Contents

Computer................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Characteristics of Computer.......................................................................................................................................4
Speed..................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Reliability................................................................................................................................................................4
Accuracy.................................................................................................................................................................4
Storage................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Versatility...............................................................................................................................................................4
Consistency............................................................................................................................................................4
Communication......................................................................................................................................................4
Recalling.................................................................................................................................................................5
Control Sequence...................................................................................................................................................5
Cost Reductions......................................................................................................................................................5
History and Evolution of Computers..........................................................................................................................5
Abacus....................................................................................................................................................................5
Napier Bone...........................................................................................................................................................5
Slide Rule................................................................................................................................................................5
Pascaline................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Leibniz Calculator...................................................................................................................................................5
Jacquard’s Loom.....................................................................................................................................................5
Babbage’s Differential and Analytical Engines.......................................................................................................5
Hollerith Desk.........................................................................................................................................................6
Mark I.....................................................................................................................................................................6
ENIAC..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
EDVAC.................................................................................................................................................................... 6
UNIVAC................................................................................................................................................................... 6
IBM 650.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
Apple Computer.....................................................................................................................................................6
IBM PC.................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Generation of Computer............................................................................................................................................7
First Generation Computer (1946-1957)................................................................................................................7
Second Generation Computers (1958-1963)..........................................................................................................7
Third Generation Computer (1964-1970)...............................................................................................................8
Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)......................................................................................................8
Computer Hardware..................................................................................................................................................9
Types of Computer Hardware................................................................................................................................9
Hardware Components............................................................................................................................................10
Input Devices........................................................................................................................................................10
Keyboard..............................................................................................................................................................10
 Pointing Devices...................................................................................................................................................10
Touch Screens......................................................................................................................................................10
Digital Camera......................................................................................................................................................10
Scanners...............................................................................................................................................................10
Output Devices.....................................................................................................................................................10
System Unit..........................................................................................................................................................10
Storage Devices....................................................................................................................................................10
Communication Devices.......................................................................................................................................10
Computer Software..................................................................................................................................................10
Relationship of Software and Hardware..................................................................................................................10
Difference between Software & Hardware..............................................................................................................10
Data..........................................................................................................................................................................11
Information..............................................................................................................................................................11
Difference between Data and Information..............................................................................................................11
Information Processing Cycle...................................................................................................................................12
Input.....................................................................................................................................................................12
Processing............................................................................................................................................................12
Output..................................................................................................................................................................12
Storage.................................................................................................................................................................12
Monitor................................................................................................................................................................12
Printer..................................................................................................................................................................12
Speaker................................................................................................................................................................12
System Unit..............................................................................................................................................................12
CPU.......................................................................................................................................................................13
Memory...............................................................................................................................................................13
Storage Devices........................................................................................................................................................13
1.6.55 Communication Devices................................................................................................................................13
Classification of Computer.......................................................................................................................................14
Mobile Devices.........................................................................................................................................................16
Minicomputers.........................................................................................................................................................17
Mainframe Computers.............................................................................................................................................17
Supercomputers.......................................................................................................................................................18
Embedded Computers.............................................................................................................................................18
Types of Computer...................................................................................................................................................18
1.10.1 Analog Computer..........................................................................................................................................18
1.10.2 Digital Computers..........................................................................................................................................19
1.10.3 Hybrid Computer...........................................................................................................................................19
Application Software................................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER NO.06 (OPEARTING SYSTEMS AND UTILITY PROGRAMS).........................................................................19
6.1 Software.............................................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER NO.13 (SECURITY , PRIVACY AND ENABLES).............................................................................................31
CHAPTER NO.11 (INTERNET AND EMAIL).................................................................................................................32
 DIT (NOTES)
CHAPTER NO.1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Computer
Computer is an electronic machine used to solve different problems according to a set of instructions
given to it. A computer can accept data, process data into useful information and store it for later use.
The word computer is derived from compute that means to calculate. Computer can be used as a
calculating machine to produce results at a very high speed. However, the calculation is not the only use
of computer. It can be used for different purposes. People use computers to solve different problems
quickly and easily. It has changed the way of life.

Characteristics of Computer
The important characteristics of a computer are as follows:

Speed
Computer processes data at a very high speed. It is much faster than human beings. A computer can
perform billions of calculations in a second. Computer speed is measured in Mega Hertz (MHz) or Giga
Hertz (GHz). For example, the process of multiplying 750 and 927 can take one or two minutes if it is
performed by human beings. However, a computer can perform millions of such calculations within a
second.

Reliability
Computer is very reliable. The electronic components in modern computer rarely break or fail.

Accuracy
Accuracy means that the computer provides results without any errors. Computer can process large
amount of data and produce results accurately. The result can be wrong only if the data given to the
computer is not correct. Suppose the average marks of a class are required. There can be a chance of
mistake in the result if it is performed by human beings. However, a computer can produce this result
very accurately and quickly.

Storage
Computer can store a large amount of data permanently. People can use this data at any time. The user
can store any type of data in the computer. The storage capacity of computer is increasing rapidly. A
computer can store thousands of books easily.

Versatility
Computer is a versatile machine. It can perform different types of tasks. That is why it is being used in
every field of life. Computer is used in hospital, bank, office and at home. A user can play games, listen
to music, which movies and use the Internet using a computer.

Consistency
Computer works in a consistent way. It does not lose concentration due to heavy work. It does not
become tired or bored. Computer performs all jobs with equal attention.

Communication
Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other computers. We can connect
two or more computers by a communication device such as modem. These computers can share data,
instructions and information. The connected computers are called network. We can communicate with
other people in the world using network like internet.

Recalling
A computer can recall the stored data and information as and when required. The data stored in the
computer can be used at a later time. The computer can recall the required data in a few seconds.

Control Sequence
A computer works strictly according to the given instructions. It follows the same sequence of execution
that is given in a program.

Cost Reductions
We can perform a difficult task in less time and-less cost. For example, we may have to hire many
people to handle an office. The same work can be performed by a single person with the help of
computer. It reduces the cost.

History and Evolution of Computers

Computer was invented because necessity is the mother of invention. Man always searched for a fast
calculating device. It took a long time to invent the digital computer.
A brief history behind the invention of computer is as follows:

Abacus
Abacus was first computing device. It was developed 5000 years ago. It was used to perform simple
addition and subtraction. Abacus was a wooden rack. It contained horizontal wires with beads strung
on them. The beads could move easily. All simple arithmetic calculations were performed by moving
these beads according to programming rules.

John Napier’s Bone

John Napier was a Scottish mathematician. He created logarithm tables to facilitate calculation. He also
created a device known as Napier’s Bones. The device used rods to perform arithmetic calculations. It
was designed in the early 17th century. The Device was widely used by accountants and bookkeepers.
The concept of logarithm was used to develop slide rules. The modern slide rule could be used to
perform arithmetic calculations. It was also used to calculate squares, square roots, logs, sine and cosine
etc. The Slide rule was used till the middle 70’s.

==============

Blaise Pascal
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician. He invented a calculating machine in 1642 The machine was
known as Pascaline The machine had metal wheels with the digit 0 to 9 The calculation was done by
rotating the wheels it could only add and subtract the whole numbers.

Leibniz Calculator
Van Leibniz was a German scientist He invented a calculating machine in 1694 it was the first calculator
that could add subtract multiply and divide it was more reliable and accurate than Pascal’s calculations

Jacquard’s Loom
Jacquard Marie from France invented a machine Jacuqard’s Loom in 1801 The machine could read
punched cards to design a pattern automatically it was used in textile manufacturing the invention of
this machine helped in making programmable machine like Computer
Babbage’s Differential and Analytical Engines
Charles Babbage was an English mathematician He designed an automtic mechanical calculating
machine in 1822 known as Difference Engine The machine worked by steam power and was fully
atomatic. The machine could calculate the table of numbers. Charles Babbage also designed an
automatic machine in 1834 known as analytical engine. It worked on the same principle that is used in
modern computer it was more intelligent machine and was fully controlled by computer program he
could not complete it the technology was not advanced however he laid the foundation for modern
digital computers. That is why he is known as the father of computers

Hollerith Desk
An American statistician Human Hollerith developed a tabulating machine in 1890 known as Hollerith
Desk it was used in American census it had a card reader that could lead the holes in the punched cards.
It also had the ability to count and display the result The solutions of different problems could be stored
on the cards
Hollerith started a company known as Tabulating Machine company The company changed its name to
international Business Machines (IBM) later.

Mark I
Howard Aiken of Harvard University developed a computer known as Mark 1 it was made in 1944 with
the help of IBM. It was the first automatic electro mechanical computer it could multiply ten digits I five
seconds Mark 1 was very reliable but huge in size

ENIAC
ENIAC stands for electrical Numerical integrator and Calculator it was the first general purpose
electronic computer it was designed by John William Mauchly and John Eckert in 1946. It was very
heavy and large in size it consumed a large amount of power it could perform 5000 additions per
second it used decimal number system.

EDVAC
EDVAC stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer. It was an electronic computer
designed by John Muchly and John Eckert. It used binary system for calculations instead of decimal
system.

UNIVAC
UNIVAC stands for Universal Automatic computer Eckert and Mauchly formed Eckert Mauchly computer
Corporation in 1947 to manufacture computer commercially. They manufactured the first successful
computer UNVIAC. It was the first computer for commercial use it was given to the US bureau of census
in 1951. It was manufactured both for scientific and commercial applications.

IBM 650
IBM 650 was an early computer developed by IBM in 1955. It was designed to used magnetic drums. It
could read data from punched cards and magnetic tapes it could automatically restart the program at a
specific point if an error occurred.
The IBM model 650 was one of the first widely used computer it was so successful that IBM
manufactured more than 1000 computers o this model the IBM was able to dominate the mainframe
market for the next decade
Apple Computer
Apple-I was developed by steve wozniak and steve jobs in 1977 it was the first computer by Apple
company it was small and user friendly computer the common people could use it easily Apple II was
the first computer that used a color display it was very popular computer of its time.

