Learning Outcome – 10

Section 10.6

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Learning Outcomes
By end of this element, you will be able to
• Summarise what needs to be considered during maintenance, inspection and
testing of work equipment and machinery.
 10.6 - Work Equipment and Machinery Maintenance

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What is Work Equipment?

According to Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, “work
equipment” means any machinery, appliance, apparatus, tool or installation for use at work
(whether exclusively or not);

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5
Equipment Maintenance

It is based on the fact that any machine or plant item consists of various components, each of
which has a definable working life. These can be classified into one of the following four item
types Equipment with a limited life which should be replaced at regular
Replaceable intervals E.g. drive belt

Equipment will last for many years if serviced regularly E.g. gearbox
Maintainable
works fine for years if it is lubricated regularly

Long-life Equipment that is likely to last for many years without failure E.g.
Machine baseplate
Inspectable Equipment has a limited life E.g. play in a bearing or wear on
electrical contacts

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Hazards - Maintenance of Work Equipment
It is common for maintenance workers to be exposed to a number of hazardous substances. For
example

Carry out hot work, such as welding, grinding, burning, etc. with the associated
hazards of fire, noise, glare, heat and possibly the depletion of oxygen

Failed or broken-down piece of machinery may not have failed safely, and there is the
possibility of stored pressure or energy

Inadvertent start-up of the machine during maintenance work is an ever-present danger

Exposure to fibrous dust is a common hazard when repairing or replacing friction

linings such as those found on brakes and clutch mechanisms

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Control Measures – Work Equipment Maintenance

Following considerations should be taken into account to reduce the risk of injury while maintenance
work is being carried out
Blocking or shoring-up moving
Physical isolation of the
Use of suitable tools (possibly parts to prevent unexpected
equipment
substituting electrically powered movement.

tools with pneumatic tools in

certain environments) Referring to, and adhering
Thorough risk assessment to, manufacturers'
Ventilation, including local information
exhaust ventilation (LEV)
Portable lighting Suitable
Not carrying out work in situ (i.e. with the items in their original means of
where necessary access
position) and instead removing items to be worked on in a more
suitable location

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Maintenance Management Strategies

Planned preventive

Condition based

Breakdown

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Planned Preventive Maintenance
Planned preventive maintenance involves replacing parts and consumables or making necessary
adjustments at preset intervals so that risks do not occur as a result of the deterioration or failure
of the equipment

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Planned Preventive Maintenance

If a planned preventative maintenance regime is selected then the choice of the best regular
maintenance interval presents a difficult problem, with two opposite extremes to be avoided:

Too frequent Too long interval

Wastes production time Unacceptable number of machine

failures during operation

Increases the risk of trouble in

re-assembly

Human errors

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Planned Preventive Maintenance
The benefits of planned preventive maintenance include:

Reduces maintenance costs and enhances equipment

reliability

Demonstrates that the employer has taken appropriate

steps to meet his legal obligations

Minimizes the chance of accidents, which in turn reduces

the potential for injuries and subsequent cost implications

Fosters safety culture of the company

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Preventive Maintenance – Video

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Condition Based Maintenance
• Condition-based maintenance relies on monitoring the
condition of safety-critical parts and carrying out
maintenance whenever it is necessary to avoid failure
• Maintenance is performed after indicators show that
equipment is going to fail or that equipment performance
is deteriorating.
• It has lot of advantages like improves system reliability,
decrease maintenance costs. On the other hand, primary
disadvantage is the cost arising from setting the system
up to monitor parameters such as vibration, temperature,
and also non-destructive testing techniques
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Breakdown Maintenance
• Breakdown maintenance is a type of maintenance

procedure executed on equipment leads to sudden

breakdowns and unexpected failures

• The strength of this system is that it has a minimal cost in

relation to a maintenance resource. The weakness is that

the equipment is out of use during a possibly extended

breakdown period and that repair has to be arranged.

• Breakdown maintenance is considered to be the least

desirable of the three different types of maintenance

strategies

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Factors in Developing Planned Maintenance Programme
Analyze work environment Environmental factors can include: heat, cold, dampness, dust,
prior commencing of the vibration and vapors. Electrical power supply reliability should be
maintenance activities examined, as power fluctuations may influence machine operation

Consider potential time delay for Certain components in the machinery may be so inaccessible
components that are difficult to gain that replacement or repair requires total stripdown of the
access machine.

