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MODULE 1 1. Radiant heaters which heat rooms

BASICS OF ELECTRICITY 2. Current protection fuses and MCB’s which cut off the
supply when overcurrent flows.
ELECTRICITY
It is the presence of electric flow and charge. Its 2. Magnetic Effect
best-known form is the flow of electrons through conductors  Whenever a current flows in a conductor a magnetic
such as copper wires, thereby producing light energy, heat field is set up around the conductor like an extension of
energy, motion, force, etc…and many other uses. the insulator -more about this layer.
 Increasing the current increases the magnetic field.
ELECTRICAL THEORY  Switching the current off causes the magnetic field to
 All matter is made up of atoms. collapse.
 All atoms are made up of a central positively charged  Practical Application of the Magnetic Effect are:
nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons 1.Electric motors which rotate because of the
 The electrical properties of materials depends largely magnetic flux generated by the electrical supply.
upon how tightly these electrons are bound to the 2. door chimes and buzzers which ‘dingdong’ or buzz
nucleus. because of the magnetic flux generated by the
 A conductor is a material in which the electrons are electrical supply.
loosely bound to the central nucleus and, in fact, can be
easily become free electrons drift around randomly 3. Chemical Effect
inside a conductor  When an electric current flows through a conducting
 Good conductors are gold, silver, copper, aluminum, liquid, the liquid separates into its chemical parts, a
brass, etc.. process called ‘Electrolysis’.
 An insulator is a material in which the electrons are very  Alternatively, if two metals are placed in a conducting
tightly Or strongly bound to the central nucleus. liquid they react chemically and produce a voltage.
 Good insulators are pvc, rubber, glass, wood, porcelain,  Practical Applications of the chemical effect are:
etc… 1. Industrial processes such as electroplating which
is used to siver plate sports trophies and cutlery.
ELECTRON FLOW OR ELECTRIC CURRENT 2. Motor car batteries which store electrical energy.
 If battery is attached to a “good conductors” material,
the free electrons drift towards the positive terminal. In Electrical Engineering, there are basically two
 The drift of electrons within a conductor is what we types of voltage or current (Electrical Energy) source which
know as an electric current flow defines the kind of circuit and they are; Alternating Current
 Current flow is given the symbol I and is measured in (or voltage) and Direct Current.
amperes.
AC Circuits
ELECTRICAL CABLES AC circuits as the name (Alternating Current) implies
Electrical cables are used to carry electric currents. are simply circuits powered by an Alternating Source, either
Most cables are constructed in three parts; voltage or current. An Alternating Current or Voltage, is one
in which the value of either the voltage or the current varies
1. The conductor, that carries the current and may have a about a particular mean value and reverses direction
stranded or solid core. periodically.

DC Circuits
In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current)
only flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating
current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction
2. The insulation, that contains the current and is colour periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically
coded for identification. reverses because the current changes direction.
3.The outer sheath that may contain some means of
providing protection from mechanical damage.