IBM PC
IBM Personal computer was introduced by IBM in 1981 it was a small and computer it could be attached
to an audio cassette players and TV set at home it used to audio cassette to load and save data it was
based on 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used MS Dos Operating system. It quickly become
the standard for business personal computer

Generation of Computer
The development of electronic computer can be divided into generation depending upon the
technologies used Different generation of computer are as follows
 First Generation (Vacuum tube) 1946-1957
 Second Generation (Transistor) 1958-1963
 Third Generation (Integrated Circuit) 1964-1970
 Fourth Generation (Microprocessor) 1971-Present
 Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) Present and Future

First Generation Computer (1946-1957)

The First-generation computer used vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube was expensive it produced much
head that caused the computer breakdown. Two examples of first-generation computers are ENIVAC
and UNIVAC-I etc
Advantages
 Vacuum tubes made possible to make electronic digital computers
Disadvantages
 These computers were very large in size
 They were not portable
 They produced too much heat and needed air conditioning
 They were not very reliable
 They were more costly
 They were quite slow in speed
 The consumed a lot of power
 They were difficult to maintain
 They used punch cards for input
 They used magnetic drums that provided less storage
 The output was printed using electric typewriters
 They used machine language only

Second Generation Computers (1958-1963)

The second-generation computers used transistors The transistor was invented by three scientists
William Shockley John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 The size of the computer was
decresed by replacing vacuum tubes with transistors The examples of second-generation computers are
IBM 7094 series IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 etc
Advantages
 These computers were smaller in size than first generation
 They consumed less power than first generation computer
 They were more portable
 They had high processing speed and were more reliable
 They were less expensive than first generation
 They used magnetic core memory as internal storage
 They used punched card reader, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and printers
 The assembly language was used in these computer
 The high level programming languages were introduced such as FORTRAN and COBOL
Disadvantages
 They needed air conditioning and constant maintenance
 The commercial production was difficult
 They were only used for specific purposes
 They were not very versatile

Third Generation Computer (1964-1970)

The third generation computers used integrated circuit (IC) The IC was invented by jack Kilby it was The
third generation computers used integrated circuits (IC). The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. It was an
important invention in the computer field. The computer became smaller in size, faster, more reliable
and less expensive. The examples of third-generation computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC
1108 and UNIVAC 9000 etc.
Advantages
 These computers were smaller in size and easier to operate.
 They produced less heat than previous generations.
 They were more reliable and less expensive.
 They consumed less power and provided higher processing speed.
 The maintenance cost was low.
 The keyboard, mouse and monitor were introduced for input and output. The hard drives were
typically used for storage.
 They supported high level programming languages.
Disadvantages
 They required air conditioning.
 The highly advanced technology was required to make IC Chips.

Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)

The fourth generation computers started with the invention of microprocessor. The microprocessor
contains thousands of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor in 1971 for Intel. It was known as
Intel 4004. The technology of integrated circuits improved rapidly. The LSI (Large Scale Integration)
circuit and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) circuit were designed. It greatly reduced the size of
computer. The original IBM PC, Apple Macintosh and most of today's traditional computers are
examples of fourth generation computers.
Advantages
 These computers are smaller in size than previous generations.
 The cost of these computers is lower than previous generations.
 They consume less power and generate less heat.
 They are more reliable and powerful.
 They have high processing speed,
 They are produced for commercial purpose.
 They are general-purpose computers.
 A large variety of software is available for use on personal computers. They use the operating
system with graphical user interface.
 They support multimedia software that combines text, image, audio, and video.
 They support all types of high-level languages.
 They used computer networks, wireless technologies and the Internet.
 They typically use a keyboard and mouse for input, a monitor and printer for output.
 They use storage devices such as hard drives, flash memory media and optical discs.
Disadvantages
 The fifth generation is based on artificial intelligence (AI). Some applications of this generation are
voice recognition, robotics and game playing etc. The scientists are trying to create a computer with
real IQ. The goal is to develop a computer that can understand the natural language input and has
the ability to learn.
 The computers in the future might be constructed differently than today's computers. They might
be in the form of optical computers that process data using light instead of electrons. The
nanotechnology can be used to develop tiny computers.

Classification of Computer
Computers are classified on the basis of size, speed, processing power and price. However, the
classification of computers is not very straight-forward. The distinction between these categories is
sometimes not very clear. Some characteristics overlap different categories. Computers can be classified
into the following categories:
 Personal Computer
 Mobile Devices
 Minicomputer
 Mainframe Computer
 Supercomputer
 Embedded Computer

Personal Computers/Microcomputers
Personal computer is designed to be used by one person at a time. It consists of a processor, memory
and one or more input, output and storage devices. It also often contains a communication device.
Personal computers are available in different sizes and shapes. Personal computer is commonly used in
business, at home and other fields of life. The price of personal computer is from several hundreds to
several thousand dollars.
Most commonly used personal computers are PC and Apple. PC and its compatible computers use
Windows operating systems. Apple computers use Mac OS operating system. PC and its compatible
computers follow the specifications of the original IBM personal computer. Different companies such as
Dell, Acer, HP and Asus sell PC and its compatible. computers. Major types of personal computers are
desktop computer and portable computer.

Desktop Computers
IT Series The Concepts of Information Technology Desktop computers are the most common type of
personal computer. It is designed in a way that all its components fit on a desk or table. In one model,
the system unit is placed horizontally on the desktop or table and monitor is placed on the system unit.
In another model, called tower model, both monitor and system unit are placed on the table. The
system unit in tower model is placed vertically. Some desktop computers also have touch screens
Different desktop computers are as follows:
All-in-One Computer single device. It does not have a separate tower. Many all-in-one models also have
touch screen technology. These computers save desktop space. HP TouchSmart and Apple iMac are
examples of all-in-one-computer. Tower Model All-in-One Computer Figure 1.32:
Personal Computer 2. Workstation Computer Workstation is more powerful and expensive desktop
computer. 3. Server Computer It is used for calculations and graphics work. A workstation can perform
the tasks that require a lot of processing speed. It is mostly used by engineers, graphics artists and
architects. For example, architects use workstation to design buildings and homes. The graphic artists
use workstation to create animations and special effects for movies and video games. A desktop
computer can be used as server. A server computer provides services and controls access to the
hardware, programs and data in the network. It also provides a centralized storage area for programs,
data and information.
1. Portable Computer
Portable computer is a mobile personal computer that can be carried from one place to
other easily. It has input, output, storage and processing components integrated into a single
unit. It can receive power from an electrical outlet or a battery.

Portable computers are affecting our daily routine in this modern era both positively and
negatively. People can use mobile computer anywhere at home, in office or classroom and
during travel etc. The businessmen can use it during travel to manage and monitor business
activities. The students can use it in class to perform different educational activities. A
salesperson can use it to give presentation to the clients and store information about them
anywhere. However, portable computers are creating some negative effects as well. People
use them frequently to stay online, play games and chatting, etc. It affects social interaction
among the people.
Different types of portable computers include laptop and tablet
Laptop A laptop is a mobile computer that has keyboard, screen and other devices integrated
into a single compact case. It is designed to fit in the lap. It uses less power than desktop
computer and can be used outdoors without the need of electrical outlet. It has batteries
and can be used for many hours without continuous power supply. It typically has built-in
wireless communication facility. Some laptops come with touch screens. Laptop is also
known as notebook computer.

Ultra Book it is a thin, lightweight and full-featured laptop with high-end processing and
video capabilities. It typically uses solid state drive (SSD) so it boots up very fast. It uses very
less power and provides longer battery life than traditional laptop. It does not have any
optical drive. Some examples of ultrabooks are Apple MacBook Air and Asus ZenBook
Note Book It is a small, lightweight and inexpensive laptop computer. It has longer battery
life than laptop. It has built-in wireless capabilities. It is suitable for general computing and
web-based applications. It has limited memory and storage. It provides reduced computing
power as compared to a full- size laptop computer. It has no optical drives.
 Tablet Tablet is a thin and lightweight mobile computer with touch screen. It is usually
smaller than a laptop. Some tablets include a stylus that looks like a small pen. It can be used
to enter data and select different objects on the screen. A physical keyboard can also be
attached to a tablet. It provides longer battery life than laptop. The Apple iPad is an example.
of a tablet computer.
.
Tablet comes with a variety of pre-installed programs called mobile applications or mobile
apps. It can be used to browse the web, send and receive email and watch videos etc. There
are extensive collections of applications for tablets that can be downloaded on tablet for free
or for a small price.

Two basic designs of tablets are Slate and Convertible.

1. Slate
This type of tablet does not contain a physical keyboard. It uses an on-screen virtual
keyboard for input. The user can also attach physical keyboard with Bluetooth or wireless.
2. Convertible
This type of tablet has a display screen attached to a keyboard. It can be rotated 180
degrees and folded down over the keyboard. It can be repositioned to look like a
notebook computer.

Mobile Devices
A mobile device is a computing device designed to hold in the hand. Mobile devices typically
have small screens and some of them have keyboards. Mobile devices usually have no disk
drives. The programs and data are permanently stored on special memory or on a small storage
media, such as smart card. Mobile devices can be connected to large network to exchange data.
Mobile devices are almost always powered by a rechargeable battery system. It has built-in
wireless connectivity for Internet access. Popular types of mobile devices are smart phones,
handheld computer, portable media players and e-book.
1. Smartphone
A smartphone is a cell phone that includes many features of computer and can run general
purpose computing applications. Many smartphones have touch screens to input data using
fingertip or a stylus. Some have a built-in mini keyboard. iPhone is an example of
smartphone.
Some features of smartphones are as follows:.
 Internet access
 Make and answer phone calls
 Send text messages, picture messages and video messages
 Personal information management such as calendar, address book and calculator
etc.
 Send and receive email messages
 Communicate wirelessly with other devices or computers
 Built-in camera to share images or video with others
 Conduct live video calls
 Play and organize music
 Voice recording
 GPS services
 Computing power to run programs like word processors etc.
 2. Handheld Computers
A handheld computer is a small, lightweight computer that easily fits in the hand. Many
handheld computers' communicate wirelessly with other devices or computers. Some have
small keyboards and others have a touch screen and also include a stylus for input. Many
handheld computers are used by mobile employees such as parcel delivery people or,
warehouse employees to take inventory and check supplies etc. Handheld computer is not
very powerful and cannot perform many tasks that can be performed by desktop and
notebook computer.
3. Portable Media Player A portable media player is a mobile device designed to store, organize
and play digital media. Digital media includes music, photos and videos. These devices offer
camera, access to the Internet and variety of applications. Some portable media player
models have a touch screen or a touch-sensitive pad. A touch-sensitive pad contains buttons
and wheels to be used with a thumb or finger. It can be used to scroll, play music, view
photos, watch videos and adjust volume etc. Portable media players usually include a set of
earbuds that are small speakers that rest inside each ear canal. iPod Touch is an example of
portable media player.

