Dr Uday Dokras

Māru-Gurjara Architecture

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 JAINISM Series
Māru-Gurjara Architecture

Dr Uday Dokras
Ms Kinjal Shah
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BACKGROUND & INTRODUCTION
Jainism in India

Jainism, founded by Mahavira, flourished in 6th century India. The 6th century India was a
period of social and religious unrest. The old ritualistic Vedic tradition had become a strong
factor for reformation. Besides the intellectual unrest, there were many social and economic

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inequalities existing during that period. People wanted a different kind of society and a new
belief system. They started thinking critically about the ills and sorrows of life and their
desire to remove these ills led to the establishment of numerous religious sects, of which
Jainism was one of them. Due to the rigid caste system and other religious and economical
unrest, people wanted a different kind of society and a new belief system. Jainism spread
because of the simple language in which it was preached by Mahavira and later through the
efforts of the Jain munis and patronage extended by the Kings. The equal treatment of all
men and women, irrespective of their caste, helped Jainism gain popularity among people
mistreated under the caste system.

According to Jainism history, during ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were
transmitted through oral traditions, later they were mainly compiled into the twelve Angas.
Mahavira’s teachings emphasised the practice of ahimsa (non-violence). He also laid down a
code of conduct, five vows, for the monks and other adherents to avoid bad karma.

The following factors led to the growth of Jainism:

1. Simple language: Mahavira preached his teachings in Prakrit, which was then the
language of the common people, instead of Sanskrit which the people did not understand.
His doctrines were simple which attracted many followers. There is a distinction
between Jain and non-Jain Prakrit literature.

2. Organised religious order: Mahavira left behind a strong organised religious order of
the Jain munis (sages) for the propagation of his doctrines. There were eleven disciples of
Mahavira known as Ganadharas (heads of schools) among whom only Arya Sudharma
survived Mahavira and went to become the first ‘Thera’ (chief preceptor) of the Jain
order. Bhadrabahu was the sixth Thera who migrated to the south and preached Jainism.
The missionary zeal of the Jain munis helped to spread Jainism all over the country.
When Alexander invaded India, Jain munis were present on the banks of the Indus river.
3. Royal Patronage: Many kings patronised Jainism, such as Rashtrakuta or King
Chalukya. It spread to Odisha, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, and many more states in
India. The spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya. The
influence of the Jain religion in South India was due to the teachings of Bhadrabahu, the
spiritual teacher of Chandragupta. At the beginning of the Cristian era, Mathura and
Ujjain became seats of power from where Jainism flourished. The Kings’ patronage
helped Jainism to procure a place in people’s minds.
4. Non-discriminatory treatment: Mahavira believed that all human beings are equal and
was of the opinion that everyone has the right to attain ‘moksha’ by pursuing a life of
purity. He preached that there should not be any discrimination on the basis of caste and
even favoured the freedom of women and included them in the Jain Sangha (community).
This helped Jainism gain popularity among people mistreated under the caste system.

Jain Agamas
It is believed that during ancient times, the sacred teachings of Jainism were transmitted
through oral traditions. The original, unadulterated teachings of the Tirthankaras, which are
now lost, are said to have been contained in 14 ancient Purva texts. Jain councils were held to
systemize and preserve the sacred oral teachings.
As per Jainism history, the first council was held at Pataliputra, present-day Patna, followed
by the second councils held simultaneously at Mathura and Vallabhi. The last council was
held at Vallabhi (Gujrat), without the participation of the Digambaras. In the first council, the

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Jain monks assembled to put together their sacred knowledge and compile the 11 Angas but
failed to gather the last one, Ditthivada, the 12th Anga due to the absence of Bhadrabahu who
had the knowledge of the fourteen Purvas. His refusal to participate led to the loss of the
Purva knowledge. The Last council held at Vallabhi led to the codification of the Svetambara
canon which is still preached.
The Svetambara canon comprises of 45 works: 12 Angas; 12 Upangas; 10 Prakīrṇakas; 6
Cheda-sutras; 2 Cūlikā-sutras; and 4 Mūla-sutras. These canons were mostly written in the
Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit dialect.
The Digambara canon is written in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit and comprises two main texts,
namely, Ṣaṭkhaṇḍāgama and Kaṣāya-prābhṛta, along with three commentaries on the main
texts, and four Anuyogas.

There are several Jain temples that draw pilgrims from Jains around the world in places
such as Palitana, Taranga, Sankheshwar,Idar. Jains believe that propagators of Jain
religion) Neminath attained Moksha/ Nirvana on Girnar in Gujarat. He was the 22 nd
Thirthankar. Many other monks have also got attained Moksha in Gujarat; especially on the
holy mountains of Girnar and Shatrunjaya. The Jain councils were held in Vallabhi c. 5th
century CE. Their canonical scriptures were written down during this council. King Vanaraja
Chavda (c. 720-780 CE) of the Chavda dynasty was brought up by a Jain monk named
Shilaguna Suri. The earliest known Old Gujarati text Bharat-Bahubali Ras, was written by a
Jain monk Shalibhadra Suri. Of the most important people in Gujarat's Jain history were the
Acharya Hemachandra Suri and his pupil, the Chaulukya ruler Kumarapala.

Jainism has had a notable following in Gujarat. Jain temples are found in Gujarat from as
early as the 6th and 7th centuries CE. It was patronized by the Chaulukyas and Chavadas.
Dhank Caves (3rd-7th century CE) in Rajkot district has Jain Tirthankara carvings. Northern
Gujarat became a principle center of Jainism in the 13th century CE. Rajasthan, a state in
western India, has had a close historical connection with Jainism. Southwestern Rajasthan
was the main centre for Śvetāmbara Jainism. Major Digambara centres are in the northern

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and eastern parts of Rajasthan. Central and Northern Rajasthan are the main centres for the
Terapanth sect of Śvetāmbara Jainism.

Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848) in Ahmedabad, Gujarat

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Navlakha Temple, Ghumli, Gujarat, 12th century

A Jain temple, Derasar or Basadi is the place of worship for Jains, the followers
of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and Jain
buildings generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time they were built.Jain
temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient
times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions,
and regional and periodic styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years, the basic layout
of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the
main murti or idol, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more
larger mandapa halls.

Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style", is a particular temple style

from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that originated in both
Hindu and Jain temples around the year 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain
patrons. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also

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becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the 20th century. The style is seen in the
groups of pilgrimage temples at Dilwara on Mount
Abu, Taranga, Girnar, Kundalpur, Sonagiri, Muktagiri and Palitana.

Terms
Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is
a Jain shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical
use in North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples
of Mount Abu. The Sanskrit word for vasahi is vasati, which implies an institution for
residences of scholars attached to the shrine.

Temples may be divided into Shikhar-baddha Jain temples, temple buildings dedicated to the
public, normally with a high superstructure, (typically a north Indian shikhara tower above
the shrine) and the Griha Chaityalaya (Ghar derasar) , a private Jain house shrine. A Jain
temple which is known as a pilgrimage centre is often termed as Tirtha.

The main idol of a Jain temple is known as the mula nayak. A Manastambha (column of
honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e.
stone figures of the main god of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South
and West.

Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. [7] Some of the earliest examples of
Jain architecture are of the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition, whereby structures are
produced by carving material out of solid rock.[8] These traditions were initially shared with
Buddhism, and by the end of the classical period, Hinduism. Jain temples and monasteries
designed and constructed using rock-cut methods often share a site with those of the other
religions, such as those at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara,
Ellora, Aihole, Badami, Kalugumalai and Pataini temple. The Ellora Caves are a late site,
which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later
Hindu excavations.

Despite the similarity between different religions, Jainism is often known for placing large
figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside a shrine.
[7]
These statues later began to increase in size, often in the form of standing nude figures in
the kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). The Gopachal
rock cut Jain monuments, the Siddhachal Caves, and various single figures including the
12th-century Gommateshwara statue, the modern Statue of Vasupujya, and the Statue of
Ahimsa, standing the tallest at 108 feet (33 meters) in height, all exemplify this similarity.

In recent times, the use of murti images has become controversial within Jainism, and some
smaller sects reject them entirely, while others are selective in terms of which figures they
allow images of. In sects which largely disapprove of images, the religious buildings are used
instead.

Following the regional styles in Hindu temples, Jain temples in North India generally use the
north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style, although the north
Indian Māru-Gurjara style or Solanki style has made some inroads in the south over the 20th
century or so. For example, the Mel Sithamur Jain Math in Tamil Nadu has a
large gopuram tower, similar to those of local Hindu temples.

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 Characteristics of the original Māru-Gurjara style are "the external walls of the temples have
been structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply
carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the
lower bands of mouldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants,
and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The
main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa (subsidiary spirelets) on it, and two smaller
side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples.

Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola,

with the colossal Gommateshwara statue.(Below)

Later, with Dilwara in the lead, surrounding the main temple with a curtain
of devakulikā shrines, each with a small spire, became a distinctive feature of the Jain
temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples. These are fairly plain on the
outer walls, and often raised on a very high platform, so that the outside of larger temples can
resemble a fortress with high walls. However the entrance(s), often up high, wide steps, are
not designed for actual defence, even though medieval Muslim armies and others destroyed
many Jain temples in the past, often permanently.

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Inside the temple, the Māru-Gurjara style features extremely lavish carving, especially on
columns, large and intricately carved rosettes on the ceilings of mandapas, and a
characteristic form of "flying arch" between columns, which has no structural role, and is
purely decorative. Most early temples in the style are in various local shades of pink, buff or
brown sandstone, but the Dilwara temples are in a very pure white marble which lightens the
style and has become considered very desirable.

While, before British India, large Buddhist or Hindu temples (and indeed Muslim mosques)
have very often been built with funds from a ruler, this was infrequently the case with Jain
temples. Instead they were typically funded by wealthy Jain individuals or families. For this
reason, and often the smaller numbers of Jains in the population, Jain temples tend to be at
the small or middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in large
groups - there are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-
walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks". Temple charitable trusts, such as the very
large Anandji Kalyanji Trust, founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200
temples, play a very important role in funding temple building and maintenance.

 Beautifully carved in marble, the Dilwara Jain temples in Mount Abu

(Rajasthan) enshrine various Jain 'Tirthankaras'.
 They are constructed out of white marble from Arasoori Hill, near Ambaji, 23 km from
Abu Road.
 The ministers of the Solanki rulers of Gujarat had constructed all these temples
during the 11th and 13th centuries A.D.
 Vimal Vasahi is the oldest temple, which has been dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain
Tirthankara.
 Vimal Shah, minister of the then Solanki ruler of Gujarat, built it in the year 1031 A.D.
 The other Dilwara temples are the Luna Vasahi, Vastupala, and Tejapala, named after
the ministers of the then Vaghela ruler of Gujarat who built them in 1230 A.D.
 Its most notable feature is that the brilliant intricacy and delicacy of the marble carving is
so fine that in places the marble becomes almost transparent.

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 The
exquisitely carved dome of Luna Vasahi, a 13th century Jain temple
built entirely of white marble. Located in Rajasthan, India

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 The Chaulukya dynasty
The Chaulukya dynasty / also Solanki dynasty, was a Jain dynasty that ruled the Kingdom
of Gujarat in western India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Hemachandra, a Jain scholar
in the Chaulukya court, generally used the terms "Chaulukya" and "Chulukya".
His Dvyasraya Mahakavya mentions the variants "Chulakya", "Chalukka", and "Chulukka";
his Kumarapala-Charita mentions another variant "Chuluga". The Chaulukya court
poet Someshvara describes the dynasty as "Chaulukya" (in Kirti-Kaumudi) and "Chulukya"
(in the Abu inscription of Vastupala and Tejapala). "Solanki" or "Solankhi" is a vernacular
form of the term. They formed a unique and distinct typr of templ architecture called the
Solanki or Maru Gurjara.

After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern
Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century.The writing of 12th century Kashmiri
poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra while other sources claim
they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriya caste.The Chalukya rulers
were known for their patronage of Jainism, as well as Hinduism and Buddhism. Some of the
notable Jain scholars who flourished under their patronage were Akalanka, Siddharshi, and
Hemachandra. Hemachandra was a renowned Jain monk, poet, and scholar who lived during
the 12th century CE.
Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended to
the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The family is also known as the "Solanki
dynasty" in the vernacular literature. They belonged to the Solanki clan of Rajputs.

Mularaja, the founder of the dynasty, supplanted the last ruler of the Chavda dynasty around
940 CE. His successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as
the Chudasamas, the Paramaras and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari. During the reign
of Bhima I, the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath
temple during 1024-1025 CE. The Chaulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its
zenith under the rule of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th century. Several
minor dynasties, such as the Chahamanas of Jalor and the Chahamanas of Naddula, served as
Chaulukya vassals during this period. After Kumarapala's death, the kingdom was gradually
weakened by internal rebellions; uprisings by feudatories; and invasions by the Paramaras,
the Ghurids, the Yadavas and others. Taking advantage of this, the Vaghelas, who had earlier
served as Chaulukya generals, usurped the power and established a new dynasty in the 1240s.

Several princely state rulers of the Solanki clan claimed descent from the Chaulukyas.

The dynasty used the self-designation "Chaulukya" in all but four of its records. The four
exceptions are:

 "Chaulukika" in the Kadi grant of Mularaja

 "Saulkika" in a grant of Chamundaraja
 "Chaulakya" in the Sambhar inscription of Jayasimha
 "Chaullakya" in the Jalor inscription of Kumarapala
The word "Chaulukya" is thought to be a variant of the word "Chalukya". Several other
dynasties were known by the name "Chalukya", including the Chalukyas
of Vatapi, Navasarika, Vemulavada, Kalyani, Vengi and Lata. These dynasties are sometimes
thought to be branches of the same family, but the relationship between all of them is not
certain. Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat never

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claimed a shared descent or any other association with the earliest Chalukya dynasty — the
Chalukyas of Vatapi. Moreover, they never used the term "Chalukya" to describe themselves.
However, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat shared a myth of origin with the Chalukyas of Kalyani
and Vengi. According to this legend, the progenitor of the dynasty was created by Brahma.
[5]
The version of the legend mentioned in the Vadnagar prashasti inscription
of Kumarapala is as follows: the deities once asked the creator god Brahma to protect them
from the danavas (demons). Brahma then created a hero from his chuluka (pot or folded palm
in Sanskrit), which was filled with Ganges water. This hero was named "Chulukya", and
became the progenitor of the dynasty. A variation of this legend is mentioned by
Abhayatilaka Gani in his commentary on Hemachandra's Dvyashraya-Kavya. According to
this version, Brahma produced the hero to support the earth, after his other creations
disappointed him. These stories are of no historical value, as it was customary for
contemporary royal houses to claim mythical and heroic origins. The Kumarapala-Bhupala-
Charita of Jayasimha Suri presents Chulukya as a historical warrior, whose capital was
Madhupadma. Mularaja was his descendant, with nearly a hundred generations separating the
two.[ This account may be partly historical: Madhupadma has been identified variously as a
location outside Gujarat, including present-day Mathura.

It is theorized that the Chaulukyas were different from the Chalukyas. According to
the Agnikula myth mentioned in a 16th-century recension of the legendary epic
poem Prithviraj Raso, four Rajput clans including the Chaulukyas were born from a fire-pit
on Mount Abu. A section of colonial-era historians interpreted this mythical account to
suggest that these clans were foreigners who came to India after the decline of the Gupta
Empire around the 5th century CE, and were admitted in the Hindu caste system after
performing a fire ritual.

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The Chaulukya rulers have been called "Gurjararāja" and "Gurjareśvara" ("ruler of
Gurjara"). Most of the dynasty's rulers were Shaivaite, although they also
patronized Jainism. The dynasty's founder Mularaja is said to have built Mulavasatika temple
for Digambara Jains and the Mulanatha-Jinadeva temple for the Svetambara Jains. The
earliest of the Dilwara Temples and the Modhera Sun Temple were constructed during the
reign of Bhima I. According to popular tradition, his queen Udayamati also commissioned
the Queen's step-well. Kumarapala started patronizing Jainism at some point in his life, and
the subsequent Jain accounts portray him as the last great royal patron of Jainism. The
Chaulukya rulers also endowed mosques to maintain good relationship with the Muslim
traders

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The Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks
of Saraswati river.
The Vaghela dynasty, which succeeded the Chaulukyas, claimed descent from a sister
of Kumarapala. Various princely state dynasties calling themselves Solanki (the vernacular
form of Chaulukya) claimed descent from the Chaulukyas as well. These included the rulers
of the Lunavada State, which was a tributary to the Marathas before coming under the British
rule.

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Māru-Gurjarat architecture or Solaṅkī style, is the style of West Indian temple
architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under
the Chaulukya dynasty (also called Solaṅkī dynasty). The name comes from the ancient
names of these regions, Marudesh and Gurjaratra. Although originating as a regional style
in Hindu temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples, and mainly
under Jain patronage later spread across India, then later to diaspora communities around the
world.

On the exteriors, the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture is distinguished from other North
Indian temple styles of the period in "that the external walls of the temples have been
structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply carved
statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower
bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants,
and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The
main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller
side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples.

Mandapa ceiling in the Ranakpur Jain Temple/

Interiors are if anything even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most
surfaces. In particular, Jain temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a
highly intricate rosette design. Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements
between pillars, touching the horizontal beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved.
These have no structural function, and are purely decorative. The style developed large
pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples often having one closed and two
pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the shrine.

The style mostly fell from use in Hindu temples in its original regions by the 13th century,
especially as the area had fallen to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate by 1298. But, unusually for an

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Indian temple style, it continued to be used by Jains there and elsewhere, with a notable
"revival" in the 15th century. Since then it has continued in use in Jain and some Hindu
temples, and from the 20th century has spread to temples built outside India. These include
many large temples built by the Hindu Swaminarayan tradition, with the Neasden temple in
London (1995) an early example, and smaller ones built by the Jain diaspora, such as the Jain
temple, Antwerp, Belgium (completed 2010), and temples in Potters Bar and Leicester in
England .

