This hot tea
loses heat to the air in the room. Hot tea will continue to lose
heat until it reaches the temperature of the surrounding air in
the room. The tea will lose heat until it establishes thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings. Thus, the zeroth law of
thermodynamics explains the cooling of hot tea to room
temperature in this example.
● If you leave a glass of ice-cold water and a glass of
boiling water on the kitchen counter for a few hours,
all 3 will reach the same temperature after a few
hours.
● If you put vegetables in the refrigerator overnight,
you assume it's reached the same temperature as the
refrigerator and other items.
Application of zeroth law of thermodynamics

The thermometer is where the Zeroth Law of

Thermodynamics is used the most frequently. We can
observe the Zeroth law in action by using a straightforward
thermometer with mercury in a tube. As the temperature
rises, the mercury expands because the area of the tube
doesn't change. As a result of this development, the height
has increased. The variation in the mercury label's height is
now indicative of temperature
Ideal Gas Equation And Absolute
Temperature
Ideal Gas Equation
Pressure of all the gases changes with the temperature in a similar fashion for low
temperature. Also many properties of gases are common at low pressure. The pressure,
volume and temperature in kelvin of such gases obey the equation

PV=nRT ………. (1)

where n is amount of gas in number of moles and is given as ,

n = Total number of molecules in given mass of gas / Avagadro Number (NA)

where, NA = 6.023 × 1023

R is universal gas constant and its value is 8.316 J/mole-K.

Equation (1) is known ideal gas equation and a gas obeying this equation is known ideal
gas equation.
Absolute Temperature
Suppose we calibrate two thermometers, for example, the
liquid in a tube and a resistance thermometer. Here they
agree at 0°C and 100°C, but they may not agree exactly at
intermediate temperatures. Any temperature scale defined in
this way depends on the specific properties of the material
used. We want to define a temperature scale which does not
depend on the properties of a particular material. Here we
will discuss a thermometer that comes close to ideal. That
thermometer is a Gas thermometer. A thermometer that uses
a gas gives the same reading regardless of the gas used.
Principle of a gas thermometer

The pressure of a gas at constant volume increases with temperature.

In gas thermometer , a quantity of gas is placed in a constant volume

container. Then we measure its pressure. To calibrate a constant volume
gas thermometer, we measure pressure at 0°C and 100° C. We now plot
these points on a graph and draw straight line between these two points.
From this graph we can read the temperature corresponding to other
pressure. Figure below show the result of three such experiments with
different gases.
Thermal expansion
Relation between volume and
linear coefficient of expansion
for solid material:
Thermal Expansion of Water
● Water exhibits an anomalous behaviour.
● The volume of the water decreases as temperature
increases from 0 °C and 4 °C. The volume of a given
amount of water increases as the temperature
increases further of 4 °C
● So, water has a maximum density at 4 °C.
● This anomalous behaviour has the favourable effect
for animals living in water. Since the density of the
water is maximum at 4°C, water at the bottom of the
lakes remains at 4 °C in winter even if the surface
freezes. This allow marine life to survive. If water did
not have this property, lakes and ponds would freeze
from the bottom up, which would destroy much of
their animal and plant life.
Let's Solve
A blacksmith fixes iron ring on the rim of
the wooden wheel of a bullock cart. The
diameter of the rim and the iron ring are
5.243 m and 5.231 m respectively at 27 °
C. To what temperature should the ring
be heated so as to fit the rim of the
wheel? ( α = 1.05 × 10-5C-1 )
An iron ring has to fit over a cylindrical rod.
The diameter of the rod and iron ring are
6.445 cm and 6.420 cm at 20 ° C.The ring can
slip over the iron rod only if the diameter of
the ring is about .008 cm larger than iron
rod.To what temperature should the ring be
heated so as to fit the cylindrical rod? ( α =
1.20 × 10-5)
Let's Answer
when a circular disc having
hole is heated. if the hole size
increase or decreases?
The hole size increases
When the lid of the glass jar is
tight, we often put it a hot
water and then it is easy to
open. Why?
The metal expands on heating. You might say ,
glass also expands ,but metal expands more
than glass for same temperature difference. So
it becomes easy to open
Thermal stress
● If we clamp the ends of a rod rigidly to prevent
expansion or contraction and then change the
temperature, tensile or compressive stresses called
thermal stresses develop.
● The rod would like to expand or contract, but the
clamps won't let it. The resulting stresses may
become large enough to strain the rod irreversibly or
even break it.
● Engineers must account for thermal stress when
designing structures. Concrete highways and bridge
decks usually have gaps between sections, filled with a
flexible material or bridged by interlocking teeth , to
permit expansion and contraction of the concrete.
To calculate the thermal stress in a clamped rod, we
compute the amount the rod would expand (or contract) if
not held and then find the stress needed to compress (or
stretch) it back to its original length. Suppose that a rod with
length L and cross-sectional area A is held at constant
length while the temperature is reduced (negative ΔT),
causing a tensile stress. The fractional change in length if the
rod were free to contract would be
Let's Solve
1. An aluminium bar has some
length at 20°C. How much stress
is required to keep it at the
same length if the temperature
is increase to 40 °C? ? (α= 25×10-6
°C-1 , Y = 70×109 Nm-2)
2.
Specific Heat Capacity
Calorimetry
● Calorimetry means measurement of Heat.
● Calorimeter is the device used to measure heat and it is
cylindrical vessel made of copper and provided by a
stirrer and a lid.
● This vessel is kept in a wooden block to isolate it
thermally from surroundings.A thermometer is used to
measure the temperature of the content in the
calorimeter.
● When bodies at different temperature are mixed in a
calorimeter,they exchange heat with each other.
● Bodies at higher temperature loose heat while bodies
at low temperature gain heat.Contents of the
calorimeter is continuously stirred to keep
temperature of contents uniform
Thus principle of calorimetry states that the total heat
given by hot objects is equal to the total heat received by
cold objects.