4. E-Book Reader Earbuds Touch-sensitive pad Figure 1.36: Portable Media Player E-book
reader is designed for reading books, magazines and other digital publications. It is also
called e-reader. An e-book is an electronic version of a printed book readable on computers
and other mobile devices. E-reader device can hold thousands of e-books. Most e-readers
have a touch screen and have built-in wireless technology to connect to the Internet. An on-
screen keyboard can be used to navigate, search, and highlight the contents. The user can
browse an electronic bookstore and download new ebooks quickly via wireless connection.

Some e-readers use e-ink technology. It makes screens easy to read and extends battery life
for up to two months. The reader can feel the experience of reading a printed book. The
screen can easily be read even in bright sunlight. Some e-reades have LCD screens similar to
laptops and tablets. LCD screens can. display colors and are used to view magazines and
books with colorful photos. However, it is more difficult to read contents in bright sunlight.

Minicomputers
Minicomputer is typically larger, more powerful and more expensive than personal computer.
Minicomputer can serve up to several hundreds connected users at the same time. It can be
used in networked environment as server computer. It is also called mid-range server. It is
normally accessed by users through a personal computer, thin client or a dumb terminal. A
device with a monitor and keyboard is called dumb terminal.
Minicomputers are used by small and medium-sized organizations. They provide centralized
store of information and computer programs.
Examples
Some examples of minicomputers are as follows:
Prime 9955
HP 3000
AS 400
VAX 8600
Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computer is a large computer designed to serve several thousands connected users
at the same time. It is more powerful and expensive than minicomputer. These computers can
store large amounts of data, information and programs. The users access a mainframe computer
through personal computer, thin client or dumb terminal. Mainframe computer is also known as
enterprise server or high-ended server. The price of mainframe computer can be several
thousand dollars to several million dollars. IBM, Sun and Unisys are leading manufacturers of
mainframe computers. Mainframe computers are used in large organizations to manage large
amounts of centralized data such as banks, universities, insurance companies and government
departments. For example, airlines use them to maintain flight schedules, ticket reservation.
system etc. Govt. department such as NADRA use mainframe computers to maintain the
information of population. Many shopping chains interconnect their stores with mainframe
computer to track transactions immediately and maintain stock.

Examples
Some examples of mainframe computers are as follows:
IBM S-390
NEC 610
DEC 10
IBM System Z10

Supercomputers
Supercomputer is the fastest and the most powerful computer. It is the biggest in size and more
expensive than any other computer. It is used to perform complex tasks. It has a very large
storage capacity and can store several thousand times more data than an average desktop
computer. It also consumes so much energy. The modern supercomputer consists of thousands
of microprocessors. It can process trillions of instructions in one second. The cost of one
supercomputer can be up to several billion dollars. Supercomputer is mostly used for weather
forecasting, weapon design and atómic research etc. Supercomputer is also used in business and
industry field. Aircraft manufacturers use it to simulate aircraft and check its performance.
Governments use super computers for different calculations and heavy jobs. Many Hollywood
movies use it for animation purposes.
Examples
Examples of supercomputers are as follows:
Roadrunner
Blue Gene
Deep Blue
ASCI White

Embedded Computers
An embedded computer is designed for special purposes. It works as a component in a larger
product. These computers are very small and have limited hardware. They perform various
functions according to the requirements of the product in which they are embedded.
Embedded computers are used in commonly used product such as:
Electronics: PDAs, mobile, video recorders and DVD players etc.
 Home Devices: Security monitoring systems & programmable microwave ovens etc.
Automobiles: Car engine controller, airbag controller etc

Computer Hardware
The Physical parts of a computer are called hardware. Hardware can be touched or seen by the user.
Examples:
Different examples of computer hardware are as follows:
 Input devices such as keyboard, mouse and joystick
 Processing device such as central processing unit (CPU)
 Output, devices such as printer and monitor
 Storage devices such as hard drive, flash drive and optical disc
 Memory chips such as RAM and ROM

Types of Computer Hardware

There are two types of Computer Hardware

 Internal Hardware
 External Hardware

Internal Hardware: Internal hardware consists of the components inside the computer that are essential for its
operation. These parts are housed within the computer case and work together to process and store data.

External Hardware: External hardware refers to the peripheral devices that are connected to the computer from
the outside. These devices allow the user to interact with the computer and extend its capabilities.

Hardware Components
Input Devices
The data and instructions given to the computer is known as input. A hardware component used to enter data
and instructions into computer is called input device. The data and instructions are entered into the computer in
different ways using different input devices.

The commonly used input devices are keyboard, pointing devices, touch screens, digital camera, scanners and
other reading devices.

Keyboard
Pointing Devices
Touch Screens
Digital Camera
Scanners
Output Devices
System Unit
Storage Devices
Communication Devices

Computer Software
A set of instructions given to computer to solve a problem is called software A computer works
according to the instructions written in the software it is also known as program Different software are
used to solve different problems The computer cannot perform any task without software.
Examples:
Different examples of software are as follows
 Software for creating documents such as MS Word
 Software for graphics such as Adobe Photoshop
 Software for managing computer such as MS Windows

Relationship of Software and Hardware

Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer hardware what to do The hardware cannot perform any
task without software the software cannot be executed without hardware A computer becomes useful when
hardware and software are combined.

Difference between Software & Hardware

The difference between software and hardware is as follows:

Software Hardware
Software is a set of instructions that tells Hardware is physical parts of computer that
hardware exactly what to do cause processing of data
Software cannot be executed without hardware Hardware cannot perform any task without
software
Software cannot be touched Hardware can be seen and touched
Software is debugged in case of problem Hardware is repaired in case of problem
Software is reinstalled if the problem is not Hardware is replaced if the problem not solved
solved
Hardware consists of physical materials or Software consists of the instructions of
components programming language

Data
A collection of raw facts and figures is called data the word raw means that the fact have not been processed to
get their exact meaning. Data is given to the computer for processing. Data is controlled from different sources it
is collected from different sources it is collected for different purpose data may consists of numbers, characters,
symbols or picture etc.

Example of Data:

Some examples of data are as follows

 Students fill an admission from when they get admission in college. The form consists of raw facts about the
students these raw facts are student’s name, father name, address etc. the purpose of collecting this data is
to maintain the records of the students during their study period in the college.
 Governments collect the data of all citizens of the country during the census the data is stored permanently
and is used for different purposes of different times
 Different organization conduct surveys to know the opinion of the people about their product. In these
surveys people express their ideas and opinions about different issues. These ideas and opinions of the
people are stored as data the organizations use the data for the improvement of their products etc

Information
The processed data is called information is an organized and processed from the data it is more meaningful than
data and is used for making decisions. Data is used as input for the processing and information is the output of
this processing. This information can be used again in some other processing and will be considered as data in
that processing.

For example, the marks of a student in different subject’s id data. This data is used to calculate the total marks
which is the information The total marks can be processed again to calculate average marks of the student in the
processing, total marks is used as data and average marks is the information

Examples of Information:
Some examples of information are as follows
 In colleges and universities, the raw fact about students are stored on admission forms for example,
The user may need a list of all students who live in Faisalabad. The desired list can be generated by
applying some processing on the data. The list is a form of processed data and will be called
information
 The data stored in census is used to generate different types of information for example,
Government can use it to find toe total number of graduates or literacy rate in the country etc. the
information is obtained by processing the data. Government can use the information in important
decisions to improve literacy rate
 An organization can use the opinion of the people as data and process it to generate information of
its interest for example it can know that how many people of the country are satisfied with the
quality of its product and how many are unsatisfied The organization can use this information for
the improvement of its product.

Difference between Data and Information

The difference between data and information is as follow

Data Information
Data is the collection of raw fact and figures Information is processed from of data
Data is used as input in the computer Information is the output of computer
Data is not very meaningful Information is more meaningful
Data is normally huge in its volume Information is normally short in its volums
Data is difficult or even impossible to reproduce Information is easier to reproduce. For
for example it is very hard to reproduce the example, number of graduate citizens can be
data of census if it is lost recalculated from the stored data
Data is used rarely Information is used frequently
Data does not dependent on information Information depends on data
Data is not directly used in decision making. Information is directly used in decision making.

Information Processing Cycle

A series of steps used to convert data into useful information is known as information processing cycle. The steps
in the cycle are performed in a specific sequence

Different steps in the information processing cycle are as follows

Input
The first step of the information processing cycle is input. The computer accepts data in the step. Data consists of
raw fact and figures. Data is entered into the computer for processing. It is entered using different input devices
such as keyboard or mouse.

Processing
The second step of the information processing cycle is processing. It converts data into information information is
an organized and processed from of data. The central processing unit processes data into information Random
access memory (RAM) temporarily stores programs and data required by the CPU

Output
The third step of the information processing cycle is output the results are provided to the user in this step. It is
performed using different output devices such as monitors and printers

Storage
The fourth step of the information processing cycle is storage. It stores data, information and programs used by
the computer system. It is performed using different storage devices like hard disk drives, optical discs and USB
flash memory etc.

Most commonly used output devices are as follows

Monitor
Monitor is used to display text, graphics and video output

Printer
Printer is used to display printed output on paper

Speaker
Speaker is used to hear sound, music and voice outputs

System Unit
System unit is a case that contains different electronic components of the computer used to process data. All
computer systems have a system unit. The electrons components to the system unit are connected to
motherboard. Motherboard is also known as system board or main board. System board is the communication
medium for the entire computer system

Two main components of system unit are as follows

CPU
CPU stands for central processing unit. It is also called processor. It is the brain of the computer it is the most
important component of a computer. It performs the calculations and comparisons needed for the processing it
also controls the operations inside the computer A computer cannot work without CPU. All computers must have
central processing unit

Memory
The hardware components that stores data and instructions temporarily is called memory it is also called primary
memory or main main memory it consists of electronic chips mounted on the motherboard it is used to store
input data before processing it also stores processed data after processing unit data is sent to the output device
the main memory is also called volatile because it contents are lost when the computer is turned off.

Storage Devices
The hardware components used to store data, instructions and information permanently are called
storage devices. They are called nonvolatile as their contents are not lost when the computer is turned
off. The storage devices are available in different sizes and capacities. They can be installed inside the
computer or attached to the computer as an external devices
Some example of storage devices are as follows
Hard drive
It is located inside the system unit to store data and program
Flash drive
It is portable storage device used to store documents, photos, audios and videos etc. it can be used to
move files front one computer to another easily
Optical disc
It is generally used to store software, photos, movies and music
Memory card
It is removable flash rive memory that is used to store photos, audio files and other contents

1.6.55 Communication Devices

The hardware components used to communicate and exchange data, instructions and information with
other computers are called communication devices.
Some examples of communication devices are as follows.
Modem:
It is used to connect a computer to the internet
Network Card
It is used to connect a computer to a Computer Network
Router
It is used to connect different devices to share data and Internet Communication.

