Exercise

Q1, An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz has an RMS value
of 20 A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value and find this value (a) 0.0025
second (b) 0.0125 second after passing through a positive maximum value. At what time, measured
from a positive maximum value, will the instantaneous current be 14.14 A ?

Solution. Im = 20 2 = 28.2 A, = 2  50 = 100  rad/s. (I=imSinwt)

The equation of the sinusoidal current wave with reference to point O (Fig. 1) as zero time
point is i = 28.2 sin 100 t ampere
Since time values are given from point A
where voltage has positive and maximum value,
the equation may itself be referred to point A. In
the case, the equation becomes :
i = 28.2 cos 100 t
(i) When t = 0.0025 second
i = 28.2 cos 100  0.0025
...angle in radian
= 28.2 cos 100  180 
0.0025 ...angle in
degrees
= 28.2 cos 45º = 20 A ...point B
Fig. 1

(ii) When t = 0.0125 second

i = 28.2 cos 100  180  0.0125
= 28.2 cos 225º = 28.2  (−1/ 2)
= −20 A ...point C
(iii) Here i = 14.14 A

 14.14 = 28.2 cos 100  180 t  cos 100  180 t =

2
or 100  180 t = cos−1 (0.5) = 60º, t = 1/300 second ...point D

Question 2:Calculate the r.m.s. value, the fo

rm factor and peak factor of a periodic voltage having the following values for equal time intervals
changing suddenly from one value to the next : 0, 5, 10, 20, 50, 60, 50, 20, 10, 5, 0, −5, −10 V etc. What would be
the r.m.s value of sine wave having the same peak value ?
Solution. The waveform of the alternating voltage shown in Fig. 11.19. Obviously, it is not sinusoidal but it is
symmetrical. Hence, though r.m.s value may be full one cycle, the average value has necessarily to be considered for
half-cycle only, otherwise the symmetrical negative and positive half-cycles will cancel each
466 Electrical Technology
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 0  5  10  20  50  60  50  20  10  5
Mean value of v = = 965 V

 r.m.s. value = 965 = 31 V (approx.)

0  5  10  20  50  60  50  20  10  5
Average value (half-cycle) = = 23 V

Form factor =
average = = 1.35.
23

Peak factor = 60/31 = 2 (approx.)

R.M.S. value of a sine wave of
the same peak value = 0.707 60
= 42.2 V.
Q3. Calculate the reading which will be given by a hot-wire voltmeter if it is
connected across the terminals of a generator whose voltage waveform is represented
by
 = 200 sin t + 100 sin 3t + 50 sin 5t
Solution. Since hot-wire voltmeter reads only r.m.s value, we will have to find the r.m.s. value of
the given voltage. Considering one complete cycle,
2
R.M.S. value V = v d where  = t
0
2
or V2 = 2 (200 sin  + 100 sin 3 + 50 sin 5)2 d
0
2
= 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
(200 sin  + 100 sin 3 + 50 sin 5
0
+ 2  200.100 sin . sin 3 + 2  100.50. sin 3. sin 5
+ 2  50.200.sin 5 .sin ) d

 1 2002  1002  502  = 26,250

 
 V = 26, 250 = 162 V
Alternative Solution
The r.m.s. value of individual components are (200/ 2 ), (100/ 2 ) and (50/ 2 ). Hence, as
stated in Art. 11.16,
2 2 2 2
V= V  V2  V3 = (200/ 2)  (100/ 2)  (50/ 2 ) = 162 V

Another Example .
 As said earlier, for finding r.m.s. value of such an al-
ternating current, summation would be carried over the
period for which current actually flows i.e. from 0 to ,
though it would be averaged for the whole cycle i.e. from 0
to 2.
 R.M.S. current
2
 i d 
 2
I = sin 2  d
 0 2   2 0 
2 Fig. 11.20
= (1 − cos 2)d
4 0

sin 2
 2  
m
=  m
−  =    4   I = = 0.5Im
 0  4  2

Av e r a g e Va lue of above-waveform
For the same reasons as given in Art. 11.20, integration would be carried over from 0 −