Origin of the name

The name of the Māru-Gurjara style is a 20th-century invention; previously, and still by
many, it is called the "Solanki style". The ancient name of Rajasthan was Marudesh while
Gujarat was called Gurjaratra. The term "Māru-Gurjara" was coined by art and architectural
historian Madhusudan Dhaky, who also coined the terms "Surāṣṭra", "Mahā-Māru", and
"Mahā-Gurjara" to describe other historical styles of Western Indian architecture. The Māru-
Gurjara style is a synthesis of the Mahā-Māru style of Marwar region in Rajasthan and the
Mahā-Gurjara style of Gujarat. However, Hegewald suggests "This change in terminology
appears to have been suggested first by A. Ghosh during a symposium in Delhi in 1967". She
notes that the change was an "attempt to avoid dynastic terms", and that both "Māru-Gurjara"
and "Maru-Gurjara" are used by different writers, and that the Jain community mostly
continues to call the style "Solanki".

Bands of relief on the base wall of the Jagdish Temple, Udaipur, built by Maharana
Jagat Singh I in 1651

See written by the author

https://www.academia.edu/92055431/
The_Ancient_Hindu_Concept_of_Water_management_and_the_STEPWELLS_Rani_
Ki_Vav

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The style developed from that of the dynasties preceding the Solankis, mainly the Gurjara-
Pratihara dynasty, and the local dynasties under it. The most famous monuments of this
period are the Khajuraho Group of Monuments built under the Chandela dynasty between
950 and 1050. These are famous for their erotic reliefs. Many of the broad features of this
earlier style are continued in the Māru-Gurjara style. The beginnings of the new style can be
seen in the small Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan. The earliest inscription here
records a repair in 961 (well before the Solankis came to power). For George Mitchell, in the
Jagat temple (and others he names) "the Pratihara style was fully evolved in its Western
Indian expression"

Early Hindu temples

The Somnath temple, dedicated to Shiva, was the most famous in Gujarat, but was very
largely destroyed by the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud in a raid in 1024–1025 CE. It was then
rebuilt, but sacked again when the Delhi Sultanate conquered the area at the end of the 13th
century. The ruins have recently been restored and rebuilt in what is intended as the Solanki
style.

The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat, was built in 1026–27 CE, just after Mahmud's raid. The
shikhara is now missing, but the lower levels are well-preserved, and there is a
large stepwell tank of the same period in front of the temple. There is a large
detached mandapa between the main sanctuary building and the tank, which is slightly later.
The carving of all parts is "extremely luxuriant and exquisitely refined in the rendering of
detail".

The Rudra Mahalaya Temple was a large complex in Siddhpur Gujarat, mostly destroyed
under Muslim rule. The main temple was surrounded by a screen of subsidiary shrines (partly
surviving as a mosque), and the porches, parts of which remain, and a stand-
alone torana were exceptionally grand. The mandapa had three storeys. It was completed in
1140, ending a long period of construction. Two groups of smaller ruined temples of similar
date are the two Rama Lakshamana temples, Baradia and the five Kiradu temples; both have
their lowest storeys fairly intact, and some of the Kiradu group retain part of their shikharas.

The Rani ki vav ("Queen's Stepwell", probably 1063–83) is a very grand stepwell in Patan,
Gujarat, once the Chaulukya capital. With a very different architectural form and function,
"throughout, the ornamentation of the architectural elements is sumptuous" in the
contemporary temple style, including very many Hindu figures. Another non-temple example
is the 80 foot Kirti Stambha tower in Chittor Fort, Rajasthan, built for a Jain merchant,
mostly in the early 13th century, with the pavilion at the top a 15th-century restoration

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 1. Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan, by 960
2. Durga on the Jagat temple
3. Wall below the Shikhara, Sun Temple, Modhera, 1020s

Outside face of screen shrines at Rudra Mahalaya Temple, 1140//Kiradu temples

Early Jain temples

Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga, 1161//Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, 1248, rebuilt 2010/

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Kumbharia Mahavira temple, 1062//Detail of the Jain Kirti Stambha tower, Chittor
Fort
The five Dilwara Temples on Mount Abu are among the most famous Jain temples. The
Vimal Vasahi is much the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and
the others at intervals between 1459 and 1582. All are in a very white marble that adds
greatly to their effect, and remain in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of
intricate carving even by the standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi
temple. The main buildings of the first three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens
of devakulikā shrines, and are fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal
Vasahi this screen was a later addition, around the time of the second temple. These three
have an axis from the sanctuary through a closed, then an open mandapa to an
open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or drama. Surrounding the main temple with a
curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive feature of the Jain temples of West India, still
employed in some modern temples.

The Ajitanatha Temple, the largest and earliest of the cluster of Taranga Jain temples, was
constructed in 1161, and is a fine example of the style, which remains largely intact, and in
religious use. The shikhara and the much lower superstructure over the mandapa are both
among the "most complicated" in the style. The former begins with three rows of bhumija-
style miniature towers in clusters, before turning to the sekhari style higher up, where the
miniature towers are of varying lengths, and overlap. Over the mandapa, the lowest level
continues the regular miniature tower clusters over the sanctuary, above which shallow
pitched planes of roof are studded with miniature towers, with rows of beasts and urns along
the edges of the planes. The surfaces are heavily decorated with figures and
"honeycomb" gavaksha decoration, the figures "characterized by lively poses and sharply cut
faces and costumes".

The Ajitanatha Temple was built under, and very probably by, King Kumarapala (r. 1143 –
1172 CE) of the Solanki/Chaulukya dynasty, who was the most favourable towards Jains of
the dynasty. According to Jain sources he converted to Jainism towards the end of his life; at
the least he was influenced by the religion. His reign marked the height of Jain power and

21
influence; his son Ajayapala, something of a villain in Jain chronicles, was much less
favourable, although there continued to be Jain ministers.

Kumbharia Jain temples is a complex of five Jain temples in Kumbhariya, Banaskantha

district built between 1062 - 1231 CE. The five temples are famous for their elaborate
architecture. The Jain temples, Kumbhariya along with Dilwara temples, Girnar Jain
temples and Taranga Jain temple are considered excellent examples of Chaulukyan
architecture. Mahavira, Shantinatha, and Parshvanatha temples are some of the most
renowned temples in India. These five marble temples vary in size and architecture details,
but every temple is surrounded by a protective walled courtyard with elaborate arched
gateways.

The Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, mostly constructed for a merchant in 1248, just at the end of
the Solanki dynasty, is surrounded by the high walls of a curtain of subsidiary shrines, each
with a shikhara in sekhari style, except for a much later two-storey porch at the entrance,
which has elements from Indo-Islamic architecture in the domes and arches. The main
temple, in a courtyard considerably above ground level, is comparable to the earlier examples
described above.

The clustered group of Girnar Jain temples, with a magnificent mountain-top position, are
mostly in the style, with the major temples ranging in date (of basic construction) from 1128,
1231, 1453 and another 15th century example. Other temples, like the large example at
the Rajgadhi Timbo ("mound"), have been completely destroyed.

Later temples

Ranakpur Jain temple, 15th centuryDetailed carvings on the pillar of Ranakpur Jain
temple
The Solanki dynasty finally fell around 1244, replaced by the Hindu Vaghela dynasty for
some decades before the Muslim Delhi Sultanate conquered the region. Temple building then
largely ceased in the original areas of the style for a considerable time, although a trickle of
repairs and additions to existing temples are recorded, and some small new buildings.
However, Solanki rule came to be seen by Jains as something of a "golden age", and the
Māru-Gurjara style evidently became something of a standard for Jains, specifically
the Śvetāmbara wing of the religion. The style began to re-appear in Jain temples in the same
area in the 15th century, and then spread elsewhere in India, initially moving eastwards.

The Adinatha Ranakpur Jain temple in Rajasthan is a major construction for a merchant, built
between 1439 and 1458 or 1496. It is a thorough-going, but not strict, revival of Māru-
Gurjara style, on the same broad model as Bhadreshwar, with a high outside wall of the back

22
of shrines, but also a number of Islamic-style corbelled domes. There are four three-storey
porches, already up two flights of steps. The interior of the temple is "unsurpassed for its
spatial complexity", with the sanctuary at the centre of the compound surrounded by many
mandapas of two or three storeys, with all levels very open between the supporting columns
allowing views in several directions inside the compound. Even the shikhara has balconies at
three levels. The carving on the interior is in most areas as lavish as ever.

The large group of Palitana temples on the Shatrunjaya hills in Gujarat are another very
important Jain pilgrimage site, with temples numbering into the hundreds (most very small,
and all but one Svetambara). Though many were founded much earlier, the site was so
thoroughly destroyed by Muslim armies, starting in 1311, that there is little surviving that
dates back before the 16th century. The temples are packed tightly together in a number of
high-walled compounds called "tuks" or "tonks". Michell calls them "characteristic of the
final phase of Western Indian temple architecture", with traditional shikharas, double storey
porches, often on three or four sides, and miniature-urn roofs to the main mandapas. But there
are influences from Indo-Islamic architecture in the domes, often fluted, over porches and
second mandapas, "arches with petalled fringes, parapets of merlons", and other features.
The Polo Forest in Gujarat has groups of Hindu and Jain ruined temples of various dates, but
mostly 15th century. The Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651) is an example of a
Hindu temple using the style at a late date; in this case a commission of Jagat Singh I, ruler
of Mewar.

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Seven of the Girnar Jain temples, 12th-15th centuries/View across the Palitana temples

24
4

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The Hindu Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651)//

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 II
Some Famous temples of the Maru Gurjara
The earliest temples in the complex date as far back as the 11th century CE. The Palitana
temple complex is near the top of the hill, in groups called Tonks (Tuks) along the hills'
various ridges. The main temple is dedicated to Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara; it is the
holiest shrine for the Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka sect. Marble is the preferred material of
construction. More than 400,000 pilgrims visited the site in 2010.Jains believe that 23 of the
24 Tirthankaras, all except Neminatha, sanctified Palitana with visits. This makes the site
particularly important to the Jain tradition. These temples are reached by most pilgrims and
visitors by climbing around 3500 stone steps along a hilly trail. Some hire pallanquins at the
base of the hills, to be carried to the temple complex. Palitana, along with
the Shikharji in Jharkhand, is believed to be the holiest of all pilgrimage places by the Jain
community. Digambara Jains have only one dedicated temple in Palitana. Hingraj
Ambikadevi (known as Hinglaj Mata) is considered as the presiding deity of the hill, who is a
Jain Yakshini (attendant deity). As the temple complex was built to be an abode for the
divine, no one is allowed to stay overnight, including the priests.

Palitana is a small town about 55 kilometers southwest of Bhavnagar city and 25 kilometers
south of Songadh village in Bhavnagar district in southeastern Gujarat. It is midst an arid-
marshy terrain near the Gulf of Cambay and the Shetrunji river. About 2 kilometers to the
south of Palitana town are twin hilltops with a saddle-like valley with a peak height of about
600 meters. These are the Palitana hills, historically called the Shatrunjaya Hills. The
word Shatrunjaya is interpreted as a "place of victory".According to Paul Dundas, a scholar
of Jainism, Shatrunjaya hill literally means "the hill which conquers enemies".On these
hilltops is a fortified wall complex with space for canons built by the local Hindu ruler after
the 14th century to resist any raids and destruction. Within this fortified walls, on the ridges
of these hills is the largest collection of Śvetāmbara Jain temples, called the Palitana temples.

The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples

The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples are a group of Śvētāmbara Jain temples located
about 2+1⁄2 kilometres from the Mount Abu settlement in Sirohi District, Rajasthan's only hill
station. The earliest were built by Vimal Shah , a Jain minister of Solanki king of
Gurjaratra , Bhima I and additions to the temples were made by Vastupala, Jain minister of
Vaghelas of Gurjaratra. They date between the 11th and 16th centuries, forming some of the
most famous monuments in the style of Solanki architecture, famous for their use of a very
pure white marble and intricate marble carvings. They are managed by Seth Shri Kalyanji
Anandji Pedhi, Sirohi and are a pilgrimage place for Jains, and a significant general tourist
attraction.The Dilwara temples are regarded as the most impressive among Jain temples in
Rajasthan.

27
William Carpenter
These temples are unique in every sense of the word. It first came into construction
somewhere in the 11th century and after ages of diligent construction, destruction, and
reconstruction, five such temples came into existence. Each with its own set of antiquities is
molded out of milky marble.

Mount Abu Online

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While the formation of these temples was in action, the Chalukya Dynasty was in power.
What went down in the centuries that saw the plight of these monuments, is intense history.
The year 1311 saw the darkest unfolding. Allaudin Khilji laid destruction on all five temples
and left them mangled in ruins. All that eloquence now resounded in pieces. Then amidst the
14th century, began the reconstruction. Donations and reparations came from many devotees
from all over India. One of the people who contributed to repairs were, Bijag and Lalag from
Mandore. Currently, the temples are administered by the Seth Kalyanji Parmanand Ji Pedi.

The temple complex is in the midst of a range of forested hills. There are five temples in all,
each with its own unique identity. All the five temples are enclosed within a single high
walled compound. The group is named after the small village of Dilwara or Delvara in which
they are located. The five temples are:

1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the 1st tirthankara, Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).

2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd tirthankara, Neminatha.
3. Pittalhar temple, dedicated to Adinatha.
4. Parshvanath temple, dedicated to the 23rd tirthankara, Parshvanatha.
5. Mahavir Swami temple, dedicated to the 24th tirthankara, Mahavira.
Among the five marble temples of Dilwara, the most famous are the Vimal Vasahi and the
Luna Vasahi temples. Dilwara Temples, Girnar, Shatrunjaya and Shikharji are known as
Śvētāmbara Pancha Tirth (five principal pilgrimage shrine)

The first temple, The Vimal Vasahi Temple

This Vimal Vasahi is dedicated to the Tirthankara, Adinatha Ji. This one was sculpted
entirely out of white marble. Even more detailed statues of the other Tirthankaras are present

29
here. From the ceiling to pillars and grand doors, nothing resembles the definition of the
plain. It was built in 1032 by Vimal Shah, the Chalukya King of Gujarat.

The second temple, The Luna Vasahi Temple

The Luna Vasahi is dedicated to The Tirthankara Neminath Ji. The beauty inside Luna
Vasahi even surpasses that of Vimal Vasahi. The space inside welcomes sunlight so
delightfully that it highlights even the most minute explanation of the temple. The Hathi
Shala here is what is called magnificent. This temple also showcases the most delicate stone-
cutting there could be. It was built in 1230 by Porwad Brothers; Vastupal and Tejpal,
ministers of Virdhawal.

The third temple, The Pittalhar Temple

It is in the name; a colossal statue of the first Tirthankara, RishabhDev Ji, is crafted with five
different kinds of metal. The metal used among the five others in the highest quantity is
Brass, hence the name Pittalhar, as Pittal is a Hindi translation of brass. With 107 images
instilled inside this temple, it stands tall with its individualism. Built by Bhima Shah,
Minister of Sultan Begada. The construction of the temple dates between 1316-1432 AD.

The fourth temple, Shri Parsvanatha Temple

It’s believed that masons urged to put in use, the remaining bricks from the previous three
temples, as this was the fourth temple in order of dates. It’s a three-story grand religious
building. Standing as the tallest one in all of the five temples, grey sandstone can be seen in
the building. Sangvi Mandlik and his family took under the construction of this one in the
year 1458-59.

The fifth temple, Lord Mahavira Temple

Decorated with a number of beautiful paintings, it’s the smallest of the five temples. It’s
adorned with gorgeousness. Although smaller in size, its craftsmanship is relatively modern
with new elements. It was built in the year 1582.

Architecture
The five Dilwara temples are among the most famous Jain temples. The Vimal Vasahi is
much the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and the others at
intervals between 1459 and 1582. All are in white marble which adds greatly to their effect
and remains in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of intricate carving even
by the standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi temple. The main buildings
of the first three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens of devakulikā shrines, and are
fairly plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later
addition, around the time of the second temple. These three have an axis from the sanctuary
through a closed, then an open mandapa to an open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or
drama. Surrounding the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive
feature of the Jain temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples.

In later temples in the Māru-Gurjara style, a very pure white marble like that at Dilwara came
to be regarded as highly desirable, even essential. In modern times, when the style has

30
become popular in other regions of India, and with Hindu and Jain communities in other
countries, local Rajastani marble is often carved and transported to the new building.

The temples have an opulent entranceway, the simplicity in architecture reflecting Jain values
like honesty and frugality. The ornamental detail spreading over the minutely carved ceilings,
doorways, pillars, and panels is considered to be remarkable. It is said that workmen were
paid in gold according to the weight of marble powder scraped off.

Five Temples in Details

Stamp of Dilwara Temples issued in 2019

Vimal Vasahi Temple
The Adinatha or Vimala Vasahi Temple is carved entirely out of white marble and was
mostly built in 1026 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhima I, the Chaulukya king of Gujarat.
The outer mandapa is an addition of the next century The temple is dedicated to
Rishabhanatha. The temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has

31
numerous cells containing smaller idols of the tirthankaras. The richly carved corridors,
pillars, arches, and 'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple are simply amazing.

The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain
mythology. The figures of animal life, life journey from dream to incarnation of tirthankars
are carved. There are 59 devakulikas (small shrine) facing the main image of Rishabhanatha.
There are 7 additional cells are found, 1 cell houses image of Ambika and 2 cells
of Munisuvrata. The mulnayak idol of Rishabhanatha is carved with attendant deities and
images of 4 tirthankaras, giving the idol name Saparikar Panchtirthi. The principal shrine
was originally surrounded by 24 sub-shrines but later 74 shub-shrines were added in the 12th
century.