Types of Computer
Different types of computer are as follows

1.10.1 Analog Computer

Analog computer represent physical quantities in the form of waves or in a continuous form Voltage
pressure speed and temperature are some physical properties that can be measured in this way. Its
output is usually displayed on a meter or graph. Analog computer is difficult to operate and use it has
low memory and fewer functions it provides low accuracy but faster speed than digital computer it is
usually built for special purposes analog computer is manly used in engineering and scientific
applications.
Example
1. Speedometer is used to measure the speed of a car
2. Analog clock measure time by the distance traveled by hands of clock around a dial
3. Thermometer is an analog device that measures the length of memory column
1.10.2 Digital Computers
Digital computer process data in numerical form using digital circuits. It performs arithmetic and logic
operations with discrete values 0 and 1. Everything is described as ON and OFF where I represents ON
and 0 represent OFF
Digital computer can store and process a large amount of data at high speed The results of digital
computers are more accurate than analog computers Most of the computers available today are digital
are more accurate than analog computers Most of the computers speeds and capacities digital
computers are commonly used at home and in office etc
Examples
1. Digital watch displays the time that does not vary continuously but changes from one discrete
value to the other
2. Digital Scoreboard directly counts discrete values such as the time left to play and the score of
each team.

1.10.3 Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer is a combination of both analogy and digital computer. It combines the best
characteristics of both types of computers it can accept data in analog and digital form Hybrid computer
are used in medical lab hospital and industrial process etc
Example
Hybrid computer can monitor patient’s heart function temperature and blood pressure etc. this
measurement can be converted and displayed in digital form.

Application Software
Application software is used to perform various applications or tasks on the computer Today, a wide
variety of application software is available to meet any user need individual and business use
application software to perform hundreds of task such as
 Writing letters
 Making presentations
 Managing finance
 Managing business inventory
 Preparing tax returns
 Designing an editing images
 Accessing the Web based resources
 Participating in videoconference
 Playing games
DIT (NOTES)

CHAPTER NO.06 (OPEARTING SYSTEMS AND UTILITY

PROGRAMS)

6.1 Software
A set of instructions given to the computer to solve a problem is called software software is also called
phogram different types of software are used to solve different problems a computer works according
to the instructions written in the software’s a computer cannot perform and task without software
6.1.1 Types of Software
The main types of software are as follows
 System software
 Application Software
1. System Software
System Software is set of programs to control and manage the actual operations of a computer
hardware it controls the usage and allocation of different hardware components it enables
application programs to execute properly it controls the basic operations as follows
 Saving data on desk
 Making computer to work for us
 Printing a document etc
Types of System Software are as follows
i. Opearting System
An operating system is a set of programs that manages all computer components and
operations it is the most important software that run on a computer a computer cannot do
anything without an opeartin system it must be installed on every computer it acts as an
interface between the computer user and the hardware the user interacts with the computer
through operating system
Important Tasks of Operating System
Some important tasks performed by the operating system are as follows
 It loads programs into memory and executes them
 It controls the operations of al devices
 It manages files and folder
 It provides the facility to create passwords to make sure it is not used by unauthorized persons
 It identifies the hardware problems and displays messages to solve them
Examples
Some examples of operating system are as follows
 Microsoft Windows
 Linux
 Unix
 Mac OS
ii. Utility Programs
A utility program is a type of system software that is used effective management of computer
system the user can use utility program to perform management tasks related to different devices
and programs the utility programs keep the computer system running smoothly most operating
system include different built in utility programs
Examples
Some examples of utility program are as follow
File viewer
It is used to display and manage files and folder
 Backup utility
It is used to take backup of data
File compressor
It is used to reduce the size of the files
Diagnostic utility
It is used to detect hardware and software problems
Antivirus software
It is used to detect and remove viruses
iii. Device Driver
A device driver is a type of system software that controls the operation of a device an operating
system uses a device drive communicate with a device many device driver are automatically
installed with windows all devices attached to the computer need the device driver such as printer,
modem and sound card etc a device cannot work properly if its device driver is not installed properly
the device drivers are provided by the device manufacturers
iv. Language Processor
Language processor is a type of system software that translates a source code into machine
code every computer language has its own translator computer understands only machine
language a program written in high level or assembly language cannot be run on a computer
directly it must be converted into machine language using language processor before
execution different types of language processor include compiler interpreter and assembler
2. Application Software
Application software is used to perform virous tasks or applications on the computer a large
number of application software is available people use application software according to their
needs it is also known as application package the application software uses the operating system
in order to function it runs on the top of the operating system.
Examples
Some important examples of application software are as follows
 Word processor such as MS Word
 Spreadsheet such as MS Excel and Lotus 123 etc
 Database software such as MS Access and Oracle etc
 Graphics software such as CorelDraw and Adobe Photoshop etc
6.3 Functions of Operating System
Operating system performs the following functions
1. Booting
Booting is a process of starting or restarting the computer Operating system computer and
makes it ready to work
1. Cold Boot
When the computer is turned on after it has been powered off completely
2. Warm Boot
When the computer is restarted it applied warm boot
When booting process takes place, the kernel and important instructions of operating system
are copied from hard disk to main memory (RAM) Kernel is the most important part of
operating system that manages memory and devices, maintains computer clock, starts
applications and assigns computer resources like devices, programs, data and information
etc. Kernel remains in memory permanently while the computer is turned on. Six major
events happen during the boot process: 1. The computer receives and distributes electrical
power to its circuits so the system components can run. 2. BIOS program starts when the
ROM chip receives power. The BIOS contains instructions for starting the system before the
operating system is loaded. 3. The BIOS performs the power-on-self-test (POST) to check
critical system components and make sure they are running properly. The computer may
Ivep and flash messages on the screen during this step. 4. If the system components are
running properly, the BIOS looks for devices connected to the computer and checks their
settings. If the BIOS finds an error, the computer may beep again and display error messages
describing the problem. 5. If steps 3-4 are successful and error free, the BIOS searches for
the system files required to run the operating system and loads them into RAM. Next, BIOS
loads the kernel, or core of the operating system into RAM. The operating system takes over
control of computer functions once the kernel is loaded. 6. The operating system completes
setup tasks such as requesting username and password. starts and runs utility software and
other programs in the background. It then displays the main user interface screen. 2.
Memory Management Memory management is a process of optimizing the use of main
memory. RAM is used to store data and instructions temporarily during execution. Operating
system allocates memory area to different programs. The allocated memory area is
deallocated when the program finishes. Some operating systems allocate a part of storage
medium like hard disk as additional RAM. A part of a running program can be in RAM and the
remaining part may be on hard disk. This is known as virtual memory.
The area of hard disk used for virtual memory is called swap file. It is used to exchange data,
information and instructions between memory and hard disk. The amount of data and
program instructions that can swap at a given time is called page. The process of swapping
items between memory and hard disk is called paging

A situation in which most of the time of operating system is wasted in paging instead IT
Series The Concepts of Information Technology of executing the program is called thrashing.
3. Job Scheduling such as executing instructions, getting input or displaying result to the user
etc. Operat Any operation managed by processor is called job. There may be many jobs to e
system determines the order in which these jobs are processce execute jobs Some times,
jobs are executed in first-come-first-serve basis. But in some situations, the new Many
scheduling mechanisms are used by the operating system to execute these j coming job is
given more priority Sometimes, a device is already busy in executing some instructions. In
this case, the new job is stored in a memory area called buffer. For example, if there are
three printing jobs, the printer can print only one job at a time. The operating system sends
the next two jobs in When printer buffer. It is known as spooling. The jobs in the buffer is
said to be in queue. completes the first job, it gets the next job from buffer and executes it.
This is done by a program called print spooler. 4. Device Controlling Operating system
controls all devices attached to the computer. The hardware devices are controlled with the
help of small softwares called device drivers. A device driver is a program that tells the
operating system how to communicate with a device. Each device has its own set of
commands and requires specific driver. The operating system loads the drivers of all devices
when the computer boots. The devices cannot function properly without device drivers. In
 Windows, the extension of driver files is ".drv". The latest Windows operating systems
contain a large number of device drivers. When a new hardware device is attached to the
computer, it automatically detects the device and installs its driver if it is available. This is
known as Plug and Play. If the driver for the new device is not available, the operating system
guides the user to install it manually from CD or floppy disk etc. 5. Accessing the Web 拿
Operating system provides the facility to connect to the Web. It guides the user to se up a
connection between computer and Internet Service Provider. Some operating systems also
provide the facilities of web browser and email program. Web browser is used to vigy
websites on the Internet and email program is used to send and retirve emails on computer.
6. Monitoring Performance Operating system also monitors the performance of the
computer. A performance monitor is a program that checks and reports information about
different system resourc and devices. For example, it monitors the processor, disks, memory
and network etc. 7. Housekeeping Services Operating system performs different functions
related to storage and file manageme by using a special program known as file manager.
These functions include the following: Formatting and copying disks Displaying a list of files
on a storage medium Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium
Organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, me Creating shortcuts
8.Controlling Network Some operating systems are network operating systems called
network OS or NOS These are the operating systems that support network A network
operating system organizes how multiple users access and share resources on the network.
These resources include programs, files and hardware devices such as drives and printers
etc. 9. Administrating Security Operating system manages the security of computer system
as well as data and programs stored on it. Security is normally maintained by using userID
and passwords. Each user has to enter user ID and password to log on. The user ID and
password identifies cach user independently. The network administrator can also define
different levels of access for different users. For example, some users may have full access to
all resources of computer but some users may be restricted to only specific resources. 10.
Providing User Interface The operating system acts as an interface between the computer
user and the hardware. The users interact with the computer through operating system. 6.4
Categories of Operating Systems e Different categories of operating systems are as follows:
Stand-alone Operating Systems Server Operating Systems e Mobile Operating Systems

6.4.1 Stand alone Operating Systems

An operating system that works on a desktop or notebook computer is called stand alone
operating system some standalone operating systems that work with server operating
system are called clinet operating system a client operating system can work with or without
a network some standalone operating systems include network capabilities to setup a small
network for home or small business
Some examples of standalone operating systems are as follows
 Disk operating system (DOS)
 Windows
 Unix
 Linux
 Mac OS
 Chrome OS
1. DOS
Dos stands for Disk Operating system it was developed by Microsoft in early 1960s for personal
computers it is a single user operating system A type of operating system in which only one user
can work at a time is called single user operating system.
Some important commands of DOS are as follows
DIR it is used to display all files and sub directories of current directly
CLS it is used to clear the screen
CD it is used to change directory

COPY DATE TIME 2. Windows IT Series The Concepts of Information Technolo It is used to copy
files from one place to another. It is used to display current date. It is used to display current
time. graphical user interface (GUI). Some mportant versions of Windows operating systems are
Windows is the most widely used operating system developed by Microsoft new features.
Windows 10 is the most recent operating system. It was released in July 29, Windows 8,
Windows 7, Windows Vista and Windows XP. Each release of Windows added 2015. It is the
fastest and most efficient operating system and provides better security and improved graphical
capabilities. · 0 • Some important features of Windows 10 are as follows: Windows 10 is
designed to work on desktopes, laptops and tablets It has introduced a more traditional Start
menu Start screen is easier to use with more Tile size Easter access to All apps screen and finds
the apps faster Support for input through touch, mouse and keyboard It supports multi-tasking
and allows user to work with multiple windows at the same time It provides File Explorer to
manage files and folders It provides a virtual assistant called Cortana that helps the user to
create reminders, find the files etc. The user can talk to this virtual assistant with using the
microphone. It provides a new default web browser called Microsoft Edge that is more secure
and faster than Internet Explorer. It includes many built-in features to keep the computer safe
from viruses, malware. It protects data from accidental loss by creating a backup on an external
hard drive. It has a new Windows Store that can be used to download desktop programs and
Windows apps.

