Temple Architecture and Sculpture

Part I
Shikhara or Vimana of Hindu Temples
Dr. UDAY DOKRAS,

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur Uni. India

Certificat' en Droit, Queens University, Canada,
MBA(CALSTATE,USA)
PhD Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Consultant –HR and Admin. The Gorewada Zoo,Nagpur,India

NOTE: This is the first part of a series of articles that deal with the architecture of temples.
Pages 1 to 22 focus on introducing the temple architecture to the readers. Should you only
be interested in SHIKHARA or VIMANA please read directly from Page 23 onwards

VIMANA the flying chariots of Gods. Vimana Or Shikara is designed to represent these?

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In this mega-article, we shall discuss about the Indian temple architecture and sculpture in detail.
Basic form of a Hindu temple
Temple architecture have been a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave
temples to monolithic rathas which finally culminated in structural temples. Before we come to
the basic form of a Hindu structural temple we must consider the following architectural steps or
nuances:
Steps in Temple Construction 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and
soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then
the location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vaastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug,
water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled.
Then the temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again
involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are
placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the
place of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.

THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE Vastupurashamandala is the square

which represents the earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting
timelessness and infinity (see Fig. below). The mandala is actually a square divided
into smaller squares arranged in the form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the

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area of the respective Gods. The most commonly used mandala is the square
subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Figure-: The image of Vastupurushamandala with
64 blocks for different deities. See my detailed article on Vastupurushamandala on
academia.edu and researchgate.net

VINYASASUTRA (LAYOUT & ORIENTATION) of Ancient Temples: In Hindu

temple manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to
1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee
to sit and meditate on, do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second
design of 4 padas has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a
meditative layout. The 9 pada design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the
template for the smallest temple. Older Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9
through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu
temples. Figure-: Typical Temple Plan (a)Shrine alone (b)Shrine with porch (c)Shrine
with Antarala and porch. (d) Sarvatobhadra shrine with four entrances Figure-:
Typical Temple plan of temple : temple of Tanjavur

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 Tanjavar layout plan above

The temple architecture portrays the advancement of ancient Indian building sciences.
The styles, design and geometry, structural system and construction materials and
technology of the Indian temples, their distinctive architectural styles of Hindu temples
are all a ancient science emulated temple after temple. It also focus on geometric
excellence of the layout plans of the ancient temples. The balance, hierarchy, regulation
and symmetry like architectural concepts was well developed in ancient India before
thousand of years.

Tanjavar
1. Garbhagriha:

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  It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.

 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.

 Later it grew into a larger complex.

 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of

much ritual attention.

2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.

 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that

incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.

 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.

 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,

Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.

3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.

 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

4. Amalaka:

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  It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North

Indian temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall

(mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

8. Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar

or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as
 Nagara (in North India)

 Dravida (in South India)

 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing

of Nagara and Dravida orders.

Sculptures, Iconography, and Ornamentation
 Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities.

 It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated

with them.
 Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for

centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
 Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional

variations in iconography.
 The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental

part of its conception.

 The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses

(Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara

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 temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida
temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and
Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them.
 Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the

sanctum.
 The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the

sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.

 Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of

the main deity.

 The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,

kalasha, etc.
The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture
 Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in Northern India.

 It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to

it.
 Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.

 Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods, multiple

shikharas came.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.

Nagara temples can be subdivided mainly into three – based on the shikhara type.
1. Latina/ Rekha-Prasada:

 It is the simple and most common type of shikhara.

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  It is square at the base and the walls curve or slopes inwards to a point on top.

 Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.

 Later on, the Latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower,

the temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together like
rising mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which
was always above the garbhagriha.
2. Phamsana type shikhara:

 They are broader and shorter than Latina type.

 Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre

of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising towers.
 Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upward on a straight incline.

 In many north Indian temples, the phamsana type is used for mandapas while the main

garbhagriha is housed in a Latina building.

3. Valabhi type shikhara:

 These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.

 The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would

have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.

 The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in

existence.
We can also classify the Nagara Temples on the basis of region as follows:
Central India

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  In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large

complex.
 This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of

both the religions.

 Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of

Vidisha (it is a part of a large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which
was a Buddhist site.
 The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small

mandapa before an equally small room that served as garbhagriha.

 Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.

 The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is

that they are made of Sandstone.

1. DASHAVATARA VISHNU TEMPLE, DEOGARH, UP:
 Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are unknown, it is believed that this

temple was built in the early 6 th century CE.