The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each containing carvings of

different designs supported on ornate pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall after stepping
inside its heavily decorated doorway. The Gudh mandap, houses two idols of Parshvanatha
in Kayotsarga position and an image of Rishabhanatha. The mandap is meant for Aarti to the
deity. The ceiling has carvings of horses, elephants, musician, dancers and soldier. The
ceiling of the main dome features carving of the sixteen devis associated with learning. The
Hastishala (Elephant courtyard) was constructed by Prithvipal, a descendant of Vimal Shah in
1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture with the members of the family riding
them.

Luna Vasahi

Intricate carvings of Luna Vasahi

The Luna Vasahi or Neminatha temple is dedicated to Neminatha. The temple was built in
1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval,
the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The temple, built in memory of Vastupal & Tejpal's late brother
Lunig, was designed after the Vimal Vashi temple. The temple has a similar structure as
Vimala Vasahi but has better carvingsThe Rang mandap (main hall) features a central dome
from which hangs a big ornamental pendant. Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of
tirthankaras in sitting posture; under this band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another
circular band. The Hathishala (elephant cell) features 10 marble elephants, polished and
realistically modelled. A special feature of the temple is the two niches of Derani (wife of
younger brother) and Jethani (wife of older brother), the wives of Vastupal and Tejpal
respectively. The niches have the image of the goddess Lakshmi with sculptures of
tirthankaras Sambhavanatha and Shantinatha respectively.

There are 47 sub-shrines housing one or more images of tirthankaras. The first shrine houses
an idol of the goddess Ambika. The ninth and eleventh enshrines images of Neminatha's life

32
after renunciation and Neminatha's marriage respectively. The fourteenth shrine has images
of the life events of Shantinatha. In the thirty-seventh shrine, there are images of four
goddesses. There are several images of life events of Krishna as well. There are a total of 130
pillars in the temple of which 38 are beautifully carved.

The Navchowki features some of the most delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple.
The ceilings of the temple depicts scenes of the life of Neminatha with image
of Rajmathi (who was to marry Neminatha) and Krishna. The Gudh mandap features a black
marble idol of Neminatha. The carvings of devkulikas and Chakreshvari in the ceiling of
temple are also noteworthy. The Kirti Stambha(pillar of pride), big black stone pillar on the
left of the temple, was constructed by Maharana Kumbha of Mewar. The remaining three
temples of Dilwara are smaller.

Pittalhar Temple

Pittalhar Temple
The Pittalhar temple, also called the Adinatha temple, was built by Bhima Shah, a minister
of Sultan Begada of Ahmedabad, between1316-1432 AD. A massive metal statue of
Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. The main metal used
in this statue is 'Pital' (brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The name of the temple is also
mentioned in an inscription dating back to 1432, found in Digambar shrine in Dilwara
complex.

There are 107 images in the main shrine. The shrine consists of a Garbhagriha, Gudh
mandap and Navchowki with images of yakshi Chakreshvari and yaksha Gomukha on both
sides. It seems that the construction of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The
old mutilated idolwas replaced and installed in 1468-69 AD weighing 108 maunds (four
metric tons) according to the inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is
8 ft (2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in height.
In Gudh Mandap on one side, a big marble Panch-Tirthi sculpture of Rishabhanatha is
installed. Some shrines (devakulika) were constructed in 1474 and 1490, before construction
was abandoned.

Parshvanatha Temple

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 Parshvanatha Chaumukha Temple
This temple, dedicated to Parshvanatha, was built by Sangvi Mandlik and his family in 1458–
59.According to popular belief, masons offered free remaining stones of Vimala
Vasahi and Luna Vasahi to add marble since the temple was built of grey stone. [48] This three-
storey building is the tallest temple in Dilwara. Not all the tower remains. On all four faces of
the sanctum on the ground floor are four big mandapas housing a Chaumukha idol of
Parshvanatha. On the first floor, the Chaumukha idol the front iconography is of Chintamani
Parshvanath, second Magalakar Parshvanatha and third Manoratha-Kalpadruma
Parshvanatha all are depicted with hood of nine cobras. The image of fourth image of
Parshvanatha is illegible. In the corridor there are images of 17 tirthankaras and paintings of
flowers. There is depiction of 14 dreams that a mother of a tirthankara on conception. On the
second floor, the Chaumukha idol is of Sumatinatha, Parshvanatha, Adinatha and
Parshvanatha. The idol of goddess Ambika is also present. The Chaumukha idol of
Parshvanatha is installed on the third floor. The outer walls of the sanctum comprise ornate
sculptures in gray sandstone, depicting Dikpalas,
Vidhyadevis, Yakshinis, Shalabhanjikas and other decorative sculptures comparable to the
ones in Khajuraho and Konark.

Mahaveer Swami Temple

This is a small structure constructed in 1582 and dedicated to Mahavira. It is small temple
with carvings on its walls. On the upper walls of the porch there are pictures painted in 1764
by the artists of Sirohi. There are detailed carvings of flowers, pigeons, court-scene, dancing
girls, horses, elephant, and other scenes. On each side of Mahavira, there are 3 idols of
tirthankar. Outside the shrine, there is a marble slab of rectangular shape with a triangle stone
over it containing 133 images of miniature-sized tirthankar with a larger image in center.The
temples have undergone repairs from time to time. Allauddin Khilji had attacked and
damaged the temples in 1311. In 1321, Bijag and Lalag of Mandore had undertaken repairs.

In 1906, Lallubhai Jaichand of Patan had the temples repaired and reconsecrated on 25 April
1906, under the supervision of Yati Hemasagar. Extensive repairs were again undertaken
during 1950-1965 by Anandji Kalyanji with the work done by the Sompura firm Amritlal
Mulshankar Trivedi The older marble has a yellow patina, whereas the newer marble is
white.

The temples are currently administered by the Seth Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi. Seth
Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi also runs a Bhojanshala (dining hall) nearby.

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 III
Shatrunjaya Tirtha, Palitana
Temple(s) 863

Monument(s) 2700

Elevation 603 m (1,978 ft)

35
The steps for the trek to Palitana temples starts in the southern part of the Palitana town,
where there a number of monasteries, rest houses, shops and small temples. The steps to the
Palitana temples begin to the west of a major active Jain temple and to the east of the newly
built Samovsaran Mandir and museum by the Tapa Gaccha subtradition of Jains. The stone-
concrete stairs gently wind along the hill, climbing up into the fort and to the summit with
temples. Along this climb, are small temples, rest stops with drinking water for the pilgrims
and visitors to sit and rest before resuming their trek. Near the fort, the steps fork into two.
The eastern side typically is the entrance for a traditional clockwise circumambulation of the
temples, while the other the exit. The trek involves climbing over 3500 stone steps.

Location

General Plan of Palitana temples

The idol of Rishabhanatha inside main temple

36
37
Miniature of "Mount Mer" in the Parshvanatha temple

Mythology and history

In the traditional texts and beliefs, this sacred hill became important to Jainism millions of
years ago, since the age of Adinatha (locally called Adishvera). Adinatha himself lived for
8.4 million purvas ( 1 purva = 70560 billion years), and patronized this Satrunjaya hills site
many times in his long life. He is believed to have visited Satrunjaya nearly 700 million
times, more than any other Jain site. Thereafter, Satrunjaya has been cherished and patronized
by other Tirthankaras of Jainism, including Risabhanatha and his son Bharata. These hills and
Palitana host Adinatha's principal temple.

According to the Shatrunjaya Mahatmya by Dhanesvara, a Jaina text in Sanskrit traceable to

about the 14th century CE, Mahavira recited the legends of Rishabha to a solemn assembly
on Satrunjaya when deity Indra requested him to do so. After nearly 300 verses, the text
begins the description of Bharatam Varsham, followed by the glory of Satrunjaya. The text
declares it so holy, that even thinking about it "expiates many sins". It then gives 108
alternate names for this site in verses 331 to 335, such as Pundarika, Siddikshetram,
Mahabala, Surasaila, Vimaladri, Punyarasi, Subhadra, Muktigeham, Mahatirtham,
Patalamula, Kailasa, and others. Of these names, the 11th-century Jaina scholar
Hemachandra mentions two: Satrunjaya and Vimaladri.In the Jain belief, the
first Tirthankara Rishabha sanctified the hill where he delivered his first sermon. It was his
first disciple Pundarika, who attained Nirvana at Shatrunjay, hence the hill was originally
known as "Pundarikgiri". There exists a marble image of Pundaraksvami consecrated
in samvat year 1064 (1120 CE) by Shersthi Ammeyaka to commemorate the sallekhana of a
muni belonging to the Vidhyadhara Kula.Bharata Chakravartin, the father of Pundarik and
half-brother of Bahubali, is believed in Jain mythistory to have visited Shatrunjaya many
times. In some Jain literature, it is claimed to be the site of the first Jaina temple many
millions of years ago.

Vividha Tirtha Kalpa, composed by Jinaprabha Suri in the 14th century CE, describes the
shrines and legends of Palitana temples.

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Shatrunjaya along with Ashtapad, Girnar, Dilwara Temples of Mount Abu and Shikharji are
known as Śvētāmbara Pancha Tirth (five principal pilgrimage shrine).

An 1866 sketch of Palitana templesAn archive photo of one tonk of the Palitana temples
(1860)

39
As a princely state, founded in 1194 (one of the major states in Saurashtra, where there were many
smaller states, Palitana covered 777 km² and had 58,000 inhabitants (in 1921) in 91 villages,
generating a 744,416 Rs revenue.In 1656, Shah Jahan's son Murad Baksh (the then Governor of
Gujarat) granted the village of Palitana to the prominent Jain merchant Shantidas Jhaveri in 1656. The
management of the temples was assigned to the Anandji Kalyanji Trust in 1730.Palitana used to be a
native state of India in the Kathiawar Agency of the Bombay presidency. Area, 289 sq. m.; pop.
(2011), 150,000, showing a decrease of 15% in the decade. The chief was a Gohil Rajput, with the
title of Thakur Sahib. Gross revenue, £42,000; tribute jointly to the Gaekwar of Baroda and the
Nawab of Junagadh, £700. The capital of the state is Palitana; pop. 12,800. It was ruled by a Thakore
sahib (also spelled Thakor Saheb), enjoying a 9-guns salute, of the Hindu Gohil dynasty, which
received a privy purse of 180,000 Rupees at the state's accession to independent India on 15 February
1948.It is the world’s only mountain that has more than 900 temples.The Palitana temples and whole
mountain are considered the most sacred pilgrimage place (tirtha) by the Jain community, and is the
world's largest Temple Complex. There are more than 3000 temples located on the Shatrunjaya hills,
exquisitely carved in marble. The main temple on top of the hill, is dedicated to 1st tirthankar lord
Adinath (Rishabdeva). On the top the Shatrunjai Hill is a cluster of Jain temples, built by generations
of Jains over a period of 900 years, from the 11th century onwards. The temples are managed by the
Anandji Kalyanji Trust of the Kasturbai Lalbhai group. From the foot of the hill to the top there are
3,800 and odd stone steps cut to facilitate climbing .The temples are exquisitely carved in marble,
veritable prayers in stone. To an observer, these appear to be ivory miniatures when seen from a
distance. Created by master craftsmen, the most important temple is that of the first teerthankara, Shri
Adishwar. It has ornate architectural motifs, though in its overall plan it is simpler than the
Choumukh. Other notable temples are those of Kumarpal, Vimalshah and Sampriti Raja. Kumarpal
Solanki, a great Jain patron, probably built the earliest temple. The temple has a fabulous collection of
jewels, and these can be seen with special permission. The temples date from 11th to the 20th century.
Belief. Every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in his lifetime,
because of its sanctity. The journey is arduous. The walk up the stone stairway hewn into the
mountain face takes about an hour and a half. For those unable or unaccustomed to the strain, sling-
chairs are available at a bargain. The code for the climbers is stringent, in keeping with the rigours of

40
the Jain faith. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on the way. The descent must begin before it is
evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred mountain during the night

Dates

Early Jaina scholars give the Palitana temples dates ranging from the time of early
Tirthankaras (millions of years ago) to 1st millennium BCE. More precise dates emerge in
texts such as the Shatrunjaya Mahatmya, which in a verse asserts its own composition
of samvat 477 (c. 421 CE), but then proceeds to mention a series of seventeen renovations by
mythical Jain and Hindu kings, as well as the one that was completed in early 14th century
based on epigraphy and other historical records. According to Vividha Tirtha
Kalpa, Pandavas along with Kunti attained moksha here.

The Shatrunjaya hills are mentioned in the canonical texts that Śvetāmbara Jains, though this
mention is found in the later sections broadly accepted to have been completed by about the
5th century. This suggests that the site of Palitana temples was sacred to the Śvetāmbara Jains
by about the 5th century, if not earlier. In Saravali, a late section within the Svatambara
canonical works that was likely appended in the 11th century, Rishaba's grandson Pundarika
is mentioned in the context of Shatrunjaya hills and Palitana temples site, as are Rama, Sita
and the Pandava brothers of Hinduism mentioned as doing Tirtha here. Thus, the Palitana
temples site was acknowledged in the most important texts of Śvetāmbara Jains, and it was
definitely a part of Jaina sacred geography in Gujarat by the 11th century.

Based on epigraphy and architectural considerations, the Palitana temples were built,
damaged, restored and expanded over a period of 900 years starting in the 11th century. For
example, the Jain text Pethadarasa describes the restorations made by Pethada in 1278 CE
after it was damaged and mutilated, while the Jain text Samararasa presents the rapairs and
restorations in 1315 CE. Epigraphical records found at the site establish that between 1531
and 1594, the temples were damaged, then extensive repairs and restorations were completed
with the support of Karmashah and Tejpalsoni after damage to the temples. According to
Cousens, hardly anything in the architecture of Palitana temples as they have survived into
the modern age, can be dated "earlier than the 12th-century". This may be because earlier
temples were built from wood, while stone and marble as construction material was adopted
by Gujarati Jain community at Satrunjaya in the 12th century. Two individual items of
artwork are from the 11th century – the Pundarika image can be dated to 1006 CE, while
another image of layperson here is from 1075 CE.

The damage and destruction of earlier versions of the Palitana temples complex is attributed
by Jain texts to the Turks (the name for Muslim armies of different Sultanates). Examples
include the raids and destructions in Gujarat during the 13th and 15th century CE,
particularly the major destruction in samvat 1369 (c. 1312–3 CE) by Allauddin Khilji of
Delhi Sultanate. These destructions are attested by the textual and epigraphical records of
Jains, such as those of the Jain scholar and saint Jinaprabha Suri, who presided over the
temples. Suri writes in section 1.119 of his Vividha Tirtha Kalpa that the Palitana temples
were sacked by the Muslim army in 1311 CE. Further, another evidence is the sudden and
near-complete lack of new inscriptions from most of the 16th century, in contrast to
inscriptions before and after the 16th century. The Śvetāmbara Murtipujaka (idol
worshippers) traditions of Tapa Gaccha, particularly led by Hiravijayasuri, was instrumental
in organizing the Jain community to once again restore Palitana temples and complete new
large temples, starting in 1593 CE. Thereafter, wealthy patrons added to a proliferation of
temples at this site. This tradition of adding temples associated with this site, as well as in and

41
around Palitana continues in the contemporary era. Most of the temples and a large section of
the complex as seen by pilgrims and visitors in the contemporary era are between the end of
16th and the 19th century.[

In 1656, Murad Baksh – then Governor of Gujarat, and the son of the Mughal emperor Shah
Jahan, granted the Shatrunjaya site and Palitana temples as a gift to Shantidas Jhaveri – then
the jeweller to his court and the leader of local Jain community. In 1730 CE, the
management of the Palitana temples came under Anandji Kalyanji Trust.

The Shatrunjaya site has numerous Jain temples, which in Gujarat are called derasar. All
these are the Palitana temples. The total number varies by source, with most scholarly counts
being close to a 1000. Of these, 108 are large temples, rest are small to tiny shrines that are a
part of the chauvisis ensemble (24 identical shrines, one each for a Tirthankara). The entire
site is in clusters. A fortified, enclosed cluster of temples is called a Tonk or Tuk. The Palitana
temples are in nine Tuks, set on the two ridges of the Shatrunjaya hills.

The nine Tuks are:

 Sheth Narasinh Keshavji Tuk

 Chaumukhji Tuk (Sava-Som Tuk)
 Chhipavasahi Tuk
 Sakar Vasahi Tuk
 Nandishwar Tuk
 Hema Vasahi Tuk
 Modi Tuk
 Bala Vasahi Tuk
 Motisha Sheth Tuk
 Ghety Bari Tuk
The most important temples in these Tuks are the Adinath, Kumarpal, Sampratiraja, Vimal
Shah, Sahasrakuta, Ashtapada and Chaumukh temple. ] Some of them are named after the
wealthy patrons who paid for the construction.

Groups of Palitana temples (Tuks, Tonks)

Chaumukhji/ Balabhai

42
Sheth Motisha// Floor plan of the Adinatha Chaumukh temple, Palitana

Architecture and artwork

The Palitana temples highlight the Maru-Gurjara architecture found in western and
northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, primarily Gujarat and Rajasthan. Given its
history of damage and rebuilding, the 16th- to 19th-century Palitana temples of Śvetāmbara
Jain tradition show the evolution in design principles over this period within the Solanki
school. It reflects an ornate style with the North Indian Nagara temples architecture, and is
related to the innovations and developments that began in western India around the 10th
century with the Kalyana Chalukya dynasty. This architecture is also found in Hindu temples
and Digambara Jain tradition temples in this part of India.