Heat Lost by hot objects = Heat Gained by cold object

Let's Solve
1.
principle of calorimetry is
heat given by an aluminium sphere = heat absorbed
by the water + heat absorbed by copper calorimeter
2. if .20 kg of hot tea at temperature 95° C is
poured into a 150 g cup at temperature 25°.
What will be equilibrium temperature of the
tea and cup when steady state is reached
.Assume no heat is lost to the surroundings?

Specific Heat of Tea= 4186 J/kg ° C

Specific Heat of cup= 840 J/kg ° C
Change in State of Matter
There are generally three types of matter: liquid, solid,
and gas. In the solid state, the particles or molecules are
tightly together which is why they possess an intense
intermolecular force of attraction. The liquid states of
particles, however, are apart from one another and thus
have less force to attract them. In the case of gas, the
particles are extremely far from one another and exhibit
a negligible force of attraction.
If there are changes in the temperature or pressure of a
material, the change of states of matter takes place. The
state of matter can be changed by changing temperature
and pressure. The impact of temperature changes on
states of matter shifting will be directly related to
changes in the interaction between molecules that make
up the substance. If the temperature drops, particles can
soften into a robust structure.
conversion of ice into water.

In this conversion, the ice which is a solid form of water

gets changed into water which is the liquid form itself.
This change in the state occurs due to a process known
as melting, and in this process, when kept at a higher
temperature the solid ice gets converted into liquid
water. In melting, mainly the liquefaction of ice takes
place.
the change of states of matter can only occur through a
certain process that takes place due to a rise or fall in its
temperature or due to an increase or decrease in its
pressure. Without these things, nothing can change the
state of a matter. There are many processes similar to
melting which are responsible for changing the state of a
particular matter.
Changes Between Liquids and
Solids
Example - rock which gets
converted into lava when exposed
to extreme heat and pressure but
when it cools down the lava again
converts back into a rock.
Freezing

Freezing is the process in which the liquid converts into

solid. To understand this we can take an example liquids
getting converted into crystals. There are many liquids
which do convert into solid but they do not take the
exact solid form rather they converts themselves into
tiny crystals.
Melting

Melting is a process in which the solid converts into

liquid by getting exposed to heat and pressure. We can
understand this from the example of metal converting
into molten liquids by artisans to give them different
kinds of shapes.
Changes Between Liquids &
Gases
Example - liquid water getting
converting into water vapours
which is the gaseous form of
water and then the water vapour
getting converted back into liquid
water.
Vapourization