 This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.

 This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture. [Panchayatana is an

architectural style where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four
smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total of five shrines – i.e.,
Pancha]
 There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.

 In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally

dedicated.
 The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which it was assumed that the four

subsidiary shrines must also house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dashavatara temple.
 The grand doorway of the west facing temple (west facing is less common) has the

sculptures of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right side.

 The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which makes it clear that this is an early example

of a classical nagara style of the temple.

 Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)

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  Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)

 Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of achieving moksha , symbolically

communicated by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had taken the form of an
elephant)
 The temple is west facing, which is less common, as most of the temples are east or north

facing.
2. TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO, MADHYA PRADESH:
 The temples at Khajuraho were made in the 10th century, about 400 years after the temple

at Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.

 We can see how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had

developed.
 The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.

 The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to

king Ganda.
 The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.

 All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion,

emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an
Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a vase.
 The crowning element Kalasha and Amalaka are to be found on all nagara temples of this

period.
 The Khajuraho temples are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10%

of total sculptures); the erotic expression gives equal importance in human experience as
a spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
 Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures)

sculptures, considered auspicious.

 Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with typical features.

 There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them dedicated to Hindu gods.

 There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple.

 Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or

goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the 7th

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  [Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP Kalaparishad and is one week long (first

week of February) festival of classical dances celebrated annually against the

spectacular backdrop of Khajuraho]
West India
 There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of India, including Gujarat and

Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.

 The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.

 While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the

10th to 12th-century temple sculptures.

 The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen

in some of the 10th to 12th-century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century
temple at Ranatpur.
 Among the most important art, historical sites in the region are Samlaji in Gujarat.

 It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and

gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.

 A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region.

1. SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA, GUJARAT:

 The temple dates back to the early 11th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of

the Solanki dynasty.

 The Solanks were a branch off later Chalukyas.

 There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called Surya Kund in front of it.

 The hundred square metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.

A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank. A huge
ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all
sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central India temples.
East India
 East Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each

of these three areas produces a distinct type of temple.

 The history of architecture in the northeast and Bengal is hard to study because a number

of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now is later
brick or concrete temples at those sites.

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MODHERA TEMPLE

 It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction.

 A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, which shows the

development of important regional schools in those regions.

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ASSAM:
 An old 6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few

stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the
import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
 The post-Gupta style continued in the region well in the 10 th

 However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.

 The style that came with the migration of the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the

dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as
the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
 Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was built in the

17th century.
BENGAL:
 The style of sculptures during the period between the 9th and 11th centuries in Bengal

(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at that time.
 That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named after the Sena kings.

 While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist monastic sites, the temple of the

region is known to express the Vanga style.

 The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B, built in the 9th century, shows a

tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka, is an example of early Pala style.
 Many of the temples from 9th to 12th centuries were located at Telkupi in Puruta district,

W.B.
 They were submerged when dams were constructed in the region.

 The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal Sultanate

buildings at Gaur and Pandya.

 Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of the

temple in that region.

 The most prominent of these was the shape of the sloping or curving side of the

bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.

 This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as across

India as the Bangla Roof (word Bungalow derived from this).

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ODISHA (KALINGIA ARCHITECTURE):
The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders:
A. REKHAPIDA/ REKHA DEULA/ RATHAKA DEULA:

Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the
garbhagriha.
B. PIDHADEULA:

It is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof and is mainly found

for housing the outer dancing and offering halls.
C. KHAKRADEULA:

It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof. Temples of

the female deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha usually) and will have a resemblance
with Dravidian temples of the south.
 Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district,

including Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.

 The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order.

 In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is vertical almost until

the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.

 Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas.

 The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches

of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning

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  The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.

 Odisha temples usually have outer walls.

1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:

 It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.

 The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental

carving.
 These include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing

the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
 The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.

 On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.

 It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the three

temple walls, each facing different directions.

 The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun

would enter the garbhagriha.

2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:
 It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha.

 The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram)

pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime.

 When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of

Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or

nineteen years by using sacred trees.
 The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12 th century by King Anatavarman

Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.

 The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival.

The Hills
 A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and

Kashmir.
 Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier)

left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.

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  This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from

Sarnath, Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.

 Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.

 The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a

result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type,
the mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.
 Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.

 The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.

 The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir,

Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.

The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture
 Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.

 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/

Gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).

 The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving

shikhara of north India.

 In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the

temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is
equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

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  In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river

goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple
architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas
or door keepers guarding the temple.
 A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south

Indian temples.
 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a

distinct, separate small shrine beside the main temple.