This Solanki-school Maru-Gurjara architecture preserves the Nagara Shikhara, yet

distinctively favors ornate outer and inner walls with numerous reliefs, sculptures and open
pillared halls with the square and circle principle variously applied. Integrated within
are andolas (a form of arches) and toranas of different styles, typically highly
ornamented. These are found in the region stretching between Gujarat and Telangana. The
post 16th-century temples in Palitana, like those found in Rajasthan, look ever more
ornamented and precision carved in marble or other materials that became increasingly easier
to move from their place of origin. Ceilings, ambulatories and pillars too are lavishly
decorated, while domes in concentric shrinking circles help envelop more space and light.
The sanctum (garbhagriya) remembers the historic tradition, as do the upper layers of the
superstructure. Among the various Tuks at Shatrujaya, the more elaborate and open
architecture temples are those built in the 19th century and under the sponsorship of the
Anandji Kalyanji Trust.

43
Main temples
Chaumukh temple

The deep reliefs on the outer walls of one of the Palitana temples/Chaumukh temple on the
northern ridge, Palitana
The Chaumukh temple has a large hall, a reminder of Jain community discourses. This is
inspired by the first tirthanakara's discourse. It is an ensemble involving buildings with open
hall and four entrances so that images would be visible from all four directions. The four
sides are called the caturbimba (four sided views).

Adinath temple
The Adinath temple, which venerates Rishabha, is the main temple (in the apex of the
northern ridge of the complex) in the complex and is the grandest. It has ornate architectural
motifs, though in its overall plan, it is simpler than the Chaumukh temple. The jewellery
collection of this temple is large, which can be seen with special permission from the Anandji
Kalyanji Trust. The prayer halls of this temple (renovated in 1157 by Vagabhata) is decorated
with ornamental friezes of dragons.

There are three pradakshina routes, followed in a clockwise direction, which are associated
with this temple. The first is circular and includes the Sahasrakuta temple, the foot-idols
under the Rayan tree, the temple of idols of feet of Ganadhar, and the temple of Simandhar
Swami. The second passage passes the new Adishwar temple, Mt. Meru, the temple of
Samavasaran temple, and Sammet Shikhar temple. The third passage passes the Ashtapada
temple, the Chaumukh temple.

Adishvara Temple
The Adishvara Temple, dated to the 16th century, has an ornamented spire; its main image is
that of Rishabha. The Chaumukh temple, built in 1616 by Setthi Devaraj, has a four-faced
Adinatha image deified on a white pedestal, each face turned towards the cardinal directions.
The west-side of the shrine is surrounded by Veranda with richly carved pillars and figures of
musicians and dancers. There are two sub-shrines dedicated
to Gomukha and Chakreshvari near the main entrance.

Vimal Shah temple

Vimal Shah temple is a square structure with towers. Saraswati devi temple, Narsinh
Kesharji temple, and the Samavasaran temple, with 108 life-sketches in sculpture, are also

44
notable. Other notable stops are the Ashok tree, the Chaitra tree, Jaytaleti, four-faced idol of
Mahavira, and the artwork related to Kumarpal, Vimalshah and Samprati.

108 feet (33 m) idol of Adinath

A modern temple, Samvatsarana, was built at the base of the hills of the main temple
complex by Tapa Gachha initiative. It has a small museum at the lower level. Ashtapadh
temple is depiction Ashtapadh (Mount Kailash) where Adinatha is believed to have attained
moksha.

In the shrines, on a pedestal, are large figures of Mahavira, sitting with feet crossed in front,
like those of Buddha, often decorated with gems, gold plates, and silver. The Adinath temple
has an image 2.16 metres (7 ft 1 in) in height of a white-coloured idol in the Padmasana
posture. The main iconic image of Adinath, carved in fine piece of marble, has crystal eyes.
Devotees offer flowers and sandal paste to the deity as they approach the statue for worship.
The quadrangle opposite in front of the temples is elaborately designed. There is another
shrine opposite to Adishwara temple is dedicated to Pundarik Swami.After visiting
Adishwara, a temple similar in design, Dilwara temple, is located to the right of the steps
used for descending from the main shrine, built in marble. In this temple, Suparswanatha is
carved in the centre of a cube-shaped column; Adinatha and Parswanatha adorn the top and
bottom of the column. Carvings on the ceiling, floor and the column are very elegantly
sculpted. Parswanatha Temple is located in front of this temple.In 2016, a 108 feet idol of
Adinath(Rishabhnatha) was installed.

Renovations
There have been frequent renovations and many of them are dated to the 16th century. New
temples continue to be built here. Renovations occurred at least 16 times during
the avasarpinikala (the descending half of the wheel of time):

45
 Renovatio
Renovator Times Notes
n

1st Bharat Chakravarti Adinath son of Adinath

2nd King Dandavirya –

3rd Ishaneshvar Indra Indra of Upper World

Indra of fourth upper

4th Mahendra interim period
between Adinath and Ajitnath
world (dev-lok)

Indra of fifth upper

5th Brahmendra
world (dev-lok)

6th Chamarendra Indra of Bhavanapatis

7th Sagar Chakravarti Ajitnath second Chakravarti

Advised by
8th Vyantarendra Abhinandannath
Abhinandan Swami

Advised by his father

9th King Chandrayasha Chandraprabha
Chandrashekhar

10th Chakrayuddha Shantinath son of Shantinath

Rama and Lakshman Ramayana (Hinduism

11th Munisuvrata
a )

12th 5 Pandavas Neminatha Mahabharta (Hinduism)

Vikram Samvat 108 (1st A trader from

13th Javadsha of Mahuva
century CE) Saurashtra

Vikram Samvat 1213 (11th Wooden temples,

14th Bahud Mantri
century) reign of Kumarpal

Rebuilding after the

Vikram Samvat 1371 (13th
15th Samarashah Oswal destruction by
century)
Sultanate army

Karamashah Vikram Samvat 1587 (16th Rebuilding, with a petition

16th to end pilgrim tax
of Chittorgarh century)

It is believed that the 17th renovation will occur in future.

46
The entrance to the temples//View of the temples at the summit of Shatrunjaya hill

Most devout Jains prefer to walk up, but elderly pilgrims sometimes opt for a pallanquin
(doli) to be manually carried from the town to the hilltop. The temples remain closed for the
devotees during the monsoon season. In the month of Phalguna (February/March), Jain
pilgrims take a longer route, one passing through five sacred temple sites over a distance of
45 kilometres (28 mi).

The Palitana temples are in clusters traditionally known as tunks (tuks, tonks). As a religious
practice they cover their mouth while offering puja to the tirthankaras at the temples so that
they don't hurt any insects by swallowing them with an open mouth. Also, for this reason
they do not offer open lighted lamps but offer aarti with covered lanterns. The religious
practice also involves pilgrimage by fasting throughout the journey to and from the shrines.
They also build their temples in white marble to demonstrate purity. Silence and prayers are
the order of the day when one is climbing up the hills on pilgrimage. Fasting continues until
they have returned to the auditorium of Anandji Kalyanji Trust at the foothill.

Beliefs
Every devout Jain aspires to climb to the top of the mountain at least once in their lifetime in
efforts to attain nirvana, due to its sanctity. The code for the climbers is stringent, in keeping
with the rigours of the Jain faith. Food must neither be eaten nor carried on the way. The
descent must begin before it is evening, for no soul can remain atop the sacred mountain
during the night. The Shatrunjaya hills are considered by many Jains to be more sacred than
the temple-covered hills of Jharkhand, Mount Abu and Girnar.

On one special day (Fagun Sud 13), which commonly falls in February/March, thousands of
Jain followers visit the temple complex to attain salvation. Three times as many pilgrims
come at this time, which is also called "6 Gaon". The special festival day is the "Chha Gau
Teerth Yatra" at the temple complex held on Purnima day (Full Moon Day) of Kartika month
according to the Jain calendar, Vira Nirvana Samvat (October–November as per
the Gregorian Calendar). Jains, in very large numbers assemble on this day at the temple
complex on the hills as it opens after 4 months of closure during the monsoon season. During
this pilgrimage, considered a great event in the lifetime of devout Jain,
pilgrims circumambulate the Shatunitjaya Hills covering a distance of 21.6 km on foot to
offer prayers to Adinatha on the Kartik Poornima Day at the top of the hill.

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, the birthday of Mahāvīra, is a notable festival celebrated at the
temple complex. A procession carrying images of the tirthankara is made in huge decorated
chariots, concurrently accompanied by religious ceremonies in the temples. Rituals include
fasting and giving alms to the poor.

47
Navanu, the 99-fold pilgrimage
Navanu is the Jain tradition of repeated pilgrimages to Shatrunjaya hills and Palitana temples.
This pilgrimages are typically started in small groups by girls or boys in late teens or early
twenties. It includes a period of ascetic practices such as fasting (varshi tap, updhan and
others). According to Anadji Kalyanji Trust, an average of 3000 pilgrims every year visit the
Palitana temples on Navanu pilgrimage.

Adishwar Temple/A temple in Palitana temples complex

Palitana temples complex/Palitana Temples distant view

48
Temple Inside Chaumukhji Tonk//Samovsaran Mandir, a modern temple and museum
at the base of the hills (Tapa Gaccha subtradition of Jains)[

Torana before the Samovsaran Mandir Palitana.//Adinath temple depicted on 1949

Indian postage stamp
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
0
IV

The Temples at PATAN

Patan is the administrative seat of Patan district was the capital
of Gujarat's Chavda and Chaulukya dynasties in medieval times, and is also known
as Anhilpur-Patan to distinguish it from Prabhas Patan. During the rule of Gujarat Sultanate,
it was the capital from 1407 to 1411.Patan was established by the Chavda king Vanaraja.
During the rule of several Hindu and Muslim dynasties, it thrived as a trading city and a
regional capital of northern Gujarat. It is a historical place located on the bank of the now
extinct Saraswati River. Patan has an old market which is quite sizeable and is believed to
have been in continuous operation since at least the rule of Vaghelas and gandhis.

49
Patan was established by the Chavda ruler Vanaraja in the ninth century as
"Anahilapataka".During 10th-13th century, the city served as the capital of the Chaulukya
dynasty, who succeeded the Chavdas.

Jain community
Vanaraja Chavda (c. 746 CE to c. 780 CE), the most prominent ruler of the Chavda
dynasty established the territory of Patan in 746 CE and built the Panchasara Parshwanath
temple with main idol of Parshvanatha brought from Panchasar village.During the rule
of Chaulukya dynasty (or Solanki dynasty), Patan was a major pilgrimage centre of Jainism.
There are more than 100 temples in the regionThe temple was rebuilt in the 16th-17th century
after destruction by Muslim invadersPatan has been home to a community of Jains for at least
several hundred years. According to a 1375 CE letter written by a Jain monk,

The people here participate in shining devotion, gifting, morality, and asceticism;
the mendicants are firm in upholding the blossom of equanimity;
the many Jain temples are blessed with a multitude of images;
and even in time of drought the people obtain success in religious actions by means of their
merit.The merchants here have built up a mountain of gold;there are many playful young
women with swift feet and side-glancing doe-like eyes;gifting is given as if to a divine tree
which will sing their praises;and even those focused on moksha at once touch that true
excellence amidst the pleasures of transmigration.

– Verses 13-14 of Vijñapti Mahālekha, sent by the Kharatara Gaccha Jain mendicant
Jinodayasūri from Patan to Lokahitācārya in Ayodhya, in 1375 C.E.

Jain Temples at Patan

1. Derasar Maholla Sthapana Date

2. Adishvar JinalayaGodadno PadoMaha Vad 5
3. Adishvar JinalayaNaranjino Pado – SalviwadoVaishak Sud 3
4. Adishvar JinalayaPatan Jain Mandal BoardingVaishak Sud 3
5. Adishvar JinalayaKatakia WadoShravan Vad 1
6. Adishvar JinalayaPanchoti PadoShravan Vad 9
7. Godi Parshvanath JinalayaGolwad – SalviwadoVaishak Sud 7
8. Kalikund Parshvanath JinalayaDhandherwadoMagshar Sud 2
9. Koka Parshvanath JinalayaKokano PadoVaishak Sud 5
10. Mahadeva Parshvanath JinalayaMahadevani Sheri, KhetarvasiVaishak Sud 10
11. Mahavirswami JinalayaDhandherwadoMagshar Sud 1
12. Muni Suvratswami JinalayaMarfatia Mehtano PadoFagan Vad 4
13. Munisuvratswami JinalayaMahalaxmi Mehtano PadoMaha Sud 5
14. Neminath / Shantinath JinalayaTrisheriyun – SalviwadoJeth Sud 4, Vaishak Sud 4

50
 15. Panchasara Parshvanath JinalayaJeth Sud 5
16. Rishbhdev JinalayaVagolno PadoVaishak Sud 13
17. Sambhavnath JinalayaDhandherwado – SalviwadoMaha Sud 5
18. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaJogiwadoMaha Sud 6
19. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaDhandherwadoMaha Sud 6
20. Shamla Parshvanath JinalayaShamlajini Sheri, KhetarvasiShravan Vad 9
21. Shantinath JinalayaVakharno PadoMagshar Vad 1
22. Shantinath JinalayaVasawadoVaishak Sud 7
23. Shantinath JinalayaShantinathni PoleJeth Sud 2
24. Shantinath JinalayaSiddhchakrani Pole, KhetarvasiMaha Sud 5
25. Shantinath JinalayaKanasano PadoFagan Sud 3
26. Shantinath Jinalaya /
27. Kamboi Parshvanath JinalayaGheeyano Pado
28. Maha Sud 10, Shravan Vud 5
29. Sheetalnath JinalayaPadigundino PadoVaishak Sud 6
30. Sheetalnath Jinalaya /
31. Mata Padmavati MandirKhetarpalno Pado Maha Sud 10
32. Vimalnath JinalayaSanghvini SheriShravan Vad 5
33. Champa Parshvanath JinalayaGolwad – Salvivado
34. Shantinath JinalayaShantinathni Sheri – Khetarvasi

The Ancient Hindu Concept of Water management & Architecture of Patan

STEPWELLS

The city of Patan was formerly called Anhilvada or Anhilpur and was
established in 765 by Vanaraja, the first king of the Chavada dynasty. The
Jain temple of Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple
consists of a mandapa, or a columned hallway with several courtyards
with shrines. The roof of the central dome is decorated by concentric
circles of figures and bands of ornament with a lotus-shaped pendant
hanging from the apex. There are eight bracket figures places around the
inside of the dome, either musicians or dancers; between these figures
are seated male figures with attendants. Below the dome are four balcony
windows covered in delicate carved designs of figures and geometric
patterns.

51
Carved-wood ceiling from the temple of Vadi Parsvanath. Patan:
Illustration of the carved-wood ceiling of the Vadipura-
Parsvanatha temple at Patan from James Burgess' 'Original
Drawings [of] Architecture of Northern Gujarat.'

The Jain temple of Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple

consists of a mandapa, or a columned hallway, covered by a central dome
and several courtyards with shrines. Burgess wrote:
?it [is] covered by an elaborate and well carved roof. It is in the form of a
dome rising to the height of 11-1/4 feet and 11 feet in diameter. The roof
is decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament, and
has a lotus-shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large brackets
are placed at equal intervals round the inside. Theses are female
musicians and dancers; and between each pair of these is a seated male
figure with two attendants. These are the ashtadikpalas or eight regents
of the points of the compass and are arranged in the ceiling according to
their proper quarters, and each with his vahana or conveyance carved
below his seat. Some fine carving, now much injured, has filled up the
corners or spandrels of the octagonal roof, between the lowest circle of
the dome and lintels.? Inscribed: Govt. Archaeol. Survey of Western India.
No. 729

They demonstrated the use of water wheels, non-mechanized farm machinery, other
agricultural implements, and built with a vast array of local building materials, including
52
granite, marble, sandstone, bricks, lime, mud, wood, etc. The utilization of agricultural
wastes, such as rice husk, in the production of lakhori bricks and local clay(mud) to
manufacture mud bricks contributed to development in this arena. Today they tell us not only
how communities preserved water management revealing historic knowledge regarding how
ancient societies achieved social-ecological balance. Aesthetics and ornamentation also
played an important role to highlight construction materials of the stepwells.

A step well is a structure associated with well having staircase which facilitates access to
water level in any season, as the water level fluctuates from high to low in monsoon to
summer season respectively. The number of stairways is single in most of the wells, but
sometimes a greater number of stairs are also planned and designated with traditional names
as per numbers of steps. The kunḍas are stepped water reservoir associated with religious
pilgrimage places built for the purpose of holy bath during festivals or for routine
worshipping. The Mayamata and Mānasāra are considered to be the earliest texts which
describe the characteristics of water- monuments, like kūpa, vāpi, taddga. Aparājitpṛchā
(chap. 74) classifies step wells into four types namely,
1. nanda,
2. bhadra,
3. jaya,
4. vijaya.
5. Bṛhatśilpaśāstra (Book 3, v. 532)

Rājavallabha (chap. 4, v. 28) provide the same information about the four types of step wells
in very concise form (in one verse of two lines each). Archeological survey of India
discovered the oldest step well documented in history at Dholavira, Kutch, Gujarat in
October 2014 CE. This 5,000-year-old stepwell has been found in one of the largest Harappan
cities, Dholavira, in Kutch, which is three times bigger than the Great Bath at Mohenjo Daro.
Located in the eastern reservoir of Dholavira by experts from the Archaeological Survey of
India working with IIT-Gandhinagar, the site represents the largest, grandest, and the best
furnished ancient reservoir discovered so far in the country.