id   m  sin  d
 Iav = ( ä i = Im sin )
0 0

= 2 2
− cos  0  2
  

Q4 An alternating voltage e = 200 sin 314t is applied to a device which offers an ohmic
resistance of 20  to the flow of current in one direction, while preventing the flow of current in
opposite direction. Calculate RMS value, average value and form factor for the current over one
cycle. )
Solution. Comparing the given voltage equation with the standard form of alternating voltage
equation, we find that Vm = 200 V, R = 20 , Im = 200/20 = 10 A. For such a half-wave rectified
current, RMS value = Im/2 = 10/2 = 5A.
Average current = Im/ = 10/ = 3.18 A ; Form factor = 5/3.18 = 1.57
Q5 Compute the average and effective values of the square voltage wave shown in Fig. 11.21.
Solution. As seen, for 0 < t < 0.1 i.e. for the time inter-
val 0 to 0.1 second, v = 20 V. Similarly, for 0.1 < t < 0.3,
v = 0. Also time-period of the voltage wave is 0.3 second.
T 0.1
1
 Vav =  v dt 
0.3  20 dt
Fig. 11.21
= (20  0.1) = 6.67 V
0.3
T
V2 = 1
2 0.1

0.3 
v dt = 2
20 dt  (400  0.1) = 133.3; V = 11.5 V
0 0.3
 Calculate the RMS value of the function shown
−100t
in Fig. 11.22 if it is given that for 0 < t < 0.1, y = 10(1 −e ) and
−50(t −0.1)
0.1 < t < 0.2, y = 10 e
Solution.
0.1 0.2
Y2 = 1
2 2
y dt  y dt
0 0.1
0.1 0.2
= 1
2 −100t 2 −50(t − 0.1) 2 Fig. 11.22
10 (1 − e ) dt  (10e ) dt
0 0.1
0.1 0.2
= 1
− 200t −100t −100(t −0.1)
100 (1 + e − 2e )dt  100 e dt
0 0.1

−100t  0.1 −100(t −0.1)  0.2

= 500 t − 0.005e   − 0.0 e
−200t
 0.02 e
0 0.1

= 500
 
0.1 − 0.0 05e
−20
 0.02e
−10
 − 0 − 0.005  0.02   − 0.01e  −  −0.01 −10

= 500  0.095 = 47.5  Y = 47.5 = 6.9

What is the significance of the r.m.s and average values of a wave ? Determine the r.m.s. and
average value of the waveform shown in Fig. 11.25

Solution. The slope of the curve AB is BC/AC = 20/T.

Next, consider the function y at any time t. It is seen that
DE/AE = BC/AC = 10/T
or (y −10)/t = 10/T
or y = 10 + (10/T)t
This gives us the equation for the function for one cycle.

Yav =
1

T
y dt 
1

T
10 10 t dt T
Fig. 11.25

1 10.dt  10 . t. dt   1 10t  5t
=
 0
 15

 10 t dt
T T 2
Mean square value = 1 10

2
y dt 
T
T 3 2
= 1 100  100 t 2  200 t  dt = 1 100t  100t  100t  700
0  T  0

or RMS value = 10 7/3 = 15.2

For the trapezoidal current wave-form of Fig.
11.26, determine the effective value.
(
Solution. For 0 < t < 3T/20, equation of the
current can be found from the relation
Fig. 11.26
 20I m
 or i = .t
t 3 / 20
When 3T/20 < t < 7T/20, equation of the current is given by i = I . Keeping in mind the fact that
OAB is identical with CDE,

RMS value of current = 1 2 3T/20

2
i dt 
7T/20
I dt
2 
0 3T/20

 2
3T/20 7T/20 
= 2  t dt I dt I
0 3T/20

 I = (3/5).I m = 0.775 Im
Incidentally, the average value is given by
3T/20 7T/20 3T/20 7T/20
I 2 idt I dt 2  tdt I dt 
0 3T/20 0 3T/20

3T/ 20
2   20I m  t 2 7T/ 20  7
=  Im 10 m
T   3T  2 0
3T/ 20


. Find the form-factor of the wave form given in fig.

 Solution.
Form-factor =
Average value
Average value of the current
= 1/4 
 (50/4)  t  dt = 25 amp
0
Let RMS value of the current be I amp