If all production depends on a conveyor moving components

Ensure minimum downtime during from one stage of production to the next, then maintenance
the production process should be completed as quickly as possible

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Factors in Developing Planned Maintenance Programme
Production line should be regarded as a single entity in the
Adopt suitable maintenance
first instance, with the individual machines being considered
strategies according to the
separately when reviewing implementation within the
type of equipment
chosen maintenance strategy

Make sure cost of maintenance has to be Develop unique maintenance strategies for key components
balanced against the loss due to production which will have a major effect on the failure mode of the
breakdown machine

For example, on construction sites, 110v electric hand tools are usually
Employ Replacement
available as replacements (either on-site or with quick delivery) for
Equipment Maintenance
failed units, with the failed unit normally being returned to a workshop
strategy wherever is required
for repair
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Factors to be Considered in Determining Inspection
Regimes
• The purpose of an inspection is to identify whether the equipment can be operated, adjusted and
maintained safely and to ensure that any deterioration (for example defect, damage, wear) can be
detected and remedied before it results in unacceptable risks

• The extent of the inspection required will depend on the potential risks from the work equipment and
will need to consider

Type of equipment

Where it is used

How it is used

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Determining Inspection Regimes Where it
Type of Equipment is used:
• Is equipment used only for the operations and under
Is the equipment used in a hostile
the conditions for which it is appropriate?
• Are items used with the equipment is compatible? environment where hot, cold, wet or
• Are there safety-related parts which are necessary for
safe operation of equipment? E.g. Overload warning corrosive environments may accelerate
devices and limit switches
deterioration?

How it is used:

• Nature, frequency and duration of use will determine the extent of wear and tear and the
likelihood of deterioration
• Equipment that is regularly dismantled and reassembled will require inspection to ensure that
it has been installed correctly and is safe to operate
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Determining Inspection Regimes

• The inspection itself may vary from a simple visual external inspection to a detailed
comprehensive inspection, which may include some dismantling and/or testing.

• The frequency of inspections for work equipment needs to be determined by a risk

assessment, using the knowledge and experience of competent persons

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Determining Inspection Regimes

As a part of the maintenance procedure, Drone inspections are being performed in a certain
industry, which requires visual inspections. With the help of a drone, visual data on the
conditions of an asset or the workplace can be collected. Drone inspection helps the inspectors
to avoid inspections in dangerous situations. Instead of climbing several stories on a tower for
inspection, an inspector can easily send a drone instead.

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Need for Functional Testing of Safety-related Parts

• There is a need to regularly check and test the functionality of safety-related parts.

• To check that relevant parts are structurally sound, visual inspection, routine scheduled
maintenance and non-destructive testing of safety-critical parts might be required

• The need for any testing should be decided by the competent person who determines the
nature of the inspection

• Fixed guards, Interlocks, Emergency shutdown valves, Emergency Stop Buttons are examples of
safety-related parts of machines

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 Need for Functional Testing of Safety-related Parts

Circumstances which required the functional testing includes:

• Before the use of newly bought/installed machine

• After the maintenance of machine

• When an event affected the safety of the machine

• During normal use of the machine. Frequency of testing should be based on the risk present in
the machine

• In an occasion, where the machine is set up or installed at new location. The disassembly,
transport & reassembly of the machine affect the effectiveness of the safety device.

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Need for Functional Testing of Safety-related Parts

For example, a dangerous machine such as a power- operated paper-cutting guillotine should be
subjected to:

Daily operator checks on guards

functioning

Monthly operator checks on sweep-

away guards

Six-monthly inspections of all safety

components such as brakes,
clutches, interlocks etc.