Vapourization is the process in which the liquid gets

converter into its gaseous form. For example, if we take
some water in a saucepan and heat it up then after some
time the water will start to decrease in quantity. This
thing happens with water as its gets converted into
steam by the presence of heat and pressure on it.
Condensation

The conversion of gases into liquids take place by the

process of condensation. In this the water vapour which
is present in the atmosphere into droplets of dew on
grass and trees when temperature is low and pressure is
also low.
Changes Between Solids &
Gases
Example -;freeze drying of water
in which it gets converted from
solid to gaseous in normal
temperature and pressure and
when the temperature and
pressure is lowered it goes back to
its solid form.
Sublimation

Sublimation is a process in which the solid state of matter converts

directly into the gaseous state and the gaseous back into solid
state without going through the liquid phase change. This process
can be understood by taking the example of dry ice. Dry ice
converts from solid to gas in normal temperature and pressure but
when the temperature is lowered and the pressure is decreased it
converts back to its solid form.
Deposition

Deposition is a phase change where gas becomes a solid

without going through the liquid phase.

The forces of attraction between the solids are completely

eliminated when they have absorbed enough energy. A
deposition is the inverse of Sublimation and vice versa.
The most typical example of deposition is frost, which is
the deposition of water vapour from humid air which
converts into a solid ice.
Examples of Change of State of
Matter in Everyday Life
Ice melting: When ice at 0°C is heated, it changes from solid state to liquid state and
starts melting.

Frost formation: When the temperature drops below 0°C, water vapour in the air
condenses directly into solid ice crystals.

Water boiling: When water is heated, it changes from liquid state to gas state (steam).

Condensation of water vapour: When water vapour in the air cools below 100°C, it
changes from gas state to liquid state and condenses to form liquid water droplets.

Sublimation: An example of sublimation is when solid dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide)
changes into carbon dioxide gas without melting.
Causes and Effects of
Changing States of Matter
The main cause of change in states of matter is due to
the addition or loss of energy in the state of a substance
that is altered physically.
This phenomenon is connected with the movement of
molecules. Solids possess very little kinetic energy,
meaning that they only vibrate and keep the bonds of
chemical strength. If the energy source is placed in (e.g.
heat energy, which can later be converted into kinetic
energy) then the molecules begin spinning and vibrating
faster, which causes the strength of the bonds to
diminish.
If a certain amount of heating is applied (this is different
for each substance, for example, the melting point of the
water is 0°C while the boiling point is 100°C) those
molecules will be moving towards the point of not
remaining in their original form. When energy levels are
reduced and reversed, the process begins again.
Change in Temperature: The temperature change occurs in
states of a matter when it undergoes heat transfer to its
surroundings. When a substance is placed in surroundings of a
different temperature, heat is exchanged between the
substance and the surroundings, causing both to achieve an
equilibrium temperature. So when an ice cube is exposed to
heat, its water molecules absorb heat energy from the
surrounding atmosphere and begin to move more
energetically, causing the water ice to melt into liquid water.
Change in Pressure: The change in pressure occurs in states of a matter only
when it undergoes liquefaction. We can understand this effect from the
examples of smoke rising all over the stage at performances or parties. Dry ice
is the only thing that exists (solid carbon dioxide). The solid carbon dioxide is
kept at high pressure and instantly melts when pressure is reduced down to 1
bar. The space between particles of the material is what determines its
physical state. In the end, when pressure is applied to the gas, it is compressed
into a liquid. Then, the pressure applied to liquids becomes solid. Pressure does
not affect solids. If pressure is applied to the material and the chemical state of
the substance shifts from liquid to gas and after that, liquid changes to solid.
Experiments of Changing
States of Matter
1.
If we take an ice cube and put it in a bowl then after some
time it will melt into water. This depicts the conversion of a
solid into liquid due to the process of melting which took
place due to an increase in the temperature of the
substance. Now if we put that bowl that has water in a
freezer, then the water will again solidify into ice and again
change its state. This phenomenon occurs due to the
conversion of liquid into solid by the process of freezing.
Freezing can only take place when the temperature of a
substance is decreased.
2.
Now if you put a bowl filled with water outside your home in the sun then after
some days there will be no water. Due to an increase in the temperature, the liquid
water changes its form into gaseous water vapour which depicts the process of
evaporation taking place. Now to depict condensation we can take a bottle and fill it
with some chilled water and as time goes by we can see small droplets of water
outside of the bottle which occurred due to the process of condensation taking
place. Condensation occurs when the gaseous water vapours come in contact with
the cold water having a decreased temperature; they start to solidify and get
converted into liquid water again.
3.
If we take some dry ice and put it in a bowl then after
some time we can see that the dry ice will disappear. This
occurs due to the process of sublimation taking place in
it. Sublimation converts the solid into a gaseous form and
it occurs only when the temperature is increased. To
reverse this process we can decrease the temperature as
well as pressure and the atmospheric dry ice will again
solidify.
Applications of Changing
States of Matter
The phenomenon of change of states of matter can be found
in the following examples:

1. Preventing ice-cream from melting by using the dry ice.

2. Formation of the clouds.
3. Formation of the fog and dew.
4. Formation of water droplets outside of the glass.
5. Melting of the snow on the road.
Latent Heat
Latent heat is known as the heat required to convert a
solid into a liquid or vapour phase. According to its
phase, it has different names like the heat of
condensation, the heat of vaporization, etc. Sometimes it
is the amount of heat energy absorbed or released for a
phase change.
Concept of Phase change:
Definition of Latent Heat:
Formula for Latent Heat
equation states that the heat Q that must be added or
removed for an object of mass m to change phases. We
denote Individual latent heat by L. The unit of latent heat
is Jkg-1.
The value of latent heat is variable. It depends on the nature
of the phase change taking place:

1. The latent heat of fusion means the change from liquid to

solid.
2. The latent heat of vaporization means from liquid to gas.
3. Latent heat of sublimation means the change from solid
to gas.
Let's Solve
1. Compute the latent heat of 10 kg substance if the
amount of heat for a phase change is 300 kcal.

Solution:

Q = 300 kcal

M = 10 kg

Formula for latent heat is: L = Q/M

Heat Transfer
Conduction
Heat conduction may be described quantitatively as the time
rate of heat flow in a material for a given temperature difference.
Consider a metallic bar of length L and uniform

cross-section A with its two ends maintained at different

temperatures. This can be done, for example, by putting the ends
in thermal contact with large reservoirs at temperatures, say, TC
and TD, respectively. Let us assume the ideal condition that the
sides of the bar are fully insulated so that no heat is exchanged
betweenthe sides and the surroundings.
Convention
Radiation
Blackbody Radiation
The important thing about thermal radiation at any
temperature is that it is not of one (or a few) wavelength(s)
but has a continuous spectrum from the small to the long
wavelengths. The energy content of radiation, however,
varies for different wavelengths. Figure gives the
experimental curves for radiation energy per unit area per
unit wavelength emitted by a blackbody versus wavelength
for different temperatures.
NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING
The equation enables you to calculate the time of cooling of a
body through a particular range of temperature.

For small temperature differences, the rate of cooling, due to

conduction, convection, and radiation combined, is
proportional to the difference in temperature. It is a valid
approximation in the transfer of heat from a radiator to a
room, the loss of heat through the wall of a room, or the
cooling of a cup of tea on the table.
Verification of Newton’s Law of
cooling.
Newton’s law of cooling can be verified with the help of
the experimental set-up shown in Fig. The set-up
consists of a double-walled vessel (V) containing water
between the two walls. A copper calorimeter ©
containing hot water is placed inside the double-walled
vessel.
Two thermometers through the corks are used to note the
temperatures T2 of water in calorimeter and T1 of hot water in
between the double walls, respectively. Temperature of hot
water in the calorimeter is noted after equal intervals of time. A
graph is plotted between loge (T2 –T1) [or ln(T2 - T1)] and time
(t). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
having a negative slope as shown in Fig. This is in support of
Equation

loge (T2 – T1) = – K t + c

Thank You