Mac OS Mac OS is a product of Apple. It was introduced in 1984 for Macintosh computers. It
Mac OS is installed on Apple computers such as iMac, Macbook Pro and MacBook Air. the first
commercially available operating system that used a graphical user interface. The latest version
of Mac OS is called macOS Mojave. It was released in September 24, 2018. 4. UNIX 1970s. Many
versions of UNIX are available. Some versions of UNIX have a command-line UNIX is a
multitasking, operating system. It was developed at Bell Laboratories in interface but most
versions provide graphical user interface. The manufacturers such as Sun and IBM sell personal
computers and workstations with a UNIX operating system 5. Linux open Linux is free and
multitasking, operating system. It was developed in 1991. It is an a source software. It means
that its code is available in the public. The code can be used, modified and redi trimited. It has
no copyright restrictions. Many programmers redistribute it after making changes to original
code. Some versions of Linus use command-line interface and others use GUI, Some most widely
used versions of Lants are from Redflat and Caldera. 6. Chrome OS Chrome OS is a Linux-based
operating system. It is designed by Google to primarily work with web applications. The
operating system is aimed at users who spend most of their computer time on the Web. The
applications are available through the Chrome Web Stere and data is stored on Google Drive.
The only apps typically installed on the computer are the Chrome browser, a media player and a
file manager. A specialized laptop that runs Chrome OS is called Chromebook. A specialized
desktop that runs. Chrome OS is called Chromebox
 6.4.2 Server Operating Systems An operating system that is designed to support a network is
called server operating system. It is also called network operating system. A server operating
system usually resides on a server. The client computers on the network depend on the server
for resources. Many standalone operating systems work as clients and interact with a server
operating system. Some examples of server operating system are as follows: Windows Server
2012 UNIX Solaris 1. Windows Server 2012 ⚫ OS X Server Linux NetWare Microsoft Server 2012
is an upgraded version of Server 2008 R2. It is most powerful, versatile and fully featured server
operating system. Its primary purpose is to ensure that the operating system can be optimized
for use in small, medium and large enterprises. Microsoft Server 2012 allows the user to
implement virtualization environment using Hyper-V. Virtualization is used to create virtual
hardware platform, operating system, storage device or network resinrces etc. It is available in
four editions: Windows Server 2012 Foundation: It is designed for small businesses with up to 15
users running on single processor servers It does not support virtualization.".

Technology Windows Server 2012 Essentials: It is designed for small businesses with up to 25
Windows Server 2012 Standard: It includes all features of Windows Server users running on
servers with up to two processors.. Windows Server 2012 Datacenter: It is designed for large
servers with up to 6 Datacenter. However, it allows only two virtual machine instances.
processors. It allows unlimited virtual machines and not available for retail purchase. 2. OS X
Server OS X Server is the server version of Mac OS developed by Apple. It makes it easier for
organizations to collaborate, share files, host websites and mail servers on Mac computers and
iOS devices. It is very easy to install, set up and manage. 3. UNIX UNIX is also used as a server
operating system. It can handle a high volume of transactions in a multiuser environment. It can
work with multiple processors using multiprocessing. It is also known as multipurpose operating
system because it is both a standalone and server operating system. UNIX is widely used on Web
servers. 4. Linux Linux is also used on network servers. A network administrator can configure
the network, administer security, run a Web server using Linux. Clients on the network can run
Linux, UNIX or Windows. 5. Solaris Solaris is a version of UNIX operating system. It was
developed by Sun Microsystems. It is a server operating system designed for e-commerce
applications. It can manage high traffic accounts and security for Web transactions. 6. NetWare
Novell's Netware is a server operating system. It is designed for client/server networks. The
server portion of this operating system resides on network server and client portion resides on
each client computer.
DIT (NOTES)
CHAPTER NO.02 (APPLICATION SOFTWARE)
13.1 Word Processing Software
Word processing software is the most widely used type of application software it is also called word
processor it is used to create edit format documents such as letter, reports and resumes etc word
processing is used by business organization government agencies and individuals for creating different
types of documents some example of word processing software Microsoft Word, work page and
LibreOffice Writer.
Feature of Word Processing Software
Some important features of word processing software are as follow
Word Wrap
The word processor automatically moves to the next line when one line is filled with text it adjusts the
next if adjusts the next if the marigins are changed
Formatting
Word processing software provides a wide range of formatting facilities. The user can change the color,
background color size and style text the formatting can be applied on characters, paragraphs or whole
pages

Printing
Word processing software provides printing facility. The user can print documents to get a hard copy
the user can print the whole documents or any range of pages
Find and Replace
The find feature is used to find a certain character, word or phrase in the document. The replace feature
is used to find a certain character, word or phone in the document replace it with another
Spelling and Grammar
Spelling and Grammar features is used to direct and correct the spelling and grammatical mistakes in
the documents
AutoCorrect
Word processing software automatically corrects many commonly misspelled words and capitalization
errors with AutoCorrect feature
Thesaurus
The feature provides the synonyms for a word in the documents. A word with same meaning is known
as synonyms
Tables
Word processing software provides the facility of table to organize data table is a collection of rows and
columns the user can easily add rows and columns from a table without disturbing data
Column
Word processing software allows dividing the page in the form of columns. The user can use any
number of columns in the documents. A page with columns looks like text in a newspaper or magazine
Header and Footer
Word processing software provides the facility to insert header and footers in a documents. Header is
the text that appears at the top of each page Footer is the text that appears at the Bottom of each page
page number, company names or dates are normally used in header and footer
AutoText
Word processing software provides the feature to store text permanently for using repeatedly in
documents
Template
A template is a preformatting document that serves as a model to create new documents it is used to
create professional letters memos and reports easily
Mail Merge
Mail Merge is a process of combining a form letter with the contents of database it is usually a name
and address list the mail merge feature make it easy to send the same letter to a list of different people
with correct name and address printed on each other

Voice Recognition
Some latest processing software provides voice recognition facility the user speaks into the microphone
and the word are written in the document. It can recognize different commands
Uses of Word Processing Software for Office work
Word processing software can be used to manage office work in the following ways
Preparing Letters
Word processing software can be used in office for writing letters to different officials, customers or
government authorities office personal can interact with different people through letters prepared in
MS word.
Preparing Applications
Word processing software can be used in office to write applications to different officials or government
authorities Word processor provides many facilities to write attractive and effective applications
Preparing Notices
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare important notices to be issued to different
employees. An organization issues different types of notices to its employees and workers.

Preparing Faxes
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare important faxes Fax is an important way to
communicate with people it also provides predefined style of faxces
Preparing Memorandums
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare memorandums word processor also provides
predefined style of memorandums
Preparing Legal Pleadings
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare legal pleadings against different people or
organizations to get your right word processor also provides predefined styles of legal pleadings
Preparing Meeting Agendas
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare agendas for different meetings these
agendas can be distributed to different members of the meeting it is also provides predefined styles of
agendas
Preparing Calendar
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare calendar word processor also provides
predefined styles of calendar

Preparing Resumes
Word processing software can be used in office in prepare different types of resumes people can use
these resumes for jobs. Word processor also provides predefined styles of resumes
Preparing Reports
Word processing software can be used in office to prepare different reports these reports are very
important for making critical decision in the office word processor also provides predefined styles of
legal pleadings.
2.4.2 Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheets software is a widely used application software for calculations Millions of people use
spreadsheet software to perform different tasks more quickly and accurately it provides worksheets to
enter data a worksheet is a collection of rows and columns it allows the user to make different
calculations using formulas and built in functions spreadsheet software also provides the facility to
display data graphically using charts. Some examples of spreadsheet software are Microsoft Excel, Iwork
Number , Google Doc Spreadsheets and LibreOffice Calc

Application of Spreadsheet
Some important applications of spreadsheet software are as follows
 It can be used by corporations to track profit and losses
 Economists can generate growth graphs of country’s economy
 Statisticians can calculate probability of crashing the market
 Women can manage their household budgets
Advantages
Computerized spreadsheets can calculate data easily accurately and efficiently large quantities of
number are added subtracted multiplied and divided when new information is inserted in existing
spreadsheet, revised calculations are performed automatically
 It increases the ease and speed of calculating
 it makes it easy to modify information and recalculate automatically
 It displays numeric data as a chart or graphs
  It incorporates numeric data into another software applications
Disadvantages
 Spreadsheet software cannot process a large volume of data quickly
 It does not provide much programming facilities
Features of spreadsheets Software
Some important features of spreadsheet software are as follows
Calculation
Spreadsheet software provides the facility to perform different types of calculations using formulas and
functions
Recalculation
Recalculation is an important and powerful feature of spreadsheet software the results are
automatically recalculated when there is any change in the worksheet data
Chart
Charts are the graphical representation of data spreadsheet software provides different types of charts.
The data in charts can be viewed and understood by the user easily
AutoFill
AutoFill automatically fills the cell with a series of number and dates etc
Sorting
Sorting is the process of arranging your data in a particular order You can sort the data in your
worksheets in ascending or descending order
Filter
Filter allows to display the required data in a worksheet by giving a certeria Remaining data is hidden
temporarily for example you can display the records of passed students