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Safe Maintenance of Machineries
Where maintenance requires that normal guarding is removed, or access is required inside existing
guarding, then additional measures are needed to prevent danger from the mechanical, electrical and
other hazards that may be exposed. These includes

Safe systems of work

Permits

Isolation

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Safe System of Work
• Use fixed guards (e.g. secured with screws or nuts and bolts) to enclose the dangerous parts, whenever
practical

• If fixed guards are not practical, use other methods, eg interlock the guard so that the machine cannot
start before the guard is closed and cannot be opened while the machine is still moving

• Trip systems such as photoelectric devices, pressure-sensitive mats or automatic guards may be used if
other guards are not practical

• Where guards cannot give full protection, use jigs, holders, push sticks etc if it is practical to do so

• Control any remaining risk by providing the operator with the necessary information, instruction,
training, supervision and appropriate safety equipment

• If machines are controlled by programmable electronic systems, changes to any programmes should be
carried out by a competent person
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Safe System of Work
• Adopt Lockout/tagout (LOTO) procedure wherever possible

• Ensure control switches are clearly marked to show what they do

• Have emergency stop controls where necessary, eg mushroom-head push buttons within easy
reach

• Make sure operating controls are designed and placed to avoid accidental operation and injury,
use two-hand controls where necessary and shroud start buttons and pedals

• Do not let unauthorised, unqualified or untrained people use machinery

• Ensure the work area around the machine is kept clean and tidy, free from obstructions or slips
and trips hazards, and well lit

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 Permit to Work

Adequately Discussed

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Isolation
Prior commencing the maintenance work, ensure the following with regards to isolation

Isolate electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical

and stored energy by adopting appropriate
methods like LOTO, by closing a valve etc.

Discharge static electricity via earth to the ground

Release any stored energy like compressed air or hydraulic pressure that
could cause machine to move

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Hazardous Energy Control – Video 1
Procedures for Working with Unguarded Machinery

Adhere to safe system of work while working on unguarded machinery

Restrict the use of the equipment only to the designated and authorized person

Ensure the designated person are specifically trained and competent to deal with the
particular risks involved

Provide sufficient information, instruction and training to carry out the work safely

Be aware of specific risk that arises from use of work equipment and act safely
 Means by which Machines are Isolated
from all Energy Sources
In certain circumstances, it is necessary to isolate machinery from potential uncontrolled energy sources to
carryout repair, service or maintenance work. Following are the ways to achieve this.

• Isolating Valves

HYDRAULIC OR PNEUMATIC POWER • Electrical isolation of hydraulic pumps

• Disconnection from pneumatic mains

• Open venting to atmosphere may also be

used

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 Means by which Machines are Isolated
from all Energy Sources
In certain circumstances, it is necessary to isolate machinery from potential uncontrolled energy sources to
carryout repair, service or maintenance work. Following are the ways to achieve this.

UTILITY SERVICES • Isolation of water, steam, gas or fuel supplies

• Isolating Switches

ELECTRICAL POWER • Removal of fuses and plugs from sockets

• Switching of Circuit breakers switches

• Earthing
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 Means by which Machines are Isolated
from all Energy Sources
In certain circumstances, it is necessary to isolate machinery from potential uncontrolled energy sources to
carryout repair, service or maintenance work. Following are the ways to achieve this.

• Clutch isolation
• Removal of drive belts or chains, or shaft
MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION
sections
• Use of mechanical scotches (a mechanical
restraint device prevents physical movement of

dangerous parts)

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 Means by which Machines are Isolated
from all Energy Sources
In certain circumstances, it is necessary to isolate machinery from potential uncontrolled energy sources to
carryout repair, service or maintenance work. Following are the ways to achieve this.

• Isolation of process lines and line

blinding or blanking-off

PROCESS AND MATERIAL

SUPPLIES

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 Means by which Machines are Isolated
from all Energy Sources
Outlining the ways to dissipate the residual energy storage or material in the machine or equipment

Types of Power Ways

Mechanical power Allow high-speed rotating parts to run down e.g. centrifuge
bowls (uses the principle of sedimentation)
Electrical power Discharge of capacitors, or disconnection of stand-by
batteries
Hydraulic power Discharge of accumulators, or relaxation of pressurized
pipework
Pneumatic power Discharge of air pressure throughout the system
Services
Emptying, venting, purging, draining and/or cleaning
Process and material supplies

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Typical Causes of Failures
• Any force imposed on an item made from any material is resisted by the internal structure of
that material. In case of excess stress, material may lead to mechanical damage

• Typical causes of failures include

Corrosive failure
Excessive stress

Buckling Abnormal External Loading Metal fatigue

Brittle fracture Ductile failure

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Excessive Stress
• Microscopic cracks, holes and decrease in the cross section
area will begin to form at the material surface when it is
subjected to repeated loading and unloading