It is rectangular and 73.4m long, 29.3m wide, and 10m deep. Another site, the ornate Rani ki
Vav in Patan, called the queen of stepwells, is already on Unesco list.Almost three times bigger
than the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro that's 12m in length, 7m in width, and 2.4m in depth, it is
assumed that other reservoirs and stepwells may be buried in Dholavira, Researchers also
suspect a huge lake and an ancient shoreline are buried in the archaeological site that's one of the
five largest Harappan sites and the most prominent archaeological site in India belonging to the
Indus Valley.Experts will investigate the advanced hydraulic engineering used by Harappans for
building the stepwell through 3D laser scanner, remote sensing technology and ground-
penetrating radar system.

It is 73.40 m long, 29.30 m wide and 10.00 m deep, considered bigger than the size of Great
Bath of Mohen-jo-daro (Figure 3). In western India the first step well and kunḍa were
constructed as rock-cut structure at Dhank (550–625 CE) and stepped pond at Bhinmal (850–
950 CE). 4 Step wells in India Traditionally, certain types of man-made water bodies (step
wells) were designated as jalamandira (water temple) or jalamahal (water palace) in Gujarat.
It is observed that the step wells were not only constructed within the urban or village area
but even in far off places or on the connecting routes between cities. The depth, access points
and the level of architectural beauty depended on its status or association with ruler’s family.

53
The traditional or cultural name was given to each well depending upon number of entry
points (Appendix 1).

Distribution of stepwells across the Indian Subcontinent. White sign represents Madhya Pradesh and
parts of Maharashtra. Blue sign represents Gujarat, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Light Grey sign
represents Jharkhand and Bihar.

The number of exits for the step well increases with the diameter of the well. From ‘nanda’ to
‘bhadra’ opposite exit adds to the geometry, and from ‘jaya’ to ‘vijya’ one more exit adds to
the right angle. The typical design from ‘nanda’ to ‘vijaya’ follows the rules of symmetry.
Bolari vav is a unique structure where upper diameter of the well is smaller than the lower
stages of well. In research studies it has been found that geometrical formation from bottom-
up (lowest level to earth surface) generates the fractal geometry and repetition of the same
fractals after uniform intervals.

“Fractal architecture: The step wells can be classified in three ways as per their geometry-
(i) Linear
(ii) Circular and
(iii) Rectangular or square.

Based on architectural similarities they can be classified as A. pre-Mughal and B. post-

Mughal.
There is no evidence of construction of step wells after 1850 CE. The depth of step wells
indirectly indicates the depth of water table at the time of its construction. The range of depth
of step wells varies from 6.0 m to 30.0 m. The step well of ‘Rani ki vav, located in Patan city,
2
North Gujarat is designed as an inverted temple highlighting the sanctity of water, it is

54
 divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural panels of high artistic quality; more than
500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and

secular imagery.

The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for conservation,

harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about their advanced hydraulic
engineering, given the

55
56
state of technology in the third millennium BCE." One of the unique features of Dholavira is
the sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the earliest found
anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city had massive reservoirs, three of
which are exposed. They were used for storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water
diverted from two nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and
conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A seasonal stream which
runs in a north–south direction near the site was dammed at several points to collect water. In
1998, another reservoir was discovered in the site.
The inhabitants of Dholavira created sixteen or more reservoirs,of varying size during Stage
III. Some of these took advantage of the slope of the ground within the large settlement, a
drop of 13 metres (43 ft) from northeast to northwest. Other reservoirs were excavated, some
into living rock. Recent work has revealed two large reservoirs, one to the east of the castle
and one to its south, near the Annexe. The reservoirs are cut through stone vertically, and are
about 7 m (23 ft) deep and 79 m (259 ft) long. They skirt the city, while the citadel and bath
are centrally located on raised ground. There is also a large well with a stone-cut trough
connecting it to a drain meant for conducting water to a storage tank. The bathing tank had
steps descending inwards. In October 2014, excavation began on a
rectangular stepwell which measured 73.4 m (241 ft) long, 29.3 m (96 ft) wide, and 10 m
(33 ft) deep, making it three times bigger than the Great Bath of Mohenjedaro.

57
 Stepwells or Vavs of Gujarat – A Perfect Example for a Community Based Rainwater Harvesting

Gujarat is called “A Land of Stepwells” for being a host to many earliest stepwell structures.
Vav, as they are called here, makes the cavernous spaces for adequate water store, in the twin
cities of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar. The presence of such water conservation structures
supports the effort of harvesting rainwater at a community level. Reviving these useful
structures of brick and stones is a big step towards conserving rainwater and quenching
planet’s thirst. Stepwell is an underground well, usually built as five to six storeys structure
with a long-stepped corridor descending a flight of stairs to reach the aquifer.

58
Ancient texts such as Rajvallabha mention four types of stepwells:

Nanda – a stepwell with one entrance

 Bhadra – a stepwell with two entrances
 Jaya – a stepwell with three entrances
 Vijaya – a stepwell with four entrances

How stepwells of Gujarat promote community-based Rainwater Harvesting: Gujarat is

home for around 100 odd stepwells. They are architectural marvels. Each of them is unique in
design, focusing to prevent direct sunlight from penetrating the well, and thus reducing
evaporation of water. The stepwells of Gujarat are usually made of brick, sandstone and lime
mortar. The rainwater in form of direct stream or runoff makes its way deep into the well, at a
controlled speed (due to the multi-storied or layered structure of the well). The vastness of the
stepwells is intended to provide enough water reserve for the area. The mesmerising carvings
on the walls and design patterns of the stepwells showcase the artistic taste and culture of the
era of their construction. The solid built of the stepwell can withstand the earthquakes of 7.6
on the Richter scale, thus ensuring continuous water supply even during the calamity. Due to
the tiered structure, the temperature inside the well is 5 degrees lower than that of the outside.

Design of a typical stepwell in Gujarat:The ancient North-western part of India,

particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan have been chosen for the construction of stepwells due to
their arid environment. Most of these ancient stepwells are as old as 800 years.
Irrespective of their date of construction, four structures are essentially common in each of
these stepwells:

1. Todas – they are a pair of ornate pillars at the entrance to mark the location of the
stepwell.
2. Kutas – the landings between sets of steps for the purpose of providing a resting area.
3. An ardhakuta – a supporting arch, without landing or pavilion.
4. Well shaft – structure for storing water.

Some stepwells area designed with two well shafts; one for lowering the ambient
temperature and the other for drawing water.

Reviving Some Prominent Stepwells: The excavated stepwells are very hard to maintain,
due to erosion and other natural factors. A water never dries up here, they are a great solution
for achieving collective rainwater harvesting.
Although each stepwell in Gujarat has its own significance, some of them are a bit more
recognised and accessible. One such is the Saiyad Hazrat Jalaluddin ni vav in Gandhinagar.
This well has apartment-like structure instead of traditional stepped layout. Three levels of
the stepwell are stacked upon each other.

The Khodiyar Mata ni vav, located in Vadodara village, has been built within the basin of a
lake. This helps in reduced excavation to reach the water table. Jal Sampatti Vibhag (Gujarat
Water Supply and Sewerage Board) is working towards its conservation, to provide a resting
place for the people. To bout the stepwells to survive in today’s environment, they have
covered the entire structure in cement plaster, porcelain tiles, bearing the image of a goddess.

Rani-Ki-Vav (Queen’s Well) at Patan:The description of stepwells of Gujarat is incomplete

without the mention of the most famous Gujarati Vav can Rani-Ki-Vaav at Patan. It is one of

59
the masterpieces amongst other stepwells, built by Udaymati in memory of her husband
Bhimdev I (1022 -1063) CE during the period of the Solanki dynasty. In 2014, UNESCO has
recognised Rani-ki-Vav as one of the World’s Heritage Sites.
Rani-Ki-Vav measures approximately 64m long, 20m wide and 27m deep. The stepped tank
is linked to a circular well. The walls are richly crafted with images of Lord Vishnu and his
various avatars (reincarnation). A 30 kilometer long tunnel can be entered by passing through
the small gate present at the last step of the well. This tunnel served as an escape route by the
kings during times of war.

Beautiful vavs of Gujarat.

Adalaj Vav, Ahmedabad/Helical Stepwell, Champaner

Adi-Kadi Vav, Junagadh

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Relief in Rani Ki Vav

61
62
63
Rani Ki Vav which means 'The Queen's Stepwell' is a stepwell situated in the town
of Patan in Gujarat, India. It is located on the banks of the Saraswati River. Its construction is
attributed to Udayamati, the spouse of the 11th-century Chaulukya king Bhima I. Silted over, it

64
was rediscovered in the 1940s and restored in the 1980s by the Archaeological Survey of India. It
has been listed as one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India since 2014.
The finest and one of the largest examples of its kind, this stepwell is designed as an inverted
temple highlighting the sanctity of water. It is divided into seven levels of stairs with sculptural
panels. These panels have more than 500 principal sculptures and over a thousand minor ones
that combine religious and symbolic imagery.
Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks
of Saraswati river.[1] Prabandha-Chintamani, composed by the Jain monk Merutunga in 1304,
mentions: "Udayamati, the daughter of Naravaraha Khengara, built this novel stepwell at
Shripattana (Patan) surpassing the glory of the Sahasralinga Tank". According to it, the stepwell
was commissioned in 1063 and was completed after 20 years. It is generally assumed that it was
built in the memory of Bhima I (r. c. 1022 – 1064) by his queen Udayamati and probably
completed by Udayamati and Karna after his death but whether she was a widow when she
commissioned it is disputed. Commissariat puts the date of construction to 1032 based on the
architectural similarity to Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu built in the same year. The
stepwell was later flooded by the Saraswati river and silted over. [5] In 1890s, Henry Cousens
and James Burgess visited it when it was completely buried under the earth and only well shaft
and few pillars were visible. They described it as being a huge pit measuring 87 metres (285 ft).
In Travels in Western India, James Tod mentioned that the material from the stepwell was reused
in the other stepwell built in modern Patan, probably Trikam Barot ni Vav (Bahadur Singh
stepwell). In the 1940s, excavations carried out under the Baroda State revealed the stepwell. In
1986, a major excavation and restoration was carried out by the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI). An image of Udayamati was also recovered during the excavation. The restoration
was carried out from 1981 to 1987.

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 A R C H I T E C T U R E

Rani Ki Vav, view from the top

Rani ki vav is considered as the finest and one of the largest example of stepwell architecture in
Gujarat. It was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-
Gurjara architecture style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and beauty of detail and

66
proportions. The architecture and sculptures are similar to the Vimalavasahi temple on Mount
Abu and Sun temple at Modhera.
It is classified as a Nanda-type stepwell. It measures approximately 65 metres (213 ft) long, 20
metres (66 ft) wide and 28 metres (92 ft) deep. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a
rectangular tank 9.5 metres (31 ft) by 9.4 metres (31 ft), at a depth of 23 metres (75 ft). The
entrance is located in the east while the well is located at the westernmost end and consists of a
shaft 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter and 30 metres (98 ft) deep. The stepwell is divided into seven
levels of stairs which lead down to deep circular well. A stepped corridor is compartmentalized at
regular intervals with pillared multistory pavilions. The walls, pillars, columns, brackets and
beams are ornamented with carvings and scroll work. The niches in the side walls are ornamented
with beautiful and delicate figures and sculptures. There are 212 pillars in the stepwell.
Sculptures
There are more than 500 principal sculptures and over a thousand minor ones often referencing
literary works in combination with religious, symbolic and secular imagery. [1] The ornamentation
of stepwell depicts the entire universe inhabited by gods and goddesses; celestial beings; men and
women; monks, priests and laity; animals, fishes and birds including seen and unseen ones; as
well as plants and trees. The stepwell is designed as an underground shrine or inverted temple. It
has spiritual significance and represents the sanctity of water. Sculptures in the stepwell that are
associated with Vishnu outnumber all other deities mentioned above and include Sheshashayi
Vishnu (Vishnu reclining on the thousand-hooded snake Shesha in the celestial ocean),
Vishwarupa Vishnu (Cosmic form of Vishnu), twenty-four forms as well as Dashavatara (ten
incarnations) of Vishnu. The sculptures of deities with their families such as Brahma-Savitri,
Uma-Maheshwar and Lakshmi-Narayan are there. Notable among other sculptures
are Ardhanarishwara as well as large number of goddesses
Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Chamunda, Durga/Mahishasurmardini with twenty hands,
Kshemankari, Suryani and Saptamatrikas. There are images of Navagraha (nine planets) as well.
There are a large number of celestial beings (Apsaras). One sculpture of an Apsara depicts either
applying lipstick to her lips or chewing on aromatic twig while a man is attending her feet. On the
northern side of the third storey pavilion, there is a sculpture of an Apsara warding off a monkey
clinging to her leg and pulling her. At her feet, there is a nude female with a snake around her
neck. A sculpture of Nagkanya (a serpent princess) with long hair and a swan, as well as
sculptures of celestial dancers in classical dance positions are there.
There are large number of sculptures portraying women in their everyday life and activities. One
sculpture depicts a woman combing her hair, adjusting her earring and looking at herself in the
mirror. Other sculptures include a woman writing a letter, a young woman with a scorpion
climbing her right leg and her clothes sliding off unknowingly, a young woman pulling a beard of
a dwarf-like man, a woman with fish plate in her hands with a snake encircling her leg and
reaching out to fish. One sculpture depicts a young woman coming out of her bath with wet hair
and a swan catching droplets of water falling from her hair like pearls. The women in these
sculptures are adorned with jewelry including bangles, earrings, necklaces, waist girdles, anklets
and others as well as with elegant clothes and well combed hair. The variety of expressions and
emotions are depicted in them. They represent beauty as well as love in its sublime and seductive
forms. There are sculptures representing maternal love such as a woman holding her child and
pointing to the moon to divert his attention, a woman raising her child high to let him pick a
mango from tree, and a woman in a mango grove accompanied by children.

67
 Durga killing Mahishasura///Ganesha with his consort and Apsaras

Carved pillars for support but represent beauty/ Wall with sculptural panels

68
Cantilevered brackets in well shaft/ Geometric lattice patterns and designs resembling Patola textile
designs

There are gradually increasing cantilevered brackets in the well shaft which are profusely
ornamented. Kalpavriksha carvings on the wall represent fertility and nature worship
while kirtimukhas and makaras adorn the basements and capitals of pillars. There
are latticework patterns and designs resembling geometric local textile designs, and
traditionalPatola are featured on the wall at the stepwell's northern entrance. These may have
been adapted from wood carvings and ceilings seen in temples. Figures of horses, elephants and
lions decorate pillars and basement moldings.

Social and Technical aspects

Stepwells were an important building tradition in India, just as cisterns, aqueducts, and
fountains were traditions in Western and Middle Eastern cultures. stepwells were developed
in India centuries ago to collect and store water for drinking, bathing, washing clothes, and
irrigating crops. It also helped to stop the flooding of the well and the structure overall and
provided easy access to water for the locals during the rainy season. The kind also acted as a
water reservoir to store water during the dry season. The vav also acted as a gathering space
for people. The women used to talk to each other while coming to fetch drinking water and
spend quality time.
The Chaulukya dynasty, also Solanki dynasty, was a dynasty that ruled parts of what are
now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Their
capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended to
the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The family is also known as the "Solanki
dynasty" in the vernacular literature. They belonged to the Solanki clan of Rajputs. Mularaja, the
founder of the dynasty, supplanted the last ruler of the Chavda dynasty around 940 CE. His
successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as the Chudasamas,
the Paramaras and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari. During the reign of Bhima I,
the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath temple during 1024-
1025 CE. The Chaulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its zenith under the rule
of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th century. Several minor dynasties, such as
the Chahamanas of Jalor and the Chahamanas of Naddula, served as Chaulukya vassals during
this period. After Kumarapala's death, the kingdom was gradually weakened by internal
rebellions; uprisings by feudatories; and invasions by the Paramaras, the Ghurids,
the Yadavas and others. Taking advantage of this, the Vaghelas, who had earlier served as
Chaulukya generals, usurped the power and established a new dynasty in the 1240s.
Several princely state rulers of the Solanki clan claimed descent from the Chaulukyas. The word
"Chaulukya" is thought to be a variant of the word "Chalukya". Several other dynasties were
known by the name "Chalukya", including the Chalukyas
of Vatapi, Navasarika, Vemulavada, Kalyani, Vengi and Lata. These dynasties are sometimes
thought to be branches of the same family, but the relationship between all of them is not certain.
Unlike the Chalukyas of Kalyani and Vengi, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat never claimed a shared
descent or any other association with the earliest Chalukya dynasty — the Chalukyas of Vatapi.
Moreover, they never used the term "Chalukya" to describe themselves.[6]
However, the Chaulukyas of Gujarat shared a myth of origin with the Chalukyas of Kalyani and
Vengi. According to this legend, the progenitor of the dynasty was created by Brahma.[6] The
version of the legend mentioned in the Vadnagar prashasti inscription of Kumarapala is as
follows: the deities once asked the creator god Brahma to protect them from
the danavas (demons). Brahma then created a hero from his chuluka (pot or folded palm

69
in Sanskrit), which was filled with Ganges water. This hero was named "Chulukya", and became
the progenitor of the dynasty. A variation of this legend is mentioned by Abhayatilaka Gani in his
commentary on Hemachandra's Dvyashraya-Kavya. According to this version, Brahma produced
the hero to support the earth, after his other creations disappointed him. These stories are of no
historical value, as it was customary for contemporary royal houses to claim mythical and heroic
origins. The Kumarapala-Bhupala-Charita of Jayasimha Suri presents Chulukya as a historical
warrior, whose capital was Madhupadma. Mularaja was his descendant, with nearly a hundred
generations separating the two.[11] This account may be partly historical: Madhupadma has been
identified variously as a location outside Gujarat, including present-day Mathura.

Coin of the Chaulukyas of Anahillapataka, King Kumarapala, c. 1145 – c. 1171.