 The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in

Dravida style.
 At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the

garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.

 This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple.

 When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it

would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and
also associated structures).
 An example for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as

seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.

 The outermost is the oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is

the oldest.
 Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions.

These are basically of five different shapes:

1. Kuta or caturasra – square
2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic
4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal
PALLAVAS:
 The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhra

region from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.
 Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments.

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  Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the

reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of the
Deccan.
 The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural

(structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).
 The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I, contemporary of

Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.

 Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around 640

CE.
 He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at

Mahabalipuram which is known after him as Mamallapuram.

THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU
 It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also

known as Rajasimha.
 The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva

and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).

 This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas

of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and
different shrine may be added at different times.
 In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram,

and several other images.

 Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls.

 The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over

the centuries.
The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers and the
features of temples they constructed.
a. Mahendravarman Group:
 Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7 th century).

 They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture).

 g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.

b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group:

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  It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I

(Mamalla) came to the throne.

 The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.

 The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples.

 The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas.

c. Rajasimha Group:
 The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha.

 He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture.

 The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.

d. Nandivaram Group:
 Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava.

 They also represented structural temples.

 The temples were generally small compared to the other groups.

 The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.

Cholas
 The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.

 The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple.

 It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the largest and tallest of all

Indian temples.
 The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, topped by

a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight
centimetres in height.
 The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two

storeyed sanctum.
 Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.

The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture

 The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements

from nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as
the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).
 The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.

Chalukyas

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1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:
 The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which is

known for its distinct sculptural style.

 One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a large

depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.

2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples.

 Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty.

 It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is

constructed out of stone.

 The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his

residence for a short period.

3. Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is built in between 7th and 8th century.

 The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain

areas.
 The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period.

 The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.

4. Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:

 There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCO

world Heritage Site.

 A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.

 Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain

temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravida
styles.
 The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9 th

 The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad,

was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).
 It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the

Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
 It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation.

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  It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.

Rashtrakutas
 By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by the

Rashtrakutas.
 Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.

 The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.

Hoyasalas
 With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into

prominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
 The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and
Somanathpuram.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex

with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square
temple so that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star.
 As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan.

 They are usually made out of soapstone.

Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:

 The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.

 Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.

 Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate

music and dance.

 In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of

elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.
Vijayanagara
 The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14th century, attracted a number of

international travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo
Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have left
vivid accounts of the city.
 Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecture

with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.

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  Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals,

occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments
The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples
but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.
Buddhist Architecture
 When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and

Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst

numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
 In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.

 The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire

by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.

 Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture

along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.

BODHGAYA, BIHAR:
 Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and

became Gautama Buddha.

 The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that

time.
 The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been

constructed by King Ashoka.

 The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.

 Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.

 The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction

of the old 7th

 The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.

NALANDA, BIHAR:
 The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several

monasteries of various sizes.

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  Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most

of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost

impossible.
 Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan

Tsang (Chinese traveller).

 It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the

5th century CE.

 All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.

 Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka,

Thailand, Burma, etc.

 Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated

manuscripts to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the
Buddhist countries in Asia.
 The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist

Gupta art of Sarnath.

 The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.

 By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by

distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
 The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such

as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.

 During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the

sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as

Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.
 Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.

Jain Architecture
 Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and

pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.

 The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.

 In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at

Ellora and Aihole.

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  Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous

statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the

Ganga Kings of Mysore.

 Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.

 The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal

Shah.
 One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble

 The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs

along the domed ceiling.

Introduction to the SHIKARA: During the Gupta Empire, when Buddhist practices
began to fuse with the surviving Vedic practices of pre-Buddhist times, Which lead to
new and well- organized religion that we now call Hinduism. The Gupta revival of a
transformed Vedic Hinduism was a skillful exercise in adaptation and invention.
Vedic institutions were reinvented to serve the purposes of their new champions. Old
fire sacrifices were transformed into courtly ritual, oral Vedic literatures were
rewritten to integrate contemporary social and cultural norms. Vedic gods were
supplanted by new, more agential and personal gods— particularly Shiva and Vishnu.

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Sanskrit became the language of the court and the medium of an official high culture
that revolved around the reinvented institution of the temple. Though the new
Hinduism challenged Buddhism theologically, the latter’s institutions and practices
were assimilated into the Hindu temple. Buddhist practices were not prohibitedin fact,
their institutions continued to thrive. By this time, the Buddhists were themselves
routinely making stone images of the Buddha.