THREE EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. Heating Effect
 The electrons moving in the conductor causes to heat
up.
 The amount of heat generated depends upon the:
1.Amount of current flowing
2.Dimensions of the conductor
3.Type of conductor material used
 Practical applications of the heating effect of an electric
current are:
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Alternating Current Vs. Direct Current Graph of AC voltage over time (the sine wave).
Alternating Direct Current In the voltage plot from an electromechanical
Current alternator, the change from one polarity to the other is a
smooth one, the voltage level changing most rapidly at the
Amount of Safe to transferVoltage of DC zero (“crossover”) point and most slowly at its peak. If we
energy that can over longer citycannot travel were to graph the trigonometric function of “sine” over a
be carried. distances andvery far until it horizontal range of 0 to 360 degrees, we would find the exact
same pattern as in the Table below. Trigonometric “sine”
can provide
begins to lose
function.
more power. energy.
Sin Sin
Cause of the Rotating magnet Steady Angle Wav Angl Wav
(angl (angl
direction of flow along the wire. magnetism (°) e e (°) e
e) e)
of electrons. along the wire.
Frequency The frequency of The frequency 0.000 0.000
0 zero 180 zero
alternating of direct current 0 0
current is 50 Hz is zero.
or 60 Hz -
0.258
defending upon 15 + 195 0.258 -
8
the country. 8
Direction Its reverses its It flows in one
-
direction while direction in the 0.500
30 + 210 0.500 -
flowing in the circuit. 0
0
circuit.
Current It is the current It is the current -
0.707
of magnitude of constant 45 + 225 0.707 -
1
varying with magnitude. 1
time.
Flow of Electrons keep Electrons move -
6 0.866
electrons switching steadily in one + 240 0.866 -
0 0
0
directions – direction or
forward and ‘forward’.
-
backward. 0.965
75 + 255 0.965 -
Obtained from A.C Generators Cell or Battery. 9
9
and mains
Passive Impedance Resistance only. -
1.000 +pea -
Parameters 90 270 1.000
0 k peak
Power Factor Lies between 0 & It is always 1. 0
1
Types Sinusoidal, Pure & -
0.965
105 + 285 0.965 -
trapezoidal, pulsating. 9
9
square
-
AC WAVEFORMS 0.866
120 + 300 0.866 -
When an alternator 0
produces AC voltage, the voltage
0
switches polarity over time, but
does so in a very particular -
0.707
manner. When graphed over 135 + 315 0.707 -
time, the “wave” traced by this 1
1
voltage of alternating polarity from an alternator takes on a
distinct shape, known as a sine wave:

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- MODULE 2
0.500 THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
150 + 330 0.500 -
0
0 Electric circuit theory
one of the most vital aspects of electrical
- engineering. Understanding how components work
0.258
165 + 345 0.258 - individually and collectively is the basis for designing,
8 manufacturing, and troubleshooting all kinds of electronic
8
devices and systems. This module will cover the basic circuit
components, laws, and parameters in electrical & electronics
0.000 0.000 engineering.
180 zero 360 zero
0 0
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
In the simplest terms, an electric circuit is a pathway
What is FREQUENCY as defined in Electrical Engineering? for an electric current to flow from one point to another.
From a high level, every circuit has three basic components:
Frequency refers to the number of occurrences of a Voltage source
repeating event taking place per unit of time. This number of Conductive path
occurrences is certainly an essential property of a wave. The A Load
waves surround people every day. Furthermore, light
happens to be an electromagnetic wave and the sound of the
fan is a sound wave. A wave is certainly a vibration and
carries energy with it. Most noteworthy, the number of
waves passing by each second refers to the frequency of the VOLTAGE SOURCE I – Current, amperes
wave. Moreover, its measurement takes place in Hertz (Hz). A voltage source introduces energy into a circuit via
a potential difference between its positive (+) and
Frequency is the inverse of time for repeating events. negative (–) terminals. Voltage sources can be AC or DC–the
If a single cycle of your mains is 1/50 of a second in duration main difference being how the current flows. AC sources
(0.02 seconds), then there will be 50 cycles in a second (1 / produce voltages that vary sinusoidally, i.e. the current
0.02). We say the frequency is 50 Hz. reverses direction periodically.
Examples are power from the grid or generators. On
The unit for frequency is the Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is equal the other hand, DC sources produce current that flows in one
to 1 cycle per second, an older name for it (cps). It's a direction. Batteries are a source of DC voltage.
convenient unit, even for very short cycles we use, with a
prefix: MHz, GHz. For longer cycles (near or longer than 1 Hz) CONDUCTIVE PATH
we sometimes use the minute as unit: a heart rate of 70 A conductive path (aka a conductor) provides a
beats per minute (BPM), a metronome setting of 100 BPM. medium for current flow through a circuit. These
components have a very low resistance to current, e.g.,
Frequency Formula copper wires, lead solder, or metallic traces on a printed
The SI unit which is hertz was named after Heinrich circuit board (PCB). Conductors also help link other
Rudolf. Furthermore, 1 hz refers to one cycle per second. components together to achieve a single function.