C. V. Vaidya theorized that the Chaulukyas were different from the Chalukyas. G. H.
Ojha opposed this theory, pointing out that an inscription of the Lata Chalukya ruler Kirtiraja
describes his family as "Chalukya", while an inscription of his grandson Trilochanapala describes
the family as "Chaulukya". According to Asoke Majumdar, while these similar-sounding names
suggest a common origin for all these dynasties, there is no concrete evidence to draw any
definitive conclusion. Majumdar theorized that the Chaulukyas were connected to the Sulikas or
the Chulikas, a tribe mentioned in several ancient records. This tribe is described as living on the
northern frontier of ancient India. However, Majumdar admitted that there is not enough evidence
to regard this theory as conclusive .
The "Rani-ki-Vav" or the Queen’s Stepwell at Patan, is an extant stepwell dating back to the
11th Century CE and was commissioned and constructed during the reign of the Chaulukya
or Solanki dynasty in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat. It is located in Patan, in an area
that was historically known as Anhilwara Patan, the capital of the Chalukyas. It is
worthwhile to note that the Chaulukya period is also called the Golden period in the history

70
of Gujarat and saw the construction of numerous public welfare projects, including stepwells,
ponds, lakes, vidyapiths (ancient higher education institutions, universities), chhatravas’
(dormitories), temples, and similar socially and culturally enriching institutions. Due to
multiple accounts of flooding beginning sometime around the 13th and 14th centuries, all the
way up to the 19th Century CE, the Rani-ki-Vav remained largely buried under massive
silting deposits, barely apparent but never lost in time. The Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI) finally concentrated its efforts on the stepwell’s excavation and rejuvenation in the
latter half of the 20th Century CE. 1
In Response Spectra and Time History Analysis of Rani Ki Vav(Step well), Patan by Ashish
Padsala1 Rudra studies of the well applying a numerical model used to evaluate the dynamic
behaviour of the step well under seismic loading have shown earthquake resistant behaviour
caused by well defined cantilever joints between main structural component slab and side
walls, less spacing between columns to convert seismic loadings into vertical loading. The
Rani-ki-Vav remained largely buried under massive silting deposits FORM 200 ODD
YEARS, barely apparent but never lost in time. It is a monument of national importance
protected by ASI [Archeological Survey of India]. It is also listed as the World Heritage Site.
This Queen's Stepwell, at Patan, in Gujarat. It was excavated by Queen Udayamati in
memory of her husband King Bhimadeva-I, in the XIth century.

Aṇahilaváḍa: King Vanraj Chavda founded the city of Aṇahilapura or Aṇahilaváḍa Patan in
the middle of the 8th Century CE, either in the year 746 or 765 CE, as the capital of his
kingdom. According to legend, the city was named after a local shepherd Anahil who helped
king Vanraj find an appropriate location for his capital.

Built by the wife of King Bhimdev I, built during 1022 to 1063 AD. by the widowed queen
Udayamati wife of son of Mularaja, the founder of the Solanki dynasty of Anahilwada Pattan.
It is a richly sculptured monument and a major tourist spot in Patan. The size of the Rani Ki
Vav is so huge that the tourists appear to be ants climbing an anthill. Rani Ki Vav is the
oldest and the grandest stepwell in the state of Gujarat.
Stepped corridor
There was a flight of steps connecting the ground level marked by the Torana dwara to the
top of the first pavilion which would have led the visitor to the shaft through the terraces and
pavilions.
The volume of the stepped corridor was originally ornamented with 292 carved pillars of
which 226 remain, in addition to ornate buttresses, stacked pavilions, and lintels.

First Stage of Corridor and First Pavilion:

The first pavilion originally had two-storeyed, of which only 12 plinths exist in its lower
storey. In its original form, this section had 3 rows of pillars on each storey. Second Stage of
Corridor and Second Pavilion:In the second stage, there are 5 principal high platforms,
having turret-like short flights parallel to its risers, remains of a trabeated corridor as an
intermediate landing, and a four-story pavilion of which only the lowest storey exists. This
storey has 4 sculpted terraces with remains of 2 broad niches on either wall surface at the 6th
level. The vertical surfaces of the remaining terraces, landings, and pavilions are ornate with
niches housing divine figures.

Third Stage of Corridor and Third Pavilion:

71
The third stage of Rani-ki-Vav is the largest and retains 4 out of the 6 high terraces. In
addition, there are a series of parallel and cross steps, spanning the entire width of the
corridor, accessing the intermediate landing.

A longitudnal level of the Steowell showing 7 levels

An outstanding article on the Rani Ki Vav please read-- Rani-Ki-Vav at Patan: An

Architectural Heritage The magnificent step-well of forgotten India and a monument of
unfathomable love, The Glorious Historical Heritage of Patan: Sahasralinga View project ,
authors Mayurkumar Babulal Prajapati and Tanisha Kava , Institute of Architecture Ganpat
University

Historical and architectural significance:

72
 1. Step-well Culture − Due to the scarcity of water and irregular rainfall patterns,
there was a need to construct to wells that could help people fetch water in greater
depths. Hence, the step-well culture developed prominently in parts of Gujarat and
Rajasthan. Eventually, over a period of time, these step wells become elaborate and
decorative.
2. Architecture − Rani-ki-Vav is a classic example of Gurjar-Parmara style of
Architecture which a prominent regional style of architecture seen at the other sites
like the Modhera Sun Temple.
3. Sculptures of Rani-ki-Vav − The sculpture panels of Rani-ki-Vav are a delight for
any tourists. There are more than 108 forms of Vishnu depicted on both sides of step-
well along with panels of Dashavataras, Seshashayi Vishnu, etc.

4. The contribution of Queen Udayamati − It was Queen Udayamati who built this
architectural wonder to commemorate the death of her husband, Bhimadeva I of Solanki
dynasty. Hence, it is also considered as a monument of women power for public welfare.

5. A public structure − Construction of step-well was considered as a meritorious work

and a structure like Rani-ki-Vav also served a place for the summer retreat to the people.
Thus, it served dual benefits. From https://www.tutorialspoint.com/what-is-the-significance-
of-rani-ki-vav

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 V
Jain Stambhs or Pillars

Kirti Stambha is a 12th-century tower situated at Chittor Fort in Chittorgarh town

of Rajasthan, India.

Chittor has a history going back several centuries. It was an ancient centre of Jain tradition.
Chittor is adjacent to the ancient city of Madhyamika. The Jain inscriptions at Mathura from
the Kushana period (1st–3rd centuries CE) mention a "Majjhimilla" branch of the "Kottiya"
gana, indicating that it was a major Jain centre. The famous Acharya Haribhadra Suri (6th
century CE) was born in Chittor and wrote "Dhurtopakhyana" there.

There was a scholar Elacharya at Chittor from whom Vira-senacharya (9th century) learned
the ancient Shat-khandagama and Kashayapahuda. Virasena later wrote the famous
"Dhavala" and "Jayadhavala" on the basis of these books.

The 22 metres (72 ft) tower was built by a Jain merchant Jeeja Bhagerwala during the reign
of Rawal Kumar Singh in c. 1179–1191 CE. It was the residence of Jinavallabha who
propagated the Vidhimarga in the 12th century. From the 15th to 17th centuries, it was the
seat of a Bhattaraka.

Three inscriptions have been found that mention Jija of Bagherwal community as the builder
of the stambha. One of the inscriptions mention Dharmakirti, the disciple of Shubhakirti, who
was disciple of Vasantkirti. According to the Balatkara Gana Pattavali, Dharmakirti headed
the patta during 1224-1257 CE. Thus the structure dates from the 13th century, although an
unrelated Jain inscription of 896 CE was found in the vicinity. Kirti Stambha is older than
another tower in the same fort, known as the Vijay Stambha (Tower of Victory).

74
75
An 1847 drawing of the Kirti Stambha

Kirti Stambh
The tower is built in the Solanki style. The tower is 75 feet (23 m) tall. The tower is known
for its for intricate carvings and architecture. The seven storey temple is adorned by sculpture
and mouldings from the base to summit. The carvings on each summit is different from other.
The tower stands near the Saat-Bees Jain temple. The lower level is called Hansh Peeth,
then Sinha-mukh Thar, Gaja Thar and Nava Thar

Mahavir temple with Kirti Stambha// Mahavir Jain temple//Saat-Bees Jain temple near Kirti Stampla

76
 VI
The Jain Temple Room in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art

According to Woodwork from the Temple of Vadi Parsvanatha, J. B.,The Metropolitan

Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Jan., 1919), pp. 13-15 (3 pages), the Jain temple of
Vadipura-Parsvanatha was built in 1594. This temple consists of a
mandapa, or a columned hallway, covered by a central dome and
several courtyards with shrines. Burgess wrote:? It [is] covered by
an elaborate and well carved roof. It is in the form of a dome rising
to the height of 11-1/4 feet and 11 feet in diameter. The roof is
decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament,
and has a lotus-shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large
brackets are placed at equal intervals round the inside. Theses are
female musicians and dancers; and between each pair of these is a
seated male figure with two attendants. These are the ashtadikpalas
or eight regents of the points of the compass and are arranged in
the ceiling according to their proper quarters, and each with his
vahana or conveyance carved below his seat. Some fine carving,
now much injured, has filled up the corners or spandrels of the
octagonal roof, between the lowest circle of the dome and lintels.?
Inscribed: Govt. Archaeol. Survey of Western India. No. 730

77
 C
arved wooden ceiling dome in the Parsvanatha Temple, Patan:
Photograph of the carved wooden ceiling dome in the Parsvanatha
Temple at Patan in Gujarat, taken by Henry Cousens in the 1880s, from
the Archaeological Survey of India Collections.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
W. Brown, Norman. "The Jain Temple Room in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art." Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art XVII, no. 1: A.K.
Coomaraswamy Commemoration Volume. Part III (1949): 6-21.

History
In the year 1594-96, according to a preserved inscription, a certain Ratnakuṁyarajī, of the
wealthy and well-known Jain clan named Osvāl, with, probably, his sister and daughter as

78
collaborators, financed in Pāṭan, 1 ancient capital of Gujarat, the construction of a temple
dedicated to Pārśva, twenty-third of the twenty-four Saviours (Tīrthaṅkaras) recognized by
his faith. This he did under the advice of Śvetāmbara pontiff, Jinacandrasūri VI of the
Kharatara gaccha, on whom, says the inscription, the Mughal Emperor Akbar bestowed the
title of “the most virtuous, glorious pontiff of the age” (sattamaśrīyugapradhāna). 2 This
building came to be known as the Vāḍīpura-or Vāḍī-Pārśvanatha temple.
Either as part of the original structure or as a latter accretion, there was erected a small,
elaborately carved wooden domed room, being the kind of architectural unit known
as maṇḍapa(“porch, hall”), and this, which is now installed in the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York (Pls. IV-VI), is the subject of this paper. The incentive to build the temple
was, of course, piety. A renewed urge of the same sort, over three hundred years later, led
other Jains to dismantle the original relatively unpretentious temple complex and replace it
with a more expensive edifice, made of stone and finished inside with marble, producing, we
may hope, a notable entry of merit on its patrons’ account in the great cosmic ledger and so
leading to happy rewards in future existences.
The older room was the more interesting and more beautiful of the two, and by a bit of good
fortune, possibly due to virtuous acts in some previous life, two Americans, Mr. Robert W. de
Forest and Mr. Lockwood de Forest, Some time after the dismantling, in 1916 acquired the
room just mentioned, and then laid up, or presumably laid up, further rewards in some future
rebirth by giving it to the Metropolitan Museum. It was installed and opened to the public in
1919, and has now the double distinction of being, first, one of the two Indian temple rooms
on exhibition in the United States—the other is a pillared stone hall from Madura in the
Philadelphia Museum of Art—and, second, perhaps the finest ensemble of Indian wood-
carving outside its native land.
There must, however, have been a flaw in the de Forests’ merit, because they never saw the
temple while standing at its original site and so did not get certain basic information which
would have been useful for the museum installation. But luckily two members of the
Archaeological Survey of India did, Dr. James Burgess in 1869 and Mr. Henry Cousens in
1886-87. They published a photograph, two drawings, and a brief description of the
room. 4 But unfortunately, again, somewhere along the line, merit was imperfect, for the
account which they published was both brief and at certain vital points insufficient. They did
not describe the temple complex as a whole, nor did they indicate the relative position of this
room or explain its function. Most of their report concerns the inscription mentioned above,
which, they say, was preserved on a slab “built into the wall of the principal maṇḍapa” of the
temple. This allusion, whose brevity must have seemed to them unimportant, is to us
tantalizing. Was the room or porch now in the Metropolitan Museum the “principal
maṇḍapa” or not? If not, what was it and what was its purpose? And was it built at the time
mentioned in the inscription? For lack of a sentence or two we are left to conjecture about the
full significance of the inscription. But the architectural data which the two authors explicitly
left us are of great value, and I shall refer to it frequently in the rest of this paper.

Wood-carving in Gujarat
Wood-carving, as so skilfully illustrated in this room, is widespread in Gujarat and nearby,
and may be an art of long standing there. It is often found on doorways of private houses,
mouldings, cornices, balconies, facades. It appears frequently inside small temples, where it
is fully Painted; a few traces of paint are visible on the Metropolitan’s room. The intricate
wood-carving of the region seems to be imitated in the interior marble decorations of such

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temples as those at Mount Abu, where the stone is as delicately and minutely worked as the
wood in our maṇḍapa.

But though wood is abundantly used in Gujarat and many examples of fine wood-carving
exist, few whole wooden temples or even temple rooms are now known. One which is similar
to this but less satisfactory to study was acquired by the Baroda Museum in 1947, and as now
installed is described by Dr. H. Goetz and Mr. U. P. Shah in the “Bulletin of the Baroda
Museum and Picture Gallery”, vol. VI, Pus. 1-2, 1948-49, pp. 1-30, with 60 figures on XXIV
plates. The latter room has a central portion, about the size of the Metropolitan’s maṇḍapa,
and two wings. It has a complex history, being composed of pieces of varying date and
diverse provenience, finally assembled by someone, probably a wealthy Jain layman, who
used it in his house. The Metropolitan’s room, being a whole but for some figures removed
after the dismantling, and having all been executed in a single period, is a rarity even in India,
and the excellence of the carving makes it a most valued possession. Only as recently as 1939
the then Director of Archaeology for the Baroda State, in which lies the city of Pāṭan where
the Metropolitan’s room was constructed, printed in his annual report a lament that this had
been exported from India. The carving of the room is deep and crisp; the figures full of
action and life; the composition careful though traditional. All is filled with joyous devotion;
it is a fitting memorial of the Jain religion.

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Construction
The original structural features of the room are clear from the archaeological officers’ report
and the elements of the room as they can be seen in the Metropolitan Museum. It was built on
a very simple skeleton, consisting of four corner posts a little more than five feet high and set
a little more than eleven feet apart, over whose tops extended beams or lintels. The corner
posts rose from the level of the ground outside, but the level of their base was not the level of
the inside floor. This was, instead, a little less than two feet lower. Inside the posts was a
ledge or walkway about fifteen or sixteen inches wide, which ran around all four sides of the
room, and at the inside edge of this was a straight drop of about twenty or twenty-one inches
to the floor, which was, therefore, sunk that distance below the outside ground level. Mr.
Cousens’ drawing shows this feature plainly.
The straight perpendicular sides of the room were about five and a quarter feet high, and were
originally open to the air all the way around. There was no doorway. The way to enter the
room was to step on the walk way inside the corner posts, and then step down to the floor. To
do so one had to bend a little on coming to the walkway and then lift one’s feet care fully
over the low railing on the inside of it as one stepped down to the floor level. The
awkwardness of this procedure led to confusion when the room was installed in the
Metropolitan.
In the center of each side of the room was a balcony (Pl. IV) projecting inwards, and the rear
posts of the balcony served with the corner posts to support the superstructure. The pediments
of the balconies were upheld by front posts and struts, and the balconies were supported from
below by brackets. These elements and beams were all richly carved in higher relief (Pl. VI).
The drop from the walkway to the floor was faced with a dado, which was also elaborately
decorated.
The dome construction began above the lintels connecting the corner posts. First, an
octagonal course was imposed upon the basic square, cutting off the corners and leaving
squinches, which were then embellished with carving. Above the octagonal course was then
laid a sixteen-sided course, which cut off the angles of the octagon. Rings were then raised on
this latter course, diminishing in diameter and corbelling inwards. A center element with a
large pendant bound the parts of many stone temples of Gujarat and lower Rajputana, notably
those of the Jains at Girnar, Śatruñjaya, Mount Abu.
When the room was constructed, the sides were left open, as is the case with similar elements
in stone temples, but at some later time an iron grating with a mesh of about an inch and
quarter was introduced in the sides to keep out bats, swallows, and pigeons, which are a
common nuisance in Indian temples. The published photograph shows a balcony (now
installed in the Metropolitan at the east), and the drawings exhibit the cross-section and the
ceiling.
When installing the room the Museum staff was baffled. It could see no obvious logic in a
room which was so inconvenient to enter and to use. The Museum, therefore, rationalized the
structure by giving it a lower part, which in effect amounted to another story, making the
room high and narrow and rendering it practically impossible for any ordinary human neck to
bend far enough backward to let one see the ceiling. The addition, like the room, was
composed of carved wooden elements from Gujarat and Jain in their subject matter, but the
wood was of a different kind, the carving was of a different style, and the two major parts of
the reconstruction had never been together until they reached New York.