To start with in Hindu worship, the antarala (doorway or threshold) between the
garbha - griha and a mandapa marks the all- important moment of transition at which
the worshipper and the deity come into direct visual contact and enact the critical
transaction called darshana (“beholding of an auspicious deity”). A sanctum inside the
Hoysaleshwara templein Halebidu the whole temple can be considered a two-way
portal between the worlds of the worshipper and the deity. In essence, the deity
descends into the lingam or statue while the worshipper ascends to the sacred
threshold. The deity is considered to be a guest in the world of the worshipper.

The Hindu temple Temple Architecture of architecture developed over two thousand
India years. It is said thatbthe architectural evolution of the indian temples took place
within the rigid frameworks derived entirely from religious thoughtfulness. Therefore
the architect was bound to keep to the ancient primary dimensions and strict
configurations, which remained unaltered over the period of time.

The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the
early wood, timber and thatch buildings.It had persisted for centuries in one form or
another in the stone structures even though the original purpose and context was lost.
This can be studied from the horseshoe shaped window. The origin of this type of
window can be traced from the chaitya arch doorway first at the Lomash Rishi cave in
the Barabar Hills used in the 3rd century BC.It was transformed later into a dormer

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window known as a gavaksha and eventually it was used strictly as the decorative
design of interlaced forms seen on the towers of medieval temples.

The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and
decoration of the temples. This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural
elements, sculptural forms and decorative ebullience that is the characteristic feature
of Indian temple architecture has few analogues in the aesthetic manifestation of the
whole world.

The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the
south India was the result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical
and linguistic differences resulted, from early on, in.The Vastu Shastras, the ancient
canonical texts on architecture, classify temples into three different orders: the Nagara
or the Indo-Aryan or Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara
or Mixed style of temple architecture.There are also definite regional styles in
peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.

In the early years, when the temple building had just begun, the shape of their
superstructures can distinguish the two styles. The most significant difference
between the later northern and southern styles are the gateways. The shikhara in the
north Indian temples remained the most prominent component of the temple and the
gateway was ordinarily unassuming. In the south Indian temples, the enclosure walls
were built around the whole complex.• Elaborate and often magnificent gateways
called gopurams were ideally set along the east-west and north-south axes of these
walls, which led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. Less obvious differences
between the two main temple types include the ground plan; the selection and
positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range
of decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost obscure the
underlying architecture.

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Parts of a Hindu temple:

Examples The best examples of the north Indian style of temple architecture are the
Khajuraho Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark, Surya temple, Modhera, Gujarat
and Ossian temple, Ossian, Gujarat.

The finest examples of Dravidian style are temples of Tanjore, Madurai,

Mahabalipuram, Badami, Pattadakal and Kanchipuram.

Sikhara”refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidal and tapering

representing the mythological “Meru” or the highest mountain peak. The shikhara
marks the vertical axis in the form of the cosmic mountain. Its purpose is to enable the
worshipper to visualize the order of the complete universe as described by Hindu
cosmogony. A shikhara, therefore, is a three- dimensional model of the Hindu
cosmos. All temples culminate in a finial, the conceptual center of the structure. From
there, the “cosmos” splays outward, cascading down the building along radial lines.

Shikhara ( Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the
rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain
temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is
the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole
building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of

27
the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with
the northern form. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-
towers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent
features in large temples.

The vertical axis: the mountain as a link between the upper and lower worlds The
axis of access Sikhara or tower. Shikharas conceived of as solid and are for the most
part, even though for structural reasons some may have internal hollows. The actual
geometries of the shikhara are determined by its mandala, or astrological diagram.
They can best be understood ood, as Adam Hardy has recently described, as complex
assemblages of mini-temples, or aediculae, intended to depict the composite nature of
the Hindu cosmos.

During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hindu architecture in South Asia entered an
experimental phase, and rock-cut temples competed for prominence with the new
structural-stone and brick temples. The plethora of styles and approaches was a
product of the numerous kingdoms, that of Harshavardhana (606– 47 CE ) in the
north, and, moving southward, the Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the
Pandyas. An interesting comparison can be made between two 6th-century Gupta
period temples: the Shiva shrine on Elephanta Island, a rock-cut structure built by
Shaivite monks for their own use, and the Dasavatara Vishnu Temple at Deogarh, a
brick-and-stone structure built for a large devotee population.