Auditing
This feature allows the user to find the cells used in a formula spreadsheet software display arrows to all
cells which are used in that formula
Printing
Spreedsheet software allows the user can print the documents to get a hand copy printing can be of
whole document or of any range
AutoComplete
This feature is used to complete data automatically if you are typing a word in a cell that has already
been used in another cell, it can be completed automatically
2.4.3 Presentation Software
Presentation software is a type of application software that uses graphics animation sound and data or
information to make visual presentation it provides many facilitates to create attractive presentation
quickly and easily the presentation consists of multiple slides the slides contain the information for the
audience this information can include text pictures charts video and sound etc these presentations can
be used directly on computer screen the presentations can also be viewed as slides on a large monitor
or projection screen The user can also print them for different uses popular presentation software are
Microsoft PowerPoint, iWork Keynote, LibreOffice impress and Google Doc Presentation
Uses of Presentations Software
Some important uses of presentation software are as follows
1. Learning Solutions
Presentation software combines both audio and visual the audience can understand the topic
easily it makes teaching process interactive in the features the presentations are used in schools
colleges and universities to teach different topics of study it makes the learning easier and
interesting for the students
2. Classroom Teaching
Presentation software helps in improving the quality and impact of classroom teaching the
presentations can be made interesting and effective for the students
3. Seminars
The students can use presentation software to make informative presentation on any topic and
present them in seminars
4. Meetings and Consolations
The decision makers can use presentation software for meeting and discussions. It helps them to
keep the focus on important issues
5. Information Kiosks
Presentation software is a good tool to present layout and information at public places like
museums, exhibitions etc. it can be interactive for public to view and learn

6. Corporate Training Session

Presentation software is widely used by trainers for conferences, workshops and training
sessions it is an important part of every corporate training session top executives and manager
use the powerful tool to train their juniors to give them effective training.
2.4.4 Database Software
A database is a collection of organized data the data in a database can be accessed retrieved and used
easily database software is application softaware that is used to create access and manage a database it
is also known as database management system the user can use it to odd, change and delete data in a
database it can also be used to create from and reports using data in the database Micrososft Access,
FilieMakec Pro and LibreOffice Base, Oracle and MySQL are examples of popular database software
2.4.5 Project Management Software
Project Management software is used for planning large projects, scheduling project tasks and tracking
project costs it can be used in large projects such as construction of hugged building or running a big
advertising campaign etc it helps the project manager to run the project effectively it can be used to
ensure that the project is completed in time and within allowed budgets The most popular project
management program is Microsoft Project. A commonly used web based project management software
in Basecamp
2.4.6 Note Tracking Software and Whole Notebooks
Note taking software is used to take note during class lectures, meetings or similar activity it can be
used mostly by students and business people with tablet or other devices with pen input it typically
allows both typed and handwritten input. It provides different features for note taking such as creating
tabs, files and web links etc the example of note taking software are Microsoft OneNote and Circus
Ponies Notebook.
Some online versions of note taking software are known as Web notebooks They are designed to help
the user or organized online research including text, images, web links, search results etc. An example
of online note taking software is Zoho Notebook.
2.4.7 Personal Information Mangers
Personal information manager (PIM) is a software application installed on PDA’s and smartphones it
includes an appointment calendar, address book, notepad and other feature to organize appointments
and tasks etc PIMs can manager different types of information, appointment calendar is used to
schedule activities for a particular day and time. An address took can be used to enter and maintain
names, addresses and phone numbers of other people. A notepad can be used to record ideas,
remainders and other important information.

2.4.9 Accounting Software

Accounting software is an application software that records and processes accounting transactions it is
used by accounting professionals to manage accounts and perform accounting operations. It can also be
used to record and manage expenses, invoices payroll and inventory it enables the user to track
business finances and generate reports or graphs to make effective business decision.
Most accounting programs include templates for invoices, statements and financial reports latest
accounting packages also provide online deposit and payroll services. This facility allow companies to
deposits paychecks directly into account of their employees Quickbooks and Sage Peachtree are
examples of accounting software.
2.5 Graphic and Multimedia Software
Graphics software is used to create, manipulate and print graphics it is also known as digital imaging
software a graphic can be any picture, drawing sketch photograph image or icon that appears on
computer screen. Some graphics software can be used only with a particular type of graphic but some
allow multiple graphic format Engineers, architects and graphic and multimedia software to develop
complex applications.
DIT (NOTES)

CHAPTER NO.13 (SECURITY , PRIVACY AND ENABLES)

13.1 Cybercrime
A cybercrime criminal activity carried out by means of computer and the internet in some cybercrimes,
the computer used to common crime such as fraud, kidnapping rounder and stealing money from bank
account or creadit card. The criminals use internet access the personal information such as username
password and credit card number
In othercases, computer can be a target of cybercrime such as unauthorized access to a viruses on it.
The process of downloading illegal software, music and videos is considered a cybercrime
1.3.2 Computer Security
Computer security is used to protect computer system and its resources such as software, hardware and
data it protects a computer from damage or enauthorized access different methods are used to ensure
the security of a computer system.
Virus
Computer virus is one of the most familiar forms of risk to computer security A virus program that may
disturb the normal working of computer system Virus attaches itself files stored on flash drives, email
attachments and hard disk it may cause many damages a computer system
A virus can
1. Damage data or software on the computer
2. Delete some or al files on the computer system
3. Destroy all data by formatting hard drive
4. Display a political or false message every few times
13.6 Worms
A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly in memory or on disk until there left no space the
computer may stop working in this situation. Worms spread from one computer to another through
networks some examples of worm are SQL Slammer, The Bblaster Worm , Sasser, ILOVEYOU and
Melissa
13.14 Ethics in Computing
Ethics are the rules to determine the right and the wrong Most ethical beliefs learned in childhood and
are derived from family society or religion. Ethics are different from laws. A law is an external rule that
causes punishment if it is violated Ethics are internal principles that influence decisions The general
rules of ethics in computing include
 The computer should not be used to harm others.
 The computer should not be used to steal something such as creadit card number
 The user should not be used to abuse his power
 The user should not use any other’s computer resources without permission
 The copyrighted software should not be copied illegally
DIT (NOTES)

CHAPTER NO.11 (INTERNET AND EMAIL)

11.1 Internet
The Internet is the largest computer network that connects millions of computer all over the world. The
computer connected can exchange information with each other. The computers are connected through
different media such as phone lines, fiber optic line satellites and wireless connections each computer
on the internet has an IP address. IP Stands for Internet Protocols and is used to identity each computer
and its location over the internet.
Internet has converted the world into a global village People can interact with via email and chatting
using the internet. They can sell and buy goods online and run their buinsess using the Internet They
can also pay bills, find jobs and reserve tickets or hotels online. Millions of people around the world use
the social media such as Facebook and Twitter. It allows them to share views, photos and videos with
other.
No government or organization is the owner of the Internet Many people organization and research
agencies participate to run the Internet.
11.3 Connection to the Internet
The users have many options for connecting to the Internet Every type of connection provides different
data transfers speeds The speed is measured in Kbps or Mbps. Dialup is the least expensive Internet
connection it is very slow with a download speed of 56 Kbps. It is only used where high speed
broadband connections are not available Most types of connections today are broadband or high speed
connections Some examples of broadband Internet services are cable DSL fiber, radio signals and
satellite.
1. Cable Internet
Cable Internet provides high speed Internet access through the cable television network it
requires a cable Modern and uses the wires to carry TV and Internet signals Cable speeds range
from 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps but typically are 8 Mbps to 50 Mbps Cable Internet is not widely
available in rural areas.
2. DSL
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line it requires DSL modem and provides high speed Internet
connection using regular telephone lines. The average speed of DSL is 1 Mbps to 20 Mbps it is
slower than cable but is generally less expensive a big problem with DSL is its distance limitations
it requires DSL modem to be within three miles from DSL services provider. DSL signals
deteriorate as the distance increases
3. Satellite
Satellite Internet service provides high speed Internet connections via satellite to a satellite dish
the communicates with a satellite modem it is slower and micro expensive than signals can be
showd or blocked by adverse weather conditions such as rain and snow that is why it is less
reliable than cable and DSL
4. Mobile Wireless
Mobile wireless Internet access is most commonly used with mobile devices it enables the user
to connect to the internet using cellular 3G and 4G network standards. The signals are
transmitted by a series a cellular towers 3G provides the data transfer rates of 3.8 MbPS or more
4G mobile connection provides a speed of up to 100 Mbps Some networks also provide 4G LTE
that delivers the speeds of 6 Mbps to 13 Mbps it is faster than 3G but does not meet the rate
required to be true 4G
The costs for mobile wireless Internet access vary widely some packages include an
unlimited Internet but some charge by the numbers of minutes of Internet use. Some packages
charge by the amount of data transferred.
5. Fiber to the Premises (FTTP)
FTP is the fastest type of broadband with top speeds of 300 Mbps. It carries signals on fiber optic
cables Fiber is significantly more expensive than DSL or cable it can carry Internet TV and Phone
cells for home and business over fiber optic cable Fiber optic connection available limited areas
where the fiber optic cable has been installed
6. WIFI Hotspot
WiFi hotspot is a site that offer Internet access to the users through a wireless across point. The
Wifi hotspots are available in many public places such as airports, schools, hotels, libraries and
 restaurants some public Wifi hotspots are free but some charge per hour per day or on a
subscription basis.