I2 4 = (12.5  t)2.dt
Fig. 11.27
0

2
12.5  12.5  t
= = (1/3)  (12.5  12.5  4  4  4)
 0

Thus I = 50 = 28.87 amp, Hence, form factor 28.87 = 1.1548

3
Example 11.17. A half-wave rectifier which prevents current flowing in one direction is con-
nected in series with an a.c. ammeter and a permanent-magnet moving-coil ammeter. The supply is
sinusoidal. The reading on the a.c. ammeter is 10 A. Find the reading given by the other ammeter.
What should be the readings on the ammeters, if the other half-wave were rectified instead of being
cut off ?
Solution. It should be noted that an a.c. ammeter reads r.m.s. value whereas the d.c. ammeter
reads the average value of the rectified current.
As shown in Art. 11.20 from H.W. rectified alternating current, I = Im/2 and Iav = Im /
As a.c. ammeter reads 10 A, hence r.m.s. value of the current is 10 A.
 10 = Im/2 or Im = 20 A
 Iav = 20/ = 6.365 A −reading of d.c. ammeter.
The full-wave rectified current wave is shown in Fig.
11.28. In this case mean value of i2 over a complete cycle is
given as

i 
= 2  I m 2 sin2  d
0 −  0

2 2 Fig. 11.28
 (1 − cos 2)d    − sin 2 
2 0 2 0 2

 I = Im / 2 = 20 / 2 = 14.14 A a.c. ammeter will read 14.14 A

Now, mean value of i over a complete cycle
2 I sin d
0 m m m
= = sin d cos 12.73 A
0
This value, as might have been expected, is twice the value obtained in the previous case.
 d.c. ammeter will read 12.73 A.
Example 11.18. A full-wave rectified sinusoidal voltage is clipped at 1/ 2 of its maximum
value. Calculate the average and RMS values of such a voltage.
472 Electrical Technology

Solution. As seen from Fig. 11.29, the rectified volt-

age has a period of  and is represented by the
following equations during the different intervals.
0 <  < /4 ; v = Vm sin 
/4 <  < 3/4 ; v = Vm/ 2 = 0.707 Vm
3/4 <  <   v = Vm sin 
/4 3 / 4 
 vd vd vd
 0 /4 3 / 4  Fig. 11.29
/4 3/4 
=1 V sin  d  0.707 V d  V sin  d 
0 /4 3/4

=
Vm
−cos  /4
 0.707 
3/4
 − cos 

/4  V m
(0.293  1.111  0.293) = 0 . 5 4 V m

/ 3/4 
V 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
V sin  d   (0.707 V ) d   V sin  d  0.341V
0 /4 3/4
 V = 0.584 Vm
Example 11.19. A delayed full-wave rectified sinusoidal current has an average value equal to
half its maximum value. Find the delay angle . (Basic Circuit Analysis, Nagpur 1992)
Solution. The current waveform is shown in Fig. 11.30.
I = 1 I sin d
av
m
(−cos  + cos )
m

Now, Iav = Im/2

 (− cos   cos ) = m
 −1
 cos  = 0.57,  = cos (0.57) = 55.25º Fig. 11.30
Example 11.20. The waveform of an output current is as shown in Fig. 11.31. It consists of a
portion of the positive half cycle of a sine wave between the angle  and 180º. Determine the
effective value for  = 30º.
(Elect. Technology, Vikram Univ. 1984)
Solution. The equation of the given delayed half-
wave rectified sine wave is i = Imsin t = Im sin . The
effective value is given by
1  i 2 d  or I2 = 1  I 2 sin 2 . 
I =
/6 /6

sin 2
4 
= (1 − cos 2) d   − 
/6 4  /6

= 0.242 I m Fig. 11.31

or I = 0.242I m = 0.492 Im

Example 11.21. Calculate the “form factor” and “peak factor” of the sine wave shown in Fig.
11.32. (Elect. Technology-I, Gwalior Univ.)
Solution. For 0 <  < , i = 100 sin  and for  <  < 2, i = 0. The period is 2.
 A.C. Fundamentals 473
 2
1 id  0d
 Iav =
0 

=
2
100
0
sin  d  31.8 A


2 2 2 2
I  i d  = 100 2
sin  d  
100
 2500 ; I  50A
2 0
Fig. 11.32
 form factor = 50/31.8 = 1.57 ; peak factor = 100/50 = 2
Example 11.22. Find the average and effective values of voltage of sinusoidal waveform shown
in Fig. 11.33.
(Elect. Science-I Allahabad Univ. 1991)
Solution. Although, the given waveform would
be integrated from /4 to , it would be averaged
over the whole cycle because it is unsymmetrical.
The equation of the given sinusoidal waveform is
v = 100 sin .
Fig. 11.33