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The Museum was quite frank in stating what it had done and why. When it opened the room
to the public, it published in its “Bulletin” (January, 1919) a note signed “J. B. ” (Joseph
Breck), telling something of the room’s history; referring to the publication by Burgess and
Cousens, and also remarking, “Unfortunately, neither the drawings nor the photograph [that
published by Burgess and Cousens] show the structure below the frieze [meaning the dado]
nor give the ground plan of the temple; but presumably the structure was borne upon
columns, thus permitting access to the Shrine and other halls. ”
The presumption, however was incorrect, and the reconstruction is unjustified. First, the
addition of a lower section destroys the proportions of the original. These domed rooms from
temples in Gujarat—and a number have been published—are regularly constructed on the
basis of a cube with the upper corners rounded off. This room was originally about eleven
and a half feet in each dimension, and the length and breadth are that now. But the height of
the reconstruction is about eighteen feet, or half as much again as it should be. Secondly, the
drawing shows clearly that the room was built at ground level. Thirdly, the photograph, when
carefully examined, shows beyond the grille, at the left of the balcony, faintly yet
unmistakably discernible, a man standing on the outside ground or pavement, peering
curiously within, looking very much like somebody’s chaprassi. His feet are at about the level
of the ledge or walkway which runs around the inside of the room. The photograph also
shows, just inside the dado, a few inches of the original floor. There can be no doubt that the
room was complete without a sub-structure, that it was erected at ground level and had
sunken floor, and that it was not meant for passage but had to be passed around.
In the reconstruction there is a wooden grille in place of the adscititious iron grille mentioned
above, which kept out bats, swallows, and pigeons. The present grille is evidently otiose,
since the Metropolitan Museum does not appear to be bothered by such pests.
Original position and function
Though Burgess and Cousens fail to state explicitly the position of this room in the total
temple ensemble and its function, we may make deductions on these points with a fair degree
of confidence. We may start by referring to the main features of temples in Gujarat. There, as
is general in India, the essential part is the cell or shrine called garbha (“womb interio”)
or garbhagṛha (“womb-house”), which houses the image of the deity or, with the Jains, the
Tīrthaṅkara who is being honored. This usually has only one opening, the door. Above the
cell is ceiling or false roof, over which in temples of any pretensions rises a spire (śikhara).
All this is called the vimāna (“celestial car”,”palace”) of the god, and it may in itself
constitute the entire temple. Usually, however, there are additional elements. Before
the vimāna may be a maṇḍapa (“porch, hall”), which may be either open on the sides or
enclosed by walls. In a temple of any size at all this has columns. When the porch has
enclosed sides it is called antarāla (“passage way”) or gūḍhamaṇḍapa (“enclosed porch”). In
front of this frequently appears, especially in large temples, another maṇḍapa serving for
groups of people to use in various connections indicated by the names applied to it, which
are sabhāmaṇḍapa (“assembly hall”) raṅgamaṇḍapa (“theatrical hall”), nṛtyasala (“dance
hall”). This may be attached to the temple structurally or may stand independently of it in
front. When it is without walls it may be known as an ākṅśamaṇḍapa (“open-air hall”). In
a sabhāmaṇḍapa the ceiling is frequently a heavily carved dome, as in the example in the
Vimalasahi temple on Mount Abu, which has as its chief theme the sixteen Jain Vidyādevīs,
or in the detailed example at Kanoda or that at Modhera. There are many modifications of
temple plans, with variation in the relative size, shape, and situation of elements, and with the
addition in some large temples of still other accessory units.

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To identify the purpose of the Metropolitan’s maṇḍapa, we may note three point. First,
Cousens’ drawing clearly indicates that it was free standing. Second, Burgess and Cousens in
referring to the long inscription say that it was “built into the wall of the principal maṇḍapa of
this temple”. Since the only part of the temple which they describe is the porch (maṇḍapa)
which we are discussing, it seems clear that if the inscription had been on it, they would have
said so explicitly. In referring to the principal porch, they must have been referring to another
than this; that would have been the maṇḍapa just before the vimāna, which in any case would
have been the natural place to set an inscription. Third, the Metropolitan’s being awkward to
pass through, would not have been meant to give access to the shrine. It was to be passed
around except when being put to its own special use. We may conclude, I think with
assurance, that the room was constructed as a sabhāmaṇḍapa (“assembly hall”) open to the
air.
Our maṇḍapa may have been erected at the same time as the main shrine or at a later time,
and either by the same patrons or by some other. There is no way to determine this point with
complete certainty. It could have been a separate expression of religious feeling by some
sincere soul who set it up, a small jewel of a building, edifying to enter and behold,
commemorating some specific occasion for gratitude to the superhuman powers or
celebrating some pious purpose happily achieved. In it the patron and his family or some
other small group might on occasion have entertained a distinguished monk to have the
blessing of listening to his discourse or have had the Scripture recited at a festival season or
have viewed a dance in honor of some exalted figure or have engaged in some other
profitable exercise. It scarcely seems likely to have had frequent and regular use.
Date
In view of the remarks made just above it is evident that there is no positive and unequivocal
evidence about the date of the maṇḍapa. Burgess and Cousens in discussing
the maṇḍapa refer to the inscription and imply that they consider the dates which it gives as
applying to the whole temple including this part of it. The inscription says that the
construction was begun “in the reign of the Pādishāh, the illustrious Akabbara, in the year
1651 after the era of the illustrious king Vikrama, on the 9 th of the bright half of Mārgaśīrsa,
on the civil day Monday, under the lunar asterism Pūrvabhadrā, in a propitious hour.” This is
equivalent to November 11, 1594. The image was consecrated on May 13, 1596. But, as is
intimated above, the maṇḍapa may have been built later than the vimāna and its porch. To
answer the problem of the date, therefore, we must seek other criteria than the inscription.
There are a few which may be used. One is the headdress worn by Tīrthaṅkaras. This is either
a triple-tiered parasol or crown, such as appears in illustrated Jain manuscripts of the
16th century, or a crown with points of varied length or a parasol, such as appear in
manuscripts of the 17th and 18th centuries but cannot be absolutely denied for the late
16th century. Further, the goddess Lakṣmī had her attendants, who are shown on the parapets
of the balconies, wear crowns with flaring points, such as are assigned by Goetz and Shah to
the 16th and 17th centuries. Again, the bullock carts on the parapets compare with one shown
by Goetz and Shah, though it is more elaborate and has four wheels, and assigned by those
authors to the late 16th century.
If the maṇḍapa was carved later than the dates in the inscription, the time seems unlikely to
have been much later. It seems that we should take it to be of about the beginning of the
17th century.
Iconography

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When the room was constructed, it is likely that the architect and his patrons, or patron, had
some overall unifying principle in the iconography. This we may try to deduce.
The temple of which it was a part commemorated Pārśva, the twenty third of the twenty-four
Tīrthaṅkaras, but as a maṇḍapa it did not house an image, and the theme of the carvings is
not Pārśva or any series of circumstances relating to him, nor is it concerned with the
Tīrthaṅkaras as a whole. Those representations of Tīrthaṅkaras which occur in the room are
in a secondary position. They are four, appearing in the pediments of the balconies, and are
not easy to identify, since the characteristic marks (lāñchana) which differentiate
Tīrthaṅkaras are here damaged. They seem to be as follows: in the eastern balcony (as now
installed) Ṛṣabha, with his bull; in the southern, Ṛṣabha, with bull; in the western, Ṛṣabha,
with bull; in the northern, Śānti with deer. All four are shown as perfected souls ( siddha) in
Īṣatprāgbhāra at the top of the universe. 16 There they exist as pure and incorporeal soul, and
hence have no resemblance to anything material, whether animate or inanimate. But to
symbolize them, and only for the purpose of symbolism, they are shown through the medium
of the human body. The human body does not depict them; it only suggests them. When the
Śvetāmbaras so symbolize their Saviours, they show them arrayed, ornamented, and crowned
as kings, with royal parasols overhead, and flanked by attendants bearing fly-whisks and
waterpots. A temporal world-conqueror would be similarly presented, and we may recall that
according to Jain mythology each of the twenty-four Saviours could have had such a worldly
career if he had not elected instead to follow the religious life and become a Jina
(“Conqueror”) in the spiritual struggle. In this room the Jinas appear to be incidental to the
main iconographic themes.
The main themes deal with lower goals than the difficult spiritual victory achieved by the
Perfected Beings. They are, instead, the aims of creatures reconciled to remaining for an
indefinite period in the transient phenomenal universe, where they are bound by the action of
the senses and destined, therefore, to experience innumerable rebirths in the revolving
samsara (“round of existence”). Such beings are satisfied with the temporary goals of
prosperity, joy, and protection from evil, and these are the themes of the carving in
the maṇḍapa. They are illustrated in a heavenly environment, and in an earthly. The creatures
seeking and enjoying them or aiding mortals to enjoy them or to commemorate them are
divinities and their attendants, human beings, and possibly some subterranean entities.
Protection from evil is the chief motif of the dome. Its hemisphere represents the vault of
heaven, which meets the square earth at its circumference, reaches to some great height at the
zenith above us, and encompasses the activities of men and gods. It features carvings of the
eight deities whose function it is to guard the universe at the cardinal and intermediate
directions so that it may be free of molestation from any evil forces. The idea is a common
one to all Indian faiths. It stems from the old notion of the Ṛg Veda that the universe
operates, or should operate, in conformity with a body of cosmic law called the ṛta, which
when fully observed insures its equilibrium or harmony. Unfortunately, there exist forces
contrary to the ṛta, characterized as anṛta, which are constantly endeavouring to enter the
universe of gods and men and disrupt its orderly cycle. These are demons (yakṣas) and beings
whom they induce to do their will. The gods are continually engaged in repelling these evil
forces, and men have the duty of assisting the gods, chiefly through due celebration of the
sacrifice. In post-Vedic India the need for protection is formally recognized by designating
certain gods, most of whom already in the Veda, as world protectors
(lokapāla, dikpāla, vāstudevāta). They defend against evil intruding from the horizontal
directions, either at the four cardinal points of the compass or at eight. They need not watch
the nadir which is protected by the Earth goddess (pṛthivī, bhūmi, bhū), nor the zenith, which

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appears to need no protection, since the only opening in it, in Vedic mythology, appears to be
that “straight path” (sādhu pathi; cf. RV 10. 14. 10) that leads to the realm of the gods and the
blessed dead, where no evil is ever found. Protection by the Direction Guardians is invoked
in India in many circumstances. At the dedication of a building in Gujarat, for example, as
one of the final ceremonies, the master craftsman with attendants and a priest or two mounts
a platform raised on a high scaffolding and calls to the regents of the eight airts. In Jain
temples these same figures often appear on the domed ceiling of a maṇḍapa. This is the case
with the Metropolitan’s carved room. To start at the east, which is the normal point of
departure in India, and box the eight points of the compass, the deities with their vehicles
(vahanas) in the original construction were:18
East; Indra and elephant
Southeast; Agni and ram (looking, however, more like a goat or deer)
South; Yama with buffalo (from some views looking like a horse)
Southwest; Niṛīti with dog
West: Varua with boar
Northwest; Vāyu or Marut with gazelle
North; Kubera with elephant
Northeast; Iśāna with bull
Each deity is set in an architectural niche and is flanked by two attendants. In many cases
distinguishing attributes have been broken off. Between these eight gods originally stood
eight female figures, but these were already disposed of before the room was acquired for the
Museum, and the pieces of wood on which they were carved have now been replaced by
blank substitutes. We can get a rough idea of them from Cousens’ drawings of the dome.
They may have been meant for heavenly women (apsaras or surasundarī) or more probably
the Direction Maidens (dikkumārī), who are fifty-six in number and assist at various
important functions, such as the heavenly bathing of the future Tīrthaṅkara when born on
earth for his last existence. 19 They stood on lotuses, which are still preserved, and play
musical instruments (lute, both single-bowled and double-bowled, flute, drum, cymbals,
flute), and danced.
Ancillary to the main figures in the dome and their attendants were other figures, human,
animal, and hybrid in form, and a profusion of auspicious vegetation designs.
The most conspicuous position occupied by any of these was on the pendant, which was
decorated with eight figures of female musicians and dancers, again likely to be
either apsarases or dikkumārīs.
Next to the pendant is a ring of conventionalized flowers, then a ring of animals—lion, tiger,
elephant, cow, camel, horse, buffalo, deer, bird, snake, mongoose, śarabha (lion’s body with
elephant’s trunk), another hybrid consisting of quadruped’s body with a bird’s head. Some
are suckling young; other may be engaged in fight— śarabha with lion, lion with elephant,
snake with mongoose. These various creatures perhaps represent the animal world as it is
considered to exist in the heavens.
The next ring consists of musicians whose instruments are drums, lutes (vīṇā), trumpets,
flutes, cymbals. One has a horn with a bend like a saxophone. Many of the musicians have
bird’s legs and tail on a human torso, or a bull’s head or monkey’s head and tail on a human
torso, and are therefore, kiṁnaras (“what sort of man”, “near-man”).
Outside this ring is a ring of conventionalized flowers. Then come the main figures, already
mentioned, and below them is a ring of elephants in procession, Under these are suspended

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the eight conventionalized lotuses on which originally stood the eight female figures now
missing, which may be meant to represent the Direction Maidens. On a level with these
flowers is another ring of musicians, playing a variety of instruments, and singers. Beneath
this are the other ring-courses of the dome, showing conventionalized vegetation decoration.
Next, below the lowest ring is a sixteen sided course carved with three half-lotuses to a side.
Then appears an eight-sided course in two registers, of which the upper contains sixty-four
male figures seated, each holding a jar or a rosary. Though these have only two hands each, it
is possible that they represent the sixty-four Indras. In each side with its eight male figures
are nine attendant fly-whisk bearers, many of whom are in dance poses. The lower register
has an elaborate foliage design. In each of the squinches under the cross pieces at the room’s
four corners was an elaborate floral design ending in the corner in a krtimukha (“glory face”).
These are now all badly damaged, but one has two kiṁnaras playing flutes and
two makaras (sea monster) standing up right on their curled tails, with bodies twisted as in
the dance. The decoration of the squinches seems to end the representation of heavenly
regions. All there has been joyousness secure by the protection of the Direction Guardians
with probably the accompanying Direction Maidens.
Below the squinches we come to a representation of the four-square earth, and there the
significant subject matter is treated in the carvings of the balconies. Each of these is an
elaborate architectural unit surmounted by a pediment in which is seated a Tirhankara as a
perfected being, flanked by attendants. The structural elements are heavily decorated with
jars and other lucky symbols. But the most important feature of each is the parapet which has
as its theme adoration of the goddess Lakṣmī. She is the dispenser of prosperity, especially
worshipped by merchants, and therefore supremely favored by the Jain community. Her
annual festival in the autumn, when shopkeepers close their accounts, people pay their debts,
and the prudent worship the rupee, bears the name of Dīvalī (Skt. Dīpāvali “row of lights”),
and with Jains it not only honors the goddess but also marks the entry into
complete nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra, the last of their twenty four Tīrthaṅkaras, (Saviours), which
they say occurred on this day.
The central figure in each balcony carving is clearly this goddess Lakṣmī, because the four
hands hold her regular attributes. In the upper ones are lotuses; in the lower are a rosary and a
small jar. Still more, two elephants stand beside and above her, sprinkling her with water
from their trunks. Her seat is regularly a lotus, not shown here as a seat, but appearing triply
in the dado, below, and she symbolizes the productive earth resting upon the cosmic waters,
while the clouds, represented by the two elephants, send down the fructifying rain.
In the different balconies, the figures which accompany the goddess vary. In that now at the
north they are female musicians and dancers, crowned as she is, some of them playing
the vīṇā, the Indian lute. At each end is a lay figure holding a rosary and leaning upon a long
bamboo staff, which in India is still a common weapon. He is perhaps a pious warder.
In the present eastern balcony fly-whisk bearers attend the goddess, while musicians blow
trumpets, and girls with joined hands dance around a tree, probably meant for the tulasi, or
basil, which is sacred to Lakṣmī. 21 Here seems to be a reference to one of Lakṣmī’s autumn
harvest festivals, when there is feasting, and young girls dressed in white sing and dance.
In each of the other balconies the accompanying carving is of two oxcarts (over one is a bird)
and their drivers with small figures seated in their passenger’s compartments dressed as
monks preaching, but surely not really monks, since the latter are forbidden to travel on land
in vehicles. These scenes suggest a custom of wealthy pious Jains to go on pilgrimages and to
finance large parties of accompanying pilgrims. Such a layman usually takes a monk’s vows

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temporarily, travels on foot, and goes to Mount Śatruñjaya in Kathiawar, about 150 miles
from Pāṭan, where our maṇḍapa was constructed. Śatruñjaya is sacred to Ṛṣabha, first of the
Tīrthaṅkaras in the present world-cycle, who died there. It is he who seems to be represented
in the pediments of those balconies whose parapets show the carts. At the top of Mount
Śatruñjaya is a fortress filled with temples, of which the chief is dedicated to Ṛṣabha.
Pilgrims who can afford the price may ride around this shrine in a silver cart, thus putting a
perfect finish on the sanctified journey.
In the two balcony scenes showing carts the attendants standing at the ends hold fly-whisk
and water jar, as did the attendants flanking the Saviours in the pediments. The pillars beside
the goddess Lakṣmī appropriately enough terminate with the vessel of plenty.
The floor of the balconies is at the same level as the walkway around the interior of the room
and was originally, as has been indicated, at the level of the ground outside. Between the
walkway and the sunken floor is the dado. The drop to a level below the surface of the
ground may signify that this, the lowest part of the structure, represents that part of the
subterranean world which is just below the earth’s surface and above the hells. Here dwell the
eight classes of kindly creatures known as the Vyantara gods, who are custodians of the
treasure within the earth and are known sometimes in Jain texts as sajjana, literally “good
folk”. In a well-ruled city filled with righteous people they spread their treasures abundantly.
As appearing in our carving they are male and female; some carry jars, presumably full of
riches; some have weapons, swords and battle axes; some are attendants bearing fly-whisks;
some beat drums; some dance.
On the same level with these figures are lotuses shown in three medallions below each
balcony, possibly to represent the earth as Lakṣmī’s seat, resting upon the cosmic waters.
Underneath the row of figures is a procession of haṁsas, each carrying a spray of leaves or a
flower bud in its beak. Below the lotuses and in the same register with the haṁsas are panels
of jālī (“network”), wood pierced in delicate geometric designs. Underneath this register
were originally further carved wooden courses, a few inches in height, which can be seen in
the Archaeological Survey’s photograph but are missing from the Museum installation.
The dado is surmounted by a low railing which borders the walkway. It consists of a repeated
motif common as an ornament on Jain buildings, which is highly conventionalized but may
perhaps have one of two origins. It may be geometric or even foliage motif from Islamic art,
since many such items appear in Western India after the Muslims established themselves
there. The other possibility is that it derives from the vase of plenty which is well known in
Jain symbolism. In late times this is shown in a kind of cusped niche which frames
it. 24 Between the separate examples of this motif are shown pots with sprigs of some plant
whose leaves grow in threes. 25 The significance of the motif seems in any case to be good
fortune.
Interpretation
What now is the general content of the carving which decorates the room; Taking together
the ideas illustrated in the dome, on the balconies, and on the dado, we may find in this room,
I think, an epitome of practical Jainism for a well-to-do pious layman. He knows and lauds
the great goal of salvation which those mighty Victors, the twenty-four Jinas, have won, and
the others of the Perfected Beings. He recognizes the importance of the shrine at the rear of
the temple which honors one of them, the Tīrthaṅkara Pārśva. But few indeed are those who
have ever attained such success. He knows that he could not become one of them. He is more
modest in his pretensions and aspirations; he must be content with something less lofty, less