Frequency = 1/period = number of cycles/time LOAD

A load is any device that consumes power in a circuit.
f = 1/T = N/t It can be anything from a light-emitting diode (LED) to a
T = period, the time which is required for one cycle motor or siren. During a short circuit, the load is the
N = a particular number of cycles conductor itself which generates heat, dissipating electric
t = a particular amount of time power.

OTHER FORMS OF ALTERNATING WAVES Electric Circuit Analysis: TYPES OF COMPONENTS

While electromechanical alternators and many other An electronic component is an element within an
physical phenomena naturally produce sine waves, this is not electronic circuit that affects the flow of current or
the only kind of alternating wave in existence. Other electromagnetic fields. Many modern circuits comprise
“waveforms” of AC are commonly produced within electronic passive, active, and electromechanical components.
circuitry. Here are but a few sample waveforms and their
common designations in the figure below.  Passive components are elements that consume
electric power without introducing any net energy into a
circuit. Common examples are resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
 Active components control the flow of current in
electric circuits. These elements may amplify current,
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inject it into a circuit, or produce a power gain. According to Ohm’s Law, the resistance of a conductor is the
Transistors, thyristors, and triode vacuum tubes are all ratio of voltage (V) flowing across it to the current (I) flowing
active components. through it. Mathematically,
R = V/I where: V= voltage
I = current
R = resistance

INDUCTANCE, L
Inductance is the tendency for a magnetic field to be
induced in a conductor when an electric current flows
through it. The strength of this induced magnetic field is
proportional to the magnitude of the current. The unit of
 Electromechanical components are components that measurement for inductance is Henrys (H), named
utilize electric current or voltage in a circuit to perform a after Joseph Henry, the American scientist that discovered it.
mechanical function, e.g., DC motors or relays. In the
case of electromechanical solenoids, voltage is used to Inductors, aka chokes or coils, are simple passive
actuate a set of mechanical contacts by varying the components that can store up energy in magnetic form
inductance in its coil. when electric current flows through them. They consist of a
conductor wound into a coil which generates a magnetic field
in the opposite direction when an electric current is
applied.

We can calculate the inductance in an electric circuit

using the formula:

L = V/(di/dt) where:
L= inductance in Henry (H)
Current and voltage are the most essential V = voltage in volts, V
parameters of electric circuits. Similarly, resistance, di/dt= rate of change of current in A/s
inductance, and capacitance are vital attributes of electronic
components. CAPITANCE
Capacitance is the ability of a circuit element to
CURRENT store an electric charge when a potential difference exists
Electric current is the flow of electrons through a between its terminals. The unit of capacitance is the Farad,
circuit. The unit of measurement for current is Ampere (A). named after Michael Faraday, the scientist that discovered
As we discussed earlier, the current can be AC or DC. electromagnetic induction.

We can find the value of current flowing through a To determine the capacitance of a component in an electric
circuit using Ohm’s law which states that the current circuit, we can use the formula:
between any two points is proportional to the potential
difference between them. C=Q/V where:
C= capacitance, farad
VOLTAGE Q = charge, coulomb’s
Voltage (V) sometimes referred to as Electromotive V = potential difference, volts
force (E) is the potential difference between any two points
in an electric circuit. The unit of measurement is the Volt. ELECTRICAL POWER AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Like a current, the voltage can be AC or DC. Electrical power and electrical energy are
quantities equivalent to power and energy known
Voltage can also be derived from Ohm’s Law using from other technical and scientific fields, e.g., mechanics,
the formula ; physics, chemistry, etc. The only formal difference is that
electrical power and energy are related to electric circuits
I=V/R where: V= voltage and other electrical quantities. For example, the power P
I = current in a circuit with a steady voltage V and current I and
Iz R = resistance with application of Ohm's law can be simply
calculated as:
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the attribute of a component to resist P = V x I = I2 x R = V2 / R
the flow of electric current through a circuit. The unit of where:
measurement is Ohms (Greek symbol: Ω). P= watts, W
I = current, ampere, A
V = potential difference, volts, V
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MODULE 3 Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the
OHMS LAW values of V, I and R the formula for electrical power can be
found as:
The first, and perhaps most important, the
relationship between current, voltage, and resistance is
called Ohm’s Law, discovered by Georg Simon Ohm and
published in his 1827 paper. It states that the Current is
directly proportional with Voltage and inversely proportional
with the Resistance. [ P = V x I ] P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)