• There is an increase in the localised stress near the cracks,

sharp corners, holes due to the abnormal distribution of
stress, which results in sudden change in the geometry of
the body

• Equipment stress in equipment also caused by factors such

as stress raisers or by malpractices such as uneven
tightening of flanges

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Excessive Stress

So to prevent a body from getting failed, the stress concentration should be avoided
or reduced by

Provision of fillet radius instead of

sharp corners

Provision of small holes near big

holes

Provision of notches or undercut at

the sharp corners
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Abnormal External Loading
A sudden blow to the material may lead to fracture. For example

Wind and occasionally ice may contribute a Failure of a pressure system due to factors such
significant external load
as being struck by a forklift truck or fuel
delivery vehicle
Equipment may be externally loaded by
loads carried on additions such as lugs,
supports, brackets and hangers

Dust explosion could provide abnormal

stresses

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Metal Fatigue
• Metal fatigue normally refers to structural degradation and eventual failure. It is not caused by a
steady load or a one-time loading event but it arises as a result of accumulated cycles of applied
stress or strain by repetitive loading or a randomly fluctuating load

• These failures occur in both metallic and non-metallic materials without any warning and are
considered to be dangerous.

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Metal Fatigue
Typical machine components subjected to fatigue are automobile crank-shaft, bridges, aircraft
landing gear,etc.

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Stages of Metal Fatigue

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Ductile Failure
• Ductile failure is a type of fracture occurs with plastic deformation (i.e. permanent change in
the shape or size of a solid body ) or necking (i.e. prominent decrease in local cross-
sectional area)under excess stress or tension

• This usually occurs prior to the actual fracture. The term "ductile rupture" refers to the
failure of highly ductile materials.

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Ductile Failure

A pressure system could fail if the materials used in

its manufacture were not capable of withstanding
the normal operating stresses

This could also occur in situations where the

thickness of the material has reduced, perhaps
through corrosion or erosion, and it can no longer
withstand the stress it is exposed to

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Evolution of Ductile Failure
Small cavity formation

Coalescence of
Initial necking cavities to form
a crack

Crack propagation Final shear

fracture

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Brittle Fracture
• It is the sudden, very rapid cracking of equipment under stress where the material exhibited little or
no evidence of ductility or plastic degradation before the fracture occurs

• Unlike most other tensile failures, this damage mechanism often causes cracking without warning,
sometimes fracturing equipment into many pieces

• Brittle fracture is often caused by low temperatures

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Example: Failure of a Pipe

Ductile failure:
― one piece
― large deformation

Brittle failure:
― many pieces
― small deformation

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Buckling
• Buckling is a mode of structural failure in which one or more members of a frame suddenly
deflect laterally and twist out of the plane of loading when the structural members are
subjected to compressive stress or concentric axial loading

• It can be effectively prevented by using large members or providing additional bracing

Railway Tracks buckles due to earth Bracing to eliminate lateral buckling

quake

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Corrosive Failure
• Corrosion failure in work equipment is nothing but deterioration of a metal due to chemical reactions,
mainly oxidation. For example, rust is formed when iron or steel is exposed to an atmosphere containing
oxygen
• Besides oxidation, work equipment gets corroded whenever a corrosive gas or liquid attacks an exposed
metal surface
• Warm temperatures, acids and salts act as a catalyst to accelerate the rate of corrosion
• Corrosion normally undetectable in its early stages and the amount of metal attacked may be very small
however it can have serious consequences if it is being localized

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Types of Corrosion

1. General Attack Corrosion

3. Galvanic Corrosion
 Corrosion attacks the entire surface of a
 Occurs when two dissimilar metals
metal structure
are located together in a liquid
electrolyte (water, acid)

2. Localized Corrosion
4. Environmental cracking
 Only portions of a metal structure get
 This is caused due to factors such as
corroded
chemical, temperature and stress
related conditions

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Corrosion Prevention

Using a corrosion resistant metal such as aluminum or stainless steel

Applying a protective coating (paint, enamel) on the metal surface

Keep the area around the metal surface dry

Reducing exposure to rain or seawater and controlling the amounts of sulfur,

chlorine, or oxygen in the surrounding environment

Modifying the design of the work environment

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Corrosion Prevention

Adopting the corrosion inhibitors to suppress the electrochemical reactions leading to

corrosion

Incorporating Sacrificial Coatings techniques:

Cathodic Protection Coating the metal with high active metal e.g. coating of iron alloy steel
with zinc
Anodic Protection Coating the metal with high active metal e.g. coating of iron alloy steel
with tin

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Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

• Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
industry to evaluate the properties of material, component or system without causing damage

• It is a highly-valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation,
troubleshooting, and research.