11.5 Services of Internet

Different important services of the Internet are as follows
11.5.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
WWW stands for World Wide Web it is also called Web it was launched in 1989 at the European Particle
Physical Laboratory is Geneva. It provides the facility to publish information on the Internet. It is a
collection of documents or web pages stored on web servers connected to the Internet around the
world.
A webpage is a document on the World Wide Web Webpages are also known as hypertest documents A
webpage many contain text, graphics, audio and video etc. Anyone can view webpages through a web
browser. A collection of related webpages is called website Each websites has a unique address
Websittes are stored on a host computer on the internet. These computers are known as Web server.
11.5.2 Email
Email stands for Electronic Mall. Email is the exchange of text, messages and files through Internet
Messages can be in the form of graphics, stands video clips or simple text, it is a fast way of delivering
messages anywhere in the world a very short time
Working of Email
An email program is used to create, second and recive emails it is also known as email client. When the
user sends an email message, the computer connects to an email servers and transmits a copy of
message that server.
Email server is a host computer on Internet that sends and receive email Email server receives the
message and fields out the email server where the email is to be sent is connects to that server and
transmits a copy of the message
Email Attachment
An email manage can also contain attachments attachments is a process of sending files with email
message any type of file can be attached to email like documents audio video, spreadsheets etc MME is
an Intrnet protocols that supports email attachments it stands for Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension,
Different websites provide different files size that can be attached with an email message.
Advantages and Uses of Email
 It is very fast and timely
 It is very cheap and inexpensive
 The user can send and receive messages anywhere in the world
 The user can share any information with different people
 It is possible to send and receive email through mobile phone.
 Email gives the facility to send pictures, sounds and videos
11.5.6 VoIP
VoIP stands for voice over internet protocols. It is also called Internet telephony. It allows the user to
make phone calls over the internet instead of traditional telephone lines or cellular towers it requires
high speed Internet connection like DSL A popular service Skype uses VoIP to place calls to other Skype
users
11.5.7.2 Types of E-commerce
Three Types of E-Commerce are as follows
1. Business to consumer
Business to consumer or B2C e-commerce consists of the sale of goods and services to the
general public. In the type customers can visit the website and purchase goods online it is done
by an electronic storefront that contains product details graphic and shopping cart, shopping
cart is used to collect the purchase online shopping is normally performed using a secure
Internet connection Amazon.com, Overstock.com and many retail stores such as Best Buy.
Wallmart the Target sell their goods and services online
2. Consumer to consumer
Consumer to consumer or C2C e commerce takes place between two consumers for example
one consumer sells an item through an online auction. The other consumer purchase the item by
offering highest bid. Many websites provide the facility of online auction. Where C2C e-
commerce occurs A popular website providing the facility is eBay
3. Business to Business
Business to business or B2B e-commerce takes place between two business One business
provides services to toher business online advertisement recruiting sales, marketing technical
support and training are examples of B2B e commerce some companies provide online
purchasing tracking and transaction facilities to other companies Paypal and Geogle Checkout
are examples of B2B
11.5.7.3 Advantages of e-commerce are as follows
1. Geographic Reach
The organization can interact with customers easily any person from any part of the world can be their
customer
2. Speed
The interaction between buyer and seller takes place almost instantaneously
3. Productivity
It enables to search and obtain information products and services online it increases the
productivity of individuals and organizations
4. Information Sharing
The digital information can be transmitted anywhere in the world easily it is easier than any
traditional sharing method.
5. New Features
E-commerce participants are constantly identifying now product features and services that they
can offer online for example the organization can deliver digital music online
6. Lower Costs
The cost of conducting business online is much lower as traditional physical resources are not
needed
7. Competitive advantage
Companies using e-commerce are more competitive as they can offer their products and services
to more customers well in time.
11.5.7.4
The four functions performed by e commerce websites are as follows
 Catalog and content management it is the information of a commercial web side it must be up to
date at all times and easy to access for the customer
 Shopping and checkout the site must allow the customer to identify multiple items they want to
purchase as they stop then allow them to purchase as they shop then allow them to purchase all
of them
 Back office processing it deals with final steps of sale such as processing credit card payments
updating inventories and preparing to send items to customers
 Advertising the web site must work with search engines ads on other sites online marketing and
email to advertise the products and services to online customers.
11.5.9 FTP
File Transfer protocols is used to transfer files over the Internet. It can be used to upload and
download auduio video graphics and data files a process of transferring a file from the remote
computer to local computer is called downloading the process of transferring a file from a local
computer to remote computer is called uploading different software using this protocls for
transferring files on the internet include cute FTP and WS-FTP

Web Publishing
Web publishing is the process content on the internet it includes creating and uploading websites
updating webpages and posting blogs online the published contents and include text images videos
and other types of media
11.9 Web Browser
A web browser is software that is used to view web pages. It acts as an interface between the user
and the internet it can understand HTML it can display text and graphics in the operating system of a
computer or mobile device for example internet Explorer is included with Windows and Safari with
Mac OS
Some popular web browsers are as follows
 Mozilla Firefox
 Internet Explorer
 Safari
 Google Chrome
 Opera
11.12.1 Searching the Web
Keywords are used to search the required information from search engine keyword is a word or set of
words that is related to the topic being searched the keyword is typed is double questions if it consists
of two or more words for example the following keywords can be used to search information about
Pakistani universitites
Pakistani Universities
Universities in Pakistan
The Boolean operators are also used to search the required information from search engines all search
engines do not provide the facility of using Boolean operators
1. AND Operator
It is used to search on the basis of all words in the search string such as Ali AND Naveed The
search string will search for the websites that contain both words The symbol + can also be used
instead of AND
2. OR Operator
It is used to search on the basis of any word in the search string such as Ali OR Naveed This
search string will search websites that contain any of the two words the symbol can also be used
instead of OR
3. NOT Operator
It is used to search on the basis of any word other than the search string such as New York NOT
City this search string will search for the websites that contain New York but not New York City
11.13 Types of Websites
Different types of websites are as follows
1. Portal
Portal is a website that provides different types of the internet services such as
 Serach engine
 News
 Sports and weather
 Shopping malls
 Auctions
 Emails
A website for specific group of people with similar interest is called web community some popular
portals and yahoo Alta Vista and I Google
2. News
The news webstie provides different types of news related to current affairs poltics sports and
wethr etc they provide stories artivcles and other material popular magzines and newspaper
provide the news on the websites some example of news websites are
 www.dawn.com
 www.jang.com.pk
 www.bbcurdu.com
3. Social News sites
Social news cities are different from traditional media news sites as some of the content a
submitted by the users these sites are interactive and allow the users to share their finds the
contents submitted more frequently or gets the most votes is promoted to the front page two of
the most popular social news sites are reddit and Digg
4. Social Networking sites
Social networks such as Facebook and Linkedin are online communities that combine many
features social network are used to chat in real time and post messages for all or send a personal
message there are hundreds of social networking sites some focus on business and others are
language specific or location specific social networking allows the users to keep in touch with
friends and make new ones
Currently the largest social networking sites is facebook it allows the user to create a profile that
includes some personal information such as pictures and interest the user can then connect with
 other facebook users and friends or join the desired groups within the network. Many Many
companies use facebook to connect with customers
Another social network site Linkedin is designed for business connections it does not offer
chatting games or funny applications and allows to upload only profile picture the linked people
are referred to as connections not friends
5. Social Media Sharing Sites
Social Media sharing sites such as Youtube and Flickr are used to create and share media an
important features of these sites is the ability to tag items Tagging or folksonomy make sharing a
very social experience as the users can tag not only their own creations but also the creations of
others.
Youtube is the largest online video hosting site in the world it allows the users to subscribe to
others user’s channels sned messages and recommend videos A viral video is a video that
becomes extremely popular because of recommendations and social sharing some other video
sharing sites include college lumor, Vimco, TeacherTube etc.
Flickr is the largest image sharing sites on the web the user can create a free account and post
up to 200 images The pictures can be marked a private or public the image can be tagged that
makes it easier to be searched online, other popular photo sharing sites are Picasa and
Photobucket Instagram and other mobile apps are used to take and edit photos on mobile
device and upload them to the web automatically
6. Social Review sites
Social review sites are used to read and write reviews of hostel movies games books and other
products and services Yelp allows the user to review local businesses and place with a physical
addrss such as parks. The reviews can help people decide where to eat or visit etc. The mobile
app of &Yelp can be used on mobile device to get the information some other popular social
review sites are TripAdvisor and epinions
7. International
The international websites provide information with facts and figures The user can search for
specific information on these websites Many government provide information about different
departments and policies for general public
Some examples of international website are as follows
 www.paksitan.gov.pk
 www.punjab.gov.pk
 www.about.com
8. Business/Marketing
The business websites provide are used to promote the business product and services Most of
business companies use websties it allows the customers to view the products and instead with
the company easily many business websites allow the user to buy the products online some
examples of business websites are as follows
 www.apple.com
 www.ibm.com
 www.daraz.pk
9. Educational
The educational websites provide educational material related for learning. Many websites
provide online training classes where people can learn different skills
Some examples of educational websites are as follows
 www.funbrain.com
 www.khanacademy.org
 www.w3schools.com
 10. Entertainment
The entrainment websites provides the material for recreations and enjoyment such as music,
videos and games etc. Many websites also provide online shows, live sports etc. some examples
of entertainment websites are as follows
 www.hamaariweb.com
 www.pakmusic.net
 www.soundeloud.com
11. Advocacy
Advocacy website provide material to convince people of a cause, opinion or idea some websites
represent the view point of a particular community or group some intend to create awareness in
the people about a particular cause
12. Personal
Personal websites contain material of an individual or a family people publish personal websites
to share their view with others to seek job or just for fun

Input Devices
The data and instructions given to the computer is known as input. A hardware component used
to enter data and instructions into computer is called input device. The data and instructions are
entered into the computer in different ways using different input devices. The commonly used input
devices are keyboard, pointing devices, touch screens, digital camera, scanners and other reading
devices.
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most commonly used input device. Data is mostly entered using a keyboard. The
buttons on the keyboard are called keys. A standard keyboard contains over 100 keys. The arrangement
of keys on a keyboard is called keyboard layout. The most popular keyboard layout is QWERTY. The
letters Q. W, F, R. T and Y appear on the top row of the main area of a keyboard.

The keys on computer keyboards are often classified as follows:

Numeric Keypad
Numeric keypad is located on the right hand side of most keyboards. It has arithmetic operators
keys +,-,*,/ that are used in arithmetic operations and digits from 0 to 9. It also has a key Num Lock.
When this key is off, the keypad cannot be used to type numbers.
Function Keys
Function keys F1 to F12 are located at the top of the keyboard. The function keys are used to
perform special functions.
For example, Fl key is used to get help in Windows. Alphanumeric Keys Alphanumeric keys
include all letter keys in alphabet (A to Z) and digits from 0 to 9.