 V = 1 100 sin  d   100 − cos 

 27.2 V
/ 4
2 2 2
V
2
= 1 1002 sin 2 d 100 100 sin 2 100 1
cos 2 ) d
/4 4 4 4 2 /4
4 4 2
 V = 47.7 V
Example 11.23. Find the r.m.s. and average values of the saw tooth waveform shown in Fig.
11.34 (a).
Solution. The required values can be found by using either graphical method or analytical
method.
Graphical Method
The average value can be found by averaging the function from t = 0 to t = 1 in parts as given
below :
1 T 1
Average value of (f) = f (t) dt =  (net area over one cycle)
0
Now, area of a right-angled triangle = (1/2)  (base)  (altitude).
Hence, area of the triangle during t = 0 to t = 0.5 second is

 (t)  (−2)    − 2  −
A1 =
2 2 2 2
Similarly, area of the triangle from t = 0.5 to t = 1 second is

A2 =  (t)  (2)   2

2 2 2 2

Net area from t = 0 to t = 1.0 second is A1 + A2 = −  0

2 2
Hence, average value of f (t) over one cycle is zero.
For finding the r.m.s. value, we will first square the ordinates of the given function and draw a
new plot for f 2(t) as shown in Fig. 11.34 (b). It would be seen that the squared ordinates from a
parabola.
Area under parabolic curve =  base  altitude. The area under the curve from t = 0 to
3
474 Electrical Technology

2
t = 0.5 second is ; A1 = (t)  2   4 
3 3 2 3

Fig. 11.34

Similarly, for t = 0.5 to t = 1.0 second A2 = (t)  4    4 

3 3 2 3
T
Total area = A1 + A2 =   , r.m.s. value = 1 f (t) dt  average of f 2 (t)
2
3 3 3 0

 r.m.s. value = 4/3 = 1.15

Analytical Method
The equation of the straight line from t = 0 to t = 1 in Fig. 11.34 (a) is
f (t) = 4 t −2; f2 (t) = 16 t2 −16 t + 4
T
Average value = 1 (4t − 2) dt  1 4t − 2t 0
0 0
T
1 T
1 16t 3 16t 2

2
r.m.s value = (16t − 16t  4)dt  −  4t  1.15

A circuit offers a resistance of 20  in one direction and 100  in the reverse direction. A
sinusoidal voltage of maximum value 200 V is applied to the above circuit in series with
(a) a moving-iron ammeter (b) a moving-coil ammeter
(c) a moving-coil instrument with a full-wave rectifier (d) a moving-coil ammeter.
Calculate the reading of each instrument.
Solution. (a) The deflecting torque of an MI instrument is proportional to (current)2. Hence, its
reading will be proportional to the average value of i2 over the whole cycle. Therefore, the reading of
such an instrument :
 2
 10 
= 2 2 2 2
sin d   2 sin d 
 2  
2
1 100 sin 2 4 sin 2
= 26 5.1 A
2 2 2 0 2 2
(b) An MC ammeter reads the average current over the whole cycle.
Average current over positive half-cycle is = 10  0.637 = 6.37 A
Average current over positive half-cycle is = −2  0.637 = −1.27 A
 Average value over the whole cycle is = (6.37 −1.27)/2 = 2.55 A
(c) In this case, due to the full-wave rectifier, the current passing through the operating coil of
the instrument would flow in the positive direction during both the positive and negative half cycles.
 reading = (6.37 + 1.27)/2 = 3.82 A
(d) Average heating effect over the positive half-cycle is = I2 R
2 1

A
 Average heating effect over the negative half-cycle is = I m2 R
2
where Im1 = 200/20 = 10 A; Im2 = 200/100 = 2 A
Average heating effect over the whole cycle is = 102 R   2 2  R /2 = 26 R
2 2
If I is the direct current which produces the same heating effect, then
2
I R = 26 R  I = 26 = 5.1 A

. Calculate the r.m.s. and average value of the voltage

wave shown in Fig. 11.37.
Solution. In such cases, it is difficult to develop a
single equation. Hence, it is usual to consider two equa-
tions, one applicable from 0 to 1 and an other form 1 to 2
millisecond.
For t lying between 0 and 1 ms, v = 4, For t lying
between 1 and 2 ms, v2 = −4t + 4
Fig. 11.3
 vrms = v 2 dt  v2 dt
2 0 1 

2 2
V2rms = 4 dt  (−4t  4) dt
20 1 
2
 3
2
32 t
2
16 t  2
= 2 16 t 0   16 t −
 1 2 1

= 1 16  16  8 − 16 16  2 −16 1 − 32  4  32 1  2 Vrms = 32/3 =3.265 volt

 

     
Vav = 1 v2 dt  1 (−4t  4) dt  1 4t  − 4t  4t = 1 volt
2
v dt  4dt 
0 1 0 1 0
1