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Types of NDT

Visual Inspection Liquid Penetrant Method

Magnetic Particle Inspection Radiography

Ultra Sonic Technique

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Visual Inspection
• Most basic and common inspection method.

• Tools include fiberscopes, borescopes,

magnifying glasses, and mirrors

• Portable video inspection unit with zoom allows

inspection of large tanks and vessels, railroad
tank cars, sewer lines

• Robotic crawlers permit observation in

hazardous or tight areas, such as air ducts,
reactors, pipelines
Robotic Crawler

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Liquid Penetrant Method – Stages

Cleaner – E.g. water, solvent

Penetrant – E.g. Fluorescent dye, visible (Red) dye
Developer – E.g. Dry powder
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 Liquid Penetrant Method (LPT)
• It is one of the widely used NDT methods and simplest method too

• Suitable to detect surface-breaking flaws such as cracks, laps, porosity, etc. in any non-porous
clean material, metallic or non-metallic, but not for dirty or very rough surfaces

• Surface-breaking flaws are revealed by means of bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye

from the flaw

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Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
• This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near-surface discontinuities in the most
ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and some of their alloys

• This method employs magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e. iron filings) to detect flaws in
ferromagnetic materials

• Compared to other NDT techniques, this method is fast and relatively easy to apply however only
requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made
of a ferromagnetic material

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MPI - Video

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Steps Involved in MPI
It is done by
Step 1: Magnetization of
• passing a large current through the specimen
Specimen
• putting the specimen inside a current-carrying coil

Step2: Application of Applying magnetized particles either in a dry or wet suspended

magnetized particles form to the surface of the specimen

Applied magnetic particles get attracted to all the portions of

Step 3: Identification of
the specimen especially at the edges of the crack. This
cracks
provides the visible indication that the inspector can detect

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MPI – Cluster Example

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Radiography
• This technique is suitable for the detection of internal defects in

ferrous and nonferrous metals and other materials.

• In this method, electromagnetic radiation (X-ray or Gamma ray )

is penetrated towards the test object to take the shadow

picture of an object onto a film for inspecting the hidden flaws

• Electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used

for thinner or less dense materials such as aluminum whereas

gamma radiation is generally used for thicker or denser

materials

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Radiography

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UT - Video

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Ultrasonic Technique (UT)
This technique utilizes high frequency sound waves to detect flaws or discontinuities in metals,
as well as make dimensional measurements, material characterization and more.

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How UT works?
Functional units incorporated in UT inspection system includes

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How UT works?

• On triggering, pulser/receiver produces high voltage electrical pulses that is converted to high
frequency sound energy by a transducer

• This sound energy is passed through the material being inspected in the form of waves.

• In normal occurrence, propagated sound energy is reflected back. If any discontinuity is detected, part
of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface in addition to normal reflection

• All these reflected wave signals are transformed into an electrical signal by the transducer and
displayed on a screen

• Based on the reflected signals, discontinuity or flaws can be identified

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Advantages of Non-destructive Testing
• It is a very sensitive method, capable of finding extremely fine flaws

• It can be used on magnetic and non-magnetic metals, some plastics and glass

• Small objects, with awkward shapes, can be inspected

• A power supply is not needed for some methods of penetrant testing

• The method requires no great skill and is easy to understand

• Lots of small articles, in batches, can be examined using automated systems

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Disadvantages of Non-destructive Testing
• Can only detect defects open to the surface
• Preparation, before testing, can be time consuming and costly
• The method takes time and can rarely be completed in less than 30 minutes
• The method cannot normally be applied to painted objects
• It is messy
• Interpretation of results is sometimes difficult
• There may be a problem disposing of contaminated cleaning and penetrant fluids
• Dry, clean, conditions are essential, as is careful cleaning of the surfaces to be examined
• The method is often abused and skimped, or not fully understood
• There can be a fume exposure problem, particularly in confined spaces

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Any Questions???