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 abstract, less difficult. And so he does not frequent that cell which points to salvation in the
non-phenomenal world. Rather, he stops in the phenomenal universe to make the most of it,
and in it he takes his seat under the well-guarded vault of heaven. No harm will come to him,
thanks to the vigilance of the Direction Guardians. He may even hope, by virtuous living,
appropriate alms-giving, reverence to the holy ones, abstinence from killing and other vices,
and the practice of not too severe austerities, to check the worst effects of karma and cultivate
good ones, and some day himself win to a celestial abode where he will hear the divine music
and enjoy the divine pleasure. That is his highest expectation. Meanwhile, whatever may be
his lot in the unpredictable future, he can count with some more assured hope upon the best
that life can give in the here and now. Lakṣmī has favoured him with the wealth to achieve
expensive pilgrimages, erect costly temples, practice lavish philanthropies. It is only fitting
that he should honor her—honor her, and thank her too. And thank her not only for favours
already granted, but also, with a bow to her proverbially fickle nature, thank her for favours
still to be received. With her have co-operated the yakṣas and other subterranean beings who
guard the treasures beneath the earth’s surface. Them, too, he honors that they may prolong
their generosity. In this way he will continue to enjoy the comfort and plenty brought to him,
one of the deserving rich, by the united action of heaven, earth, and the underworld. His are
the solid blessings of the successful business man.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 1.Otherwise known as Anahilavāḍa-Pattana.

 2.See description of this temple in James Burgess and Henry Cousens, The Architectural Antiquities of
Northern Gujarat (Archaeological survey of Western India, Volume IX), 1908. pp. 49-51, Plates IV, XX, XXI

 3.Published by W. Norman Brown, A Pillared Hall from a Temple at Madura, India, in the Philadelphia
Museum of Art, Philadelphia, 1940

 4.See Footnote No. 2

 5.Annual Report of the Archaeological Department. Baroda state for the year ending 31 st July. 1938 (Baroda
State Press, 1939), p. 15 and plate XII. The Director, Dr. Hirananda Sastri, thought only one balcony was
involved, not a whole room. For some other examples of wood carving from Northern Gujarat, see Burgess
and Cousens, op. cit. , plates XXXVI and XLVI.

 6.See Burgess and Cousens, op. cit. , plates XLVIII, XLIX, L for an especially elaborate example at Modera.

 7.For the Indian temple in general see Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, 2 vols, Calcutta, 1946 For temples
in Gujarat, see Burgess and Cousens. op. cit. , pp. 21-32, from which the material following in this paper is
drawn.

 8.See Kramrisch, op. cit. , I. pp. 21-7, 257.

 9.See Muni Vidyavijaya, Ābū, Sirohi, 1933. p. 64

 10.See Burgess and Cousens. op. cit. , pp. 71 ff. , 110f. , plates VII, XLVII. XLVIII, XII; cf. Also p. 108,
plates LXXXII, LXXXIV, LXXXVI.

 11.See Burgess and Cousens, Passim.

 12.Burgess and Cousens, op. cit. , pp. 49f

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 13.Cf. W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasutra, Washington. 1984 fig. 101

 14.Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , figs 24, 27, 28, 30, 59.

 15.Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , fig 13.

 16.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , figs 81, 100, 114, 128

 17.Cf. Kramrisch, op. cit. , I, p. 29

 18.In the Metropolitan’s installation these have been moved backward two places.

 19.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , pp. 30f These female figures hardly seem likely to represent the Vidyā devis, which
are shown in other sabhamaṇḍapas (cf. footnote 9 above).

 20.Cf. W. Norman Brown, op. cit. , p 40

 21.Cf. Goetz and Shah, op. cit. , fig 27

 22.For a painted cloth depicting such pilgrimages, now owned by the Brooklyn Museum of
Art. See an article by W. Norman Brown in Art and Thought ( Studies in Honour of A. K.
Coomara swamy), pp. 68-72

 23.Comparison of the installation of the balconies in the Museum with the photograph of a
balcony when in situ published by Burgess and Cousens shows that the pierced wooden
panels belonging originally to it are now under another balcony. The pieces of the dado
originally on the two sides of the balcony have also been placed elsewhere; so, too, the
beam of the octagon originally above the balcony has been moved to some other place.

 24.Cf. Brown, op. cit. , figs 4, 28, 132. For a late example see Helen
Johnson Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, Vol I, Ādīśvaracaritra (Baroda, Gaekwad’s Oriental
Series, Vol. II, 1931); plate IV.

 25.Cf. Goetz and Shah, plate I, fig. 1; plate VI. Fig. 19; the lintel in the former figure,
showing this motif, appears to be upside down.

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 VII

Mahavir in marble – Stunning 19th-Century Photographs of the

Jain Temples of Palitana
Among Jains, of course, the significance of these temples cannot be overstated. Built on
Mount Shatrunjaya in the town of Palitana, these 863 temples receive millions of visitors
each year. Of the 24 Tirthankaras or spiritual leaders (though a more accurate translation
would be spiritual saviours) in Jainism, 23 have visited this holy site. The first Tirthankara,
Adinath or Adishwar is believed to have preached his first sermon here.

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Historically, Palitana was the royal center of the region during the reign of the Mughals. The
town was ruled by the Gohil family, who have ruled parts of Saurashtra starting in the
12th Century and right up till the princely state was merged into the Union of India in 1947.
Despite its exalted status thanks to the presence of the exquisite Jain temples, though,
Palitana is not your typical temple town.

According to literature shared with Sarmaya by Brijeswari Gohil, founder of the Bhavnagar
Heritage Preservation Society, “It is only, tourists, art and cultural enthusiasts who choose to
splurge during their visit to Palitana. These tourists too, are not permitted to eat or drink
anything including water once they reach up to the temple complex. No individual is
permitted to reside in the Temple complex and for that reason by evening the entire group of
staff including temple priests walk down the hills. This has been a rule since the time of
inception in order to preserve the sanctity of the site.”

Peak devotion

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The Jain temples are dedicated to the religious icon Rushabdev, another name for the first of
the Tirthankaras. The building of these temples was estimated to have taken over 900 years,
and the construction took place over two phases. The primary phase was during the 11th -
12th centuries, followed by a reconstruction and restoration in the 16th century, after invasions
by Islamic rulers in the 14th -15th centuries. A significant proportion of the original
architectural elements and sculptures were preserved in the renovation, making these temples
a great example of how a cultural legacy may be preserved.

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The temples are spread across nine main clusters or toonks, which extend right from the base
to the peak of the Shatrunjaya Hills. Tourists and pilgrims shuffle uphill on a 3.5-kilometre
path, climbing close to 3950 steps in the process of getting to the top-most temple on the hill-
range. Each temple is fairly large and some even boast three-tiered towers, on which are
perched four life-sized idols of Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, looking out over the
surrounding greens.

The clusters of Palitana temples are closely tied with the fortunes and scions of the Solanki or
Chalukya dynasty. The oldest temples, dating from the 11th and 12th, centuries have
inscriptions that document the donations made to the Shatrunjaya temples during the reign of

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 emperor Siddharaja Jayasimha, who ruled from 1092-1142 and was known for his generous
patronage of the Jain community.

The temple architecture of the Shatrunjaya temples, typical of most Solanki architecture, is
highly ornate with a lot of attention paid to elaborately rendering each distinctive feature and
detail. Other representations include auspicious Hindu and Jain deities like Kali and Ganesha.
Sculptural motifs and reliefs include hunting and war scenes, and references to conquests
made by rulers before their conversion to Jainism also feature in the art here. Abounding
among these are sculptures of dancers, musicians and the kirtimukha, or ‘face of glory’, a
fanged lion-like beast that guards thresholds at the behest of Shiva.

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There is a prominent degree of stylistic uniformity within the architectural reliefs and
sculptures at the various temple sites. This structural uniformity is observable in the more
contemporary sites of the temple as well. The temples are all 108 feet high and measure
around 108 feet in circumference too, making for neatly balanced proportions. In Jainism,
Buddhism and Hinduism, the number 108 is considered to be sacred. One possible reason
could be that 108 suggests temporal wholeness as it is the lowest common multiple of 12, the
number of months in a year, and 27, the number of visible constellations forming a pattern in
the night sky. This theme carries over in the Samavasarana temple constructed in 1985 at the
base of Mount Shatrunjaya, which holds 108 idols of Parshvanath, the Tirthankara who
preceded Mahavira.

Celebration on the hills

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 Mahavir Jayanti, also known as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, is the most significant of Jain
festivals and it celebrates the birth of the last Tirthankara of the kalyuga or the modern era.
Mahavira is the 24th and last Tirthankara, born to King Siddhartha and Queen Trishala of the

96
Ikshvaku dynasty in 599 BCE. Contemporary Jain philosophy focuses chiefly on the life and
preaching or vani of Mahavira.

Several loyal devotees and pilgrims make their way to various toonks at Palitana every year
around March-April to observe Mahavir Jayanti. It’s a solemn festival marked with
meditation and sermons rather than pomp and revelry. Temples are decorated with flags and

97
 flowers, deities are bathed in a ritual abhishekam, and processions with the idols are led to
offer believers a chance to pay their respects. Acts of charity, fasting and periods of quiet
introspection are encouraged at this time.

Interestingly, Palitana is special to those of other faiths too. There’s the shrine to Angar Pir
located right next to the Adheshwara temple. This is the tomb of a Muslim saint who is said
to have protected Palitana’s temples against Islamic invaders. It is now a spiritual destination
for couples seeking to be blessed with children.

98
Each Jain temple on Shatrunjaya Hill has its own unique architectural features that blend the
sensibilities of the monks who inspired their foundation as well that of the patrons who
funded them.

99
 Edmund David Lyon was a British photographer who worked out of Ooty in Tamil Nadu
between 1865 and 1869. From his base in the Nilgiris, Lyon undertook many commissions by
the British government to document the monuments and landmarks of the Bombay and
Madras presidencies.

100
8

According to this profile by Luminous Lint, “His photographs were shown in the
Photographic Society of London Exhibition of 1869 and were there praised for their
‘tenderness and delicacy’.”

101
 Abhiniti Ahuja is a Curatorial Assistant at Sarmaya

References:

The Peaceful Liberators, Jain Art from India by Pratapaditya Pal, Los Angeles County
Museum of Art. First published in 1994 by Museum Associates, Los Angeles County
Museum of Art. From the Sarmaya Library

Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History by John Cort. Published by
Oxford University Press.

Live History India: Palitana, The Jain Temple Town

ANNEXURE A

19th century MODERN MARU GURJARA

There was a considerable number of new Jain temples in the 19th century, as the Jain
community continued to grow and prosper. Temples were built by wealthy Jains, often
individually, or by community trusts. The large Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848)
in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, was built by the Hutheesing family. It uses the Māru-Gurjara style,
with many similarities to Bhadreshwar and Ranakpur. There is a good deal of "sharply
sculpted" decoration, "but figures appear only at the brackets". There are three sanctuaries in
a row, and so three shikharas, but the porch and the outer mandapa each have three domes.

But the style is not invariably used: the large Ajmer Jain temple (1864–1895) in Rajasthan
uses a kind of Neo-Mughal style. This is a Digambar foundation, and the Digambar wing of
Jainism always favoured the Māru-Gurjara style rather less, at least in India itself. The
large Anandji Kalyanji Trust, which devotes itself to temple-building and renovation, has
played a role in promoting the Māru-Gurjara style, at Palitana in particular.

The 20th and 21st centuries, especially from about 1950, have seen increasing
Jain diaspora communities in many parts of the world. In India there has been much
construction of large temples and complexes, and the smaller diaspora communities have
constructed buildings on a somewhat smaller scale. In both cases use of the Māru-Gurjara
style is very common, although the thoroughness with which it is adopted varies greatly.
Some buildings mix Māru-Gurjara elements with those of local temple styles and modern
international ones. Generally, where there is elaborate carving, often still done by craftsmen
from Gujarat or Rajasthan, this has more ornamental and decorative work than small figures.
A similar mix is seen in many modern Hindu temples in India and abroad, for example those
of the Swaminarayan sect, or the Prem Mandir, Vrindavan near Mathura (built 2001-2011).
Sometimes the Māru-Gurjara influence is limited to the "flying arches" and mandapa ceiling
rosettes, and a preference for white marble.

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 The Bounter Jinalaya (or "72 Jinalaya") Jain temple at Mandvi, Kutch, Gujarat,
begun
1982//

The Shankheshwar Parshvanath Jain Temple is a Jain temple located in the

municipality Wilrijk of Antwerp Province, Belgium. It is currently the only Jain temple
in continental Europe.The building has a surface area of 1,000 m2 and has been in use since
2010. Construction started in 1990 in India. After it was completed in 2000, the building was
dismantled piece by piece, shipped to Belgium and rebuilt on its current location. The white
marble design is inspired by traditional Jain Temples.It is the biggest Jain temple outside of
India.[2] The temple houses an information centre about Jainism.

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 Jain temple, Antwerp, Belgium, completed 2010

The Jain Centre, Leicester, England. A facade "clad with Māru-Gurjara

ornamentation" on a former church. //Jain Temple at the Oshwal Centre, Potters Bar,
Hertfordshire, which "recreates a general Māru-Gurjara aesthetic".Side view.//
Entrance fronting an essentially modern Jain temple building, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh
The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous
styles in north-west India are mentioned above, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho,
forming part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same
style as their Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share
many features with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the
104
walls, lavish figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides,
ceiling rosettes, and others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more
emphasis. There are similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much
further south. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.

1. Sarkar, Gurudas. "Notes on the History of Shikhara Temples." Rupam -

an Illustrated Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art, no. 10 (1922).
2. Brown, Percy. "Two Coḷa Temples." Journal of the Indian Society of
Oriental Art II, no. 1 (1934): 2-7.
3. Bhandarkar, D.R.. "Some Temples at Mount Abu." Rupam - an
Illustrated Quarterly Journal of Oriental Art (1920): 11-20.
4. Fergusson, James R., and James Burgess. "Chapter VII.—The Caves,
Mahavâllipur." In The Cave Temples of India, 141-153. London: W. H.
ALLEN & Co., et al, 1880.

Water, a finite and vulnerable resource, is the basis for not only all livelihoods, development,
and the environment but a vital element in the evolution of cities, communities and
civilization in general. This is evident since most of the primordial civilization thrived around
water bodies rivers, Oceans and major waterways. 1 In today’s world, water is a major
constraint for both agricultural production and the income of rural poor populations. Poverty
reduction, food security, job creation, and GDP growth thrive primarily on water, which
plays an important role in the world economy and sustainable development. Water resources
help to strike a sustainable balance between the social, economic, and ecological needs of the
human race. Indus Valley or Harappan Civilisation had some major settlements like
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, etc. The presence of wells and other water
conservation structures there proves that the idea and need for preserving water, are ancient.

Due to Urbanization, the demand for water has increased manifolds since these ancient times.
Today it is important to conserve water. The collective efforts in this respect are seen to
produce more cost-effective results. This shows that water management was and is one of the
most important environmental practices for a healthy life and for global well-being . Water
management includes the conservation of water and the re-use of wastewater, which are two
different, but intertwined, strategies. Although water conservation focuses on demand, the
goal of wastewater reuse and recycling is to reduce this demand by closing the water loop and
encouraging circularity in the flow of wastewater from the built to the natural environment.

Throughout history, many water conservation and management strategies have been
employed, but only a few have proved successful. . But this is no news. Use of stepwells or
Vav, as they are called in Gujarat or baoli/bawri, being called in Rajasthan area, is one such
method which collects and store rainwater on a larger scale and made it available for masses
since ancient times. Stepwells were one such effective water management technologies used
in India. Stepwells were constructed based on their geographical and topographical
suitability, which revealed socio-cultural behaviors and beliefs. They form a unique, efficient

105
system of hydraulic engineering that demonstrates the region’s traditional understanding of
the sustainable use and management of its land, water, and agricultural biodiversity. Ancient
water harvesting techniques integrated stepwells into agricultural and irrigation networks
using prefabricated structures, to allow open channel flow, networked with surface water
bodies.

1. The Mandala of the Water World, Dr Uday

Dokras--https://www.academia.edu/91643818/The_Mandala_of_the_WATER_WOR
LD

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