Also:
[ P = V2 ÷ R ] P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

Also:
[ P = I2 x R ] P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)

Voltage, Current, and Resistance Resistors in Series

A series generally means connected along a line, or
An electric circuit is formed when a conductive path in a row, or in an order. In electronics, series resistance
is created to allow electric charge to continuously move. This means that the resistors are connected one after the other
continuous movement of electric charge through the and that there is only one path for current to flow.
conductors of a circuit is called a current. The unit of current
is expressed in amperes or simply A.

The force motivating charge carriers to “flow” in a

circuit is called voltage. Voltage is a specific measure of
potential energy that is always relative between two points.
It expressed in volts, or simply v or V.
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + ….. + Rn
Current tends to move through the conductors with It = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 = ………….. = In
some degree of friction, or opposition to motion. This Vt = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + …….+ Vn
opposition to motion is more properly called resistance (R). It
is expressed in Ohms and abbreviated (Ω) The amount of Resistors in Parallel
current in a circuit depends on the amount of voltage and the There are many different ways to organize a parallel
amount of resistance in the circuit to oppose current flow. circuit. In the practical word, most of the wiring is done in
parallel so that the voltage to any one part of the network is
Ohm's law formula: the same as the voltage supplied to any part of it.
I=V/R

The resistor's current I in amps (A) is equal to the

resistor's voltage V in volts (V) divided by the resistance R in
ohms (Ω): V is the voltage drop of the resistor, measured in
Volts (V). In some cases Ohm's law uses the letter E to
represent voltage. 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ……. + 1/Rn
It = I1 + I1 + I3 + I4 + I5 + …………… + In
Electrical Power in Circuits Vt = V1 = V2 = V3 = V4 = V5 = ……. = VN
Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which
energy is absorbed or produced within a circuit. A source Equivalent Resistance
of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power I/Rt = 1/ R1 + 1/R2
while the connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs and heaters 1/Rt = 1/4 + 1/4
for example, absorb electrical power and convert it into 1/Rt = ½
either heat, or light, or both. The higher their value or rating
in watts the more electrical power they are likely to consume.

The quantity symbol for power is P and is the

product of voltage multiplied by the current ( V x I ) with the
unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ).

Prefixes are used to denote the various multiples or

sub-multiples of a watt, such as: milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or
kilowatts (kW = 1000 W).
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Combinations of Series and Parallel Ex. What is the resistance of a copper wire 30 meters long
Combinations of series and parallel can be reduced with a diameter of 2.0 mm? (ρcu = 1.72 x 10-8 Ω.m)
to a single equivalent resistance using the technique
illustrated in Figure below. Various parts are identified as (1.72 × 10−8 Ω. m)(30m)
either series or parallel, reduced to their equivalents, and R=
π × (1.0 × 10−3 m)2
further reduced until a single resistance is left. The process is = 0.16 Ω
more time consuming than difficult.
Resistivity, electrical resistance of a conductor of
This combination of seven resistors has both series unit cross-sectional area and unit length at specified
and parallel parts. Each is identified and reduced to an temperature. Resistivity tells how resistive a material is. A
equivalent resistance, and these are further reduced until a characteristic property of each material. It is useful in
single equivalent resistance is reached. comparing various materials on the basis of their ability to
conduct electric currents. High resistivity designates poor
conductors. The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the
ohm⋅ metre (Ω⋅ m). It is commonly represented by the
Greek letter ρ, rho