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Deogarh is a new invention a shrine constructed with rock to appear as if it is monolithic
(i.e., rock-cut). The Deogarh has a representational mountain as its shikhara, begin with a
square garbha-griha. Deogarh would have had originally held an image of Vishnu,
Deogarh is accessible only from the west (the direction of Vishnu) and has three implied
doors (ghana-dwaras, literally “blind doors”) along its remaining cardinal directions.
Deogarh’s main shrine is at the center of a nine-square mandala, with four subsidiary
shrines interlocked at its corners.

In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and
also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic
feature of the Hindu temple in the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1)
the latina, curvilinear in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2)

29
the phamsana, rectilinear in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually
found above the mandapa.

The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding
toward the top and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the
temple. The surface of the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of
diminutive chandrashalas

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(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large
grooved disk (amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is
indicated by miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top.

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The latina shikhara has two further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija.
The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with one or more rows of half spires added on
either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and corners. The shekhari was
popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian temples;
the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have excellent
examples.

The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the
quadrants between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the
tower. The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya
Pradesh, and in the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur,
Madhya Pradesh.

According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped
crowning cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires,
north and south. The South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape
from the North Indian shikhara, having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story
(bhumi) stepped and relatively realistically delineated. The other forms of the Shikara are :

Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be
more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.

Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top,
creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall
shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West
India.

The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear, but the Buddhist Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with
an amalaka near the top. The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th

32
century CE. When the temple acquired its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic
of Hindu temples, is uncertain.

However the current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple may represent a restoration of earlier
work of the 2nd or 3rd century CE. A plaque from Kumrahar dated 150-200 CE, based on its
dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the
Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a stupa finial on
top, together with devotional images of the Buddha and the elephant-crowned Pillar of
Ashoka next to the entrance. It is thought that this shape of a truncated pyramid was derived
from the design of the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara, as seen in the stupas
of Jaulian, with an elongated structure formed of a succession of steps with niches containing
Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and topped by a stupa.

By at least 600 CE in Odisha, and perhaps somewhat later in the Deccan Plateau and West
India, the Latina form of the shikhara is well-established, with an amalaka disk-stone at the top,
and then a kalasha urn. There is often a sukanasa feature over the entrance door.

The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th century, and from then on tend to
predominate. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the
century, though Latina ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana
Temple. The bhumija spire probably first appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun

in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath

Homogeneous Shikhara (but with rathas) of the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar

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Shikharas form an element in the many styles of Hindu temple architecture, of which the three
most common are:

 the Nagara style prevalent in northern India. The shikhara is a high curved shape, and so
called. In the north-east, the local term deul or deula is more often used, both for towers and
often the whole temple. In Odisha a Rekha Deula is the sanctum and the tower over
it; gandi is also a term for the upper tower only, equating to shikhara. In Odisha the curve is
very slight until the top, and the amalaka rather large, typically supported by four lion
sculptures facing out.[20] Of the many temples in Bhubaneswar, only the Rajarani Temple has
significant spirelets.
 the Vesara style, a synthesis of the two others, seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly
in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. In the vesara style, the tower moves towards a lower
conical shape, with highly ornate carving.
 the Dravidian style prevalent in southern India : The equivalent of the shikhara is the vimana.
The superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall
shape, consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is
normally straight rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.

In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings,
or water-pot, at its peak.

Mini Shikhara the Indian temple 'orders Indo-Aryan (north)Sculpture on a mass scale
has these repeating themselves Dravida (south) 2 types making up little structural
inventiveness or technical ingenuity. These structure of massive blocks one on top of the
other ensured stability without using mortar Fine appreciation of mass & value & effects
of shadow to a marked degree can be seen here. Sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a
sloping curve as they rise • have decorative arches known as gavakshas and are topped by
an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial • walls of Nagara
temples present a complex exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each side which
create many recesses.

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Another name for the Shikhara is Vimana which is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner
sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of
Odisha using the Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as
it is in the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian
temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most
immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as
a pyramid, consisting of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati
vimanas that have up to four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.

In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called
a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a dome-
shaped crowning cap above the vimana.

A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main
entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is
believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall.
This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum
and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do
not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples
where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple complex itself.

The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This
shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size
when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth
century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory
even today.
The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example
where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and
identity.

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Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana,[4] the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his
consort, Meenakshi.
The vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated
height. This form is not very common.
The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is
a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra.
The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.

VIMANA

36
37
FLYING TEMPLE or VIMANA

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