It can be seen from the equation that the resistivity

of a material can be varied by changing a variety of different
parameters

MODULE 4 RESISTIVITY OF MATERIAL

RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS

defining resistivity, this Module will create an

understanding to the effect of resistance with respect to
change of temperature. Researchers have found likewise that
as you increase the temperature on a conductor, so as the
resistance. However, the length of conductor is a factor to
consider. It was also found out that the greater the area of
the conductor demonstrates an inverse relationship with the
conductor resistance.
Resistivity of materials - which is best
It can be seen that the resistivity of copper and the
resistivity of brass both low and in view of their cost, relative
to silver and gold, they become cost effective materials to
use for many wires. The resistivity of copper and its ease of
use mean that it is also used almost exclusively for the
Resistance Calculations. conductor material on printed circuit boards.
It is obvious to say that, an increase in length is
accompanied by an equivalent increase in the opposition to Aluminum occasionally and particularly copper are
current, which is to say that resistance is directly proportional used for their low levels of resistivity. Most wire used
to conductor length. Enlarging the cross area of the wire on these days for interconnections is made from copper as it
the other hand, has an inverse effect upon the resistance offers a low level of resistivity at an acceptable
because the number of free electrons per unit length cost.
increases with the area. Therefore, the resistance is inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area. The resistivity of gold is also important because gold
is used in some critical areas despite its cost. Often gold
Where: plating is found on high quality low current connectors where
it ensures the lowest contact resistance. The gold plating is
�
�=� very thin, but even so it is able to provide the required
� performance in the connectors.
R = resistance in ohms, Ω
Silver has a very low level of resistivity but it is not
L = length of conductor, m.
so widely used because of its cost and because it tarnishes
A = area of wire in m²
which this can result in higher contact resistances.
ρ = resistivity of a conductor, (Greek letter rho), Ω.m

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Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
The resistance and electrical resistivity of all
materials is affected by temperature. There are two main
reasons why the resistance of materials is dependent upon
temperature.

One affect results from the number of collisions that

occur between the charge carriers and atoms in the material.
As the temperature increases so do the number of collisions
and therefore it can be imagined that there will be a marginal
increase in resistance with temperature.

This may not always be the case because some

materials have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance. This can be caused by the fact that with increasing
temperature further charge carriers are released which will
result in a decrease in resistance with temperature. As might
be expected, this effect is often seen in semiconductor
materials.
Problem Solving:
When looking at the resistance temperature If a Silver wire conductor has a resistance of 8Ω at
dependence, it is normally assumed that the temperature 20 degree Celcius, what resistance will it have at 38 ᴼC?
coefficient of resistance follows a linear law. This is the case ( temperature of Silver α = 3.8 x 10-3ᴼC -1)
around room temperature and for metals and many other
materials Solution:
R38 = R20 [ 1 + α 20 ( T− T20 ) ]
= 8 Ω [ 1 + 3.8 x 10 -3(38ᴼ - 20ᴼ)]
= 8.54 Ω

The resistance of a conductor at any given

temperature can be calculated from a knowledge of the
temperature, its temperature coefficient of resistance, its
resistance at a standard temperature, and the temperature
of operation. The formula for this resistance temperature
dependence can be expressed in general terms as:

R = Rref [1 + α ( T – T ref ) ]

The temperature coefficient of resistance is

normally standardized in relation to a temperature of 20°C.
This temperature is typically taken to be normal "room
temperature." As a result the formula for the temperature
coefficient of resistance normally takes this into account:

R = R20 [ 1 + α 20 ( T− T20 ) ]
Where:
R = conductor resistance at temperature “ T “
Rref = conductor resistance at reference temperature Tref
usually 20 ᴼC.
α20 = temperature coefficient of resistance for conductor
conductor material.
T = conductor temperature in degrees Celsius.
Tref = reference temperature that ρ is specified at for the
conductor material.

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