Backspace Key
Key Backspace key is used to delete a single letter or number to the left of the cursor.
Enter Key
Enter key is used to enter commands or input data in the computer.
Caps Lock Key
Caps Lock is a loggle key. The characters appear in uppercase if it is pressed. The characters
appear in lowercase if it is not pressed. Numbers and symbols are not affected. The status light under
Caps Lock turns on when it is pressed.
Tab Key
Tab key is used to move the cursor to the next tab stop. It is also used in dialog boxes to move
from one option or field to another.
Modifier Keys
These are used to modify the input of other keys. A specific key is pressed while holding down
one of these keys to get the required result.
Different modifier keys are as follows:
Ctrl Key
CTRL key produces different results depending on the type of software. It is used in combination
with other keys as shortcut to some commands. For example, CTRL+O is used to open a file.
Alt Key
ALT key is used in combination with other keys to perform special functions. In windows-based
programs, it can be used to navigate menus and dialog boxes. For example, Alt+F4 is used to close a file
or program.
Shift Key
SHIFT key is used to type capital letter or symbols. It is commonly used in word processor in
combination with cursor movement keys to select text.
Cursor Control Keys
The cursor control keys consist of arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up and Page Down keys. These
keys are used to move the cursor within the text or around the screen. Different cursor control keys are
as follows:
Home
Home key is normally used in word processing or text editors to move cursor to the top of the
screen.
End
End key is normally used in word processing to move the cursor to the right of screen or to the
end of screen or document.
Arrows
The keys that move the cursor are called arrow keys. These keys have an up arrow (î), a down
arrow (), a left arrow (), and right arrow (→).
PageUp
 Page Up key is normally used in word processing or other applications to move the cursor one
page up on screen.
Page Down
Page Dwon key is normally used in word processing or other application to move the cursor one
page down on screen.
Special-Purpose Keys
These Keys are used special purpose and are as follows:
Esc
Esc key is used to terminate command or current task.
Delete
Delete key is used to delete a single letter or number to the right of the cursor on the screen. It is
also used to delete the selected object.

Insert
It is a toggle key used to switch between Insert Mode and Overtype Mode.

Print Screen
It is used to capture everything that appears on the screen.
Scroll Lock
It locks and unlocks the cursor on screen in some programs. The cursor moves normally when it
is turned off. It does not work in all programs.
Pause/Break
It is used to pause screen when information is too fast to read.
Types of Keyboard
Different types of keyboards are as follows:
1. QWERTY Keyboard
A standard keyboard is normally called QWERTY keyboard. This is because the first six keys on
top row of letters on these keyboards are Q,W,E,R,T,Y.
2. Enhanced Keyboard
An enhanced keyboard contains twelve function keys. It contains two control keys, two ALT keys,
arrow keys and additional keys between the typing area and numeric keypad.
3. Wireless Keyboard
A keyboard that requires no wire is called wireless keyboard or cordless keyboard. It transmits
data using wireless technology like radio waves or infrared light waves.
 Wireless keyboards are available in a variety of features and styles. Many wireless keyboards
must be within the line of sight of the receiver with a maximum range of around 10 feet. A wireless
keyboard using radio signals provides a range of up to 100 feet.
4. Portable Keybord
A keyboard that can be easily attached or removed from a mobile computers and devices is
called portable keyboard.
5. Ergonomic Keyboard
A keyboard that is specially designed to reduce the chance of wrist injuries during typing is called
ergonomic keyboard.
The goal of this keyboard is to provide comfort, efficiency and safety. The users who spend a lot
of time in typing may experience repetitive strain injuries of wrist and hands. This keyboard is
manufactured to avoid these injuries.
6. Gaming Keyboard
A gaming keyboard is a type of keyboard that is specially designed for playing games on the
computer. It includes programmable keys to customize the keyboard for the game being played. The
keys on gaming keyboards light up to be visible in all lighting conditions
7. Virtual Keyboard
A virtual keyboard is a special type of keyboard. The user types on optical-detectable surface or
within a wireless area rather than pressing physical keys. This system provides the capability of full
keyboard to the users of small handheld device such as smartphones.

Different technologies are used in virtual keyboards. In one technology, the keyboard is
projected optically on a flat surface. The user touches the image of a key. The optical device detects the
stroke and sends it to the computer in another technology, keyboard is projected on an area. The
selected keys are transmitted as wireless signals using Bluetooth technology.
A virtual keyboard is also called projection keyboard. VKLY is the trademark name of the virtual
keyboard developed by Virtual Devices Inc.

Pointing Devices
An input device used to control a pointer on the screen is called pointing device. A pointer is a
small symbol that appears on the screen in graphical user interface A pointing device can be used to
select text, graphics and other objects such as buttons, icons and menu commands. Different shapes of
a pointer as are as follows:

Description Shape
Block arrow Arrow
Pointing hand
Help select
Working in background
 Busy
Precision select
I-bean (Text select)
Vertical resize
Horizontal resize 1
Diagonal resize 2
Move

Table
Mouse

Mouse is a popular pointing device. It is used to input instructions with a pointer on the screen.
Mouse is moved on a flat surface to control the movement of the cursor or pointer on the screen. A
mouse usually has two or three buttons. These buttons are used to perform different tasks such as
selecting an object or opening a program etc. It may also include a wheel that can be rolled with the
finger to scroll the screen. Mouse typically connects to the computer through USB port or wireless
connection.

Types of Mouse

Different types of mouse are as follows.

1. Mechanical Mouse
Mechanical mouse contains a rubber or metal ball inside it. The movement of the cursor
depends on the movement of the ball. This mouse is normally used on mouse pad. Mouse pad is a small
pad of rubber ur foam to provide easy movement of the mouse. It protects the mouse from dust and
dirt.

2. Optical Mouse
Optical mouse contains no ball inside it. It uses a device that emits light to detect the mouse
movement. Optical sensor or laser is used in these types of mouse. It is more expensive than mechanical
mouse. Most mice today are optical
3. Wireless/Cordless Mouse
Wireless or cordless mouse is a type of mouse that does not require a wire to work. It transmits
data using wireless technology like radio waves or infrared light waves.
4. Air Mouse
Air mouse is a motion-sensing mouse. It can be used to control objects, media players and slide
shows by moving the mouse in specific directions through the air. For example, the user can raise the
mouse up to increase the volume of media player. The air mouse works in the air by detecting hand
motion. It does not need to work on the surface.
5. Touch Mouse
A touch mouse is a touch-sensitive mouse that recognizes touch gestures. It can also detect the
movement of the mouse and traditional click and scroll operations. For example, the user can press a
location on a touch mouse to click, sweep thumb on the mouse to scroll pages or slide multiple fingers
across the mouse to zoom.
Trackball
A trackball can be used as an alternative to a mouse. This device has buttons similar to those on
mouse. It has a large rotating ball on the top. The body of the trackball is not moved. The ball is rolled
with fingers. The position of the cursor on the screen is controlled by rotating the ball.
An advantage of the trackball is that it takes less space to move than mouse. Trackball is often
included in laptop computers. It can also be used as separate input device with desktop computers.
Touchpad/Trackpad
A touchpad is a small, flat surface over which the user moves his finger. The movement of the
finger moves the cursor on the screen. It is also known as trackpad. A touchpad also has one or more
buttons near it. These buttons work like mouse buttons. Touchpads are commonly used with notebook
computers. The user can also use an external wireless touchpad with desktop computer.
Pointing stick
Pointing Stick is a pressure-sensitive device. It is similar to a pencil eraser and exists between
keys on the keyboard. The pointer on the screen moves when the user pushes the pointing stick. It
requires no additional space or cleaning like mouse. Pointing stick is normally used in notebook
computers.
Touch Screen
A touch screen is a touch-sensitive display device. The user can touch different parts of the
screen with the finger or stylus to input data and issue commands. Many touch screens today are multi-
touch and can recognize input from more than one finger at a time. For example, the user can use two
fingers to enlarge or rotate an image on the screen.
Touch screens are commonly used in tablets, mobile devices, retail store self-checkouts, ATMs
and information kiosks. Some models of desktop computers and laptops also have touch screens. Touch
screens are popular because the user can interact with the computer easily without an external input
device.
Different types of touch screens are as follows:

Resistive
The touch screen that have resistive screen can sense the pressure. It can be used with a finger or an
ordinary stylus. A resistive screen can also be used by someone wearing gloves. They are only used in
lower-end smartphones
Capacitive
The capacitive touch screen can sense the conductive properties of an object such as finger or specially
designed stylus. Capacitive touch screens are much better and responsive to human touch than resistive
touch screens. They are used in most of the higher-end smartphones.
Pen Input
The mobile users usually input data and instructions using a device like a pen. The user can write
and draw on a flat surface to give input. The pen input is normally used with touch screen. The devices
used with pen input are stylus, digital pen and graphic tablet.
1. Stylus
A stylus is a small input device that is similar to a pen. It can be used to write, draw and select
the objects on the touch screen that supports pen input. It can also be used to enter the handwritten
signature using the signature capture pad. The pad is attached to the device. The stylus is used in many
smart phone and other personal mobile devices.

2. Digital Pen
A digital pen is an input device that captures handwriting or drawing and converts it into digital
format. It is larger than a stylus. The handwriting, recognition software is used to translate handwritten
letters and symbols into typed text. It is commonly used to take notes.

3. Graphic Tablet
A graphic tablet is an electronic pad that detects the movements of stylus or digital pen and
sends them to the computer in digital format. The image is created on the screen as the user draws on
the pad. The user can use pen input with a computer that does not have touch screen by attaching a
graphic tablet to it. It is commonly used by architects, designers and artists to create images, sketches
and designs. It is also called digitizer.
Game Controllers
A device used to interact with a video game is called game controller. It is an input device used
to direct the movements and actions of the objects in the game. Game controllers include gamepads,
joysticks and steering wheels. These devices have buttons and miniature pointing devices that provide
input to the computer.
Joystick
A joystick consists of a base and a stick. The stick can be moved in any direction o move an
object around the computer screen. A joystick can perform a similar function to a use or trackball. It is
often considered less comfortable and efficient.
The most common use of a joystick is for playing computer games. Some of the latest joysticks
such as Logitech Freedom 2.4 are wireless.
Gamepad
Gamepad controls the movement and actions of players or objects in games. It is a multifunction
input device that includes programmable buttons, thumb sticks and a directional pad. The user can
program the buttons to correspond to certain actions such as changing a weapon, opening a door etc.
The directional pad and thumb sticks control the movement.
Gaming Wheel
A gaming wheel is an input device that uses a steering wheel and a separate set of foot pedals to
imitate real-world driving Most gaming Wheels incorporate programmable buttons as well.

Audio Input Devices

The process of entering any sound into the computer is called audio input. It may include
speech, music or any other sound effects. Audio can be entered through different devices such as
microphone, tape players. CD/DVD player or radio. Audio devices convert sounds into a form that can
be processed by computer. A sound card is required to enter high-quality sound into a personal
computer.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to digitally record audio data such as human voice. It can be
plugged into a computer or recorder. Many software applications can accept data with microphone
enables a user to input text and issue commands orally. The software in the computer converts the
sound waves into digital form. It is then stored in memory and used according to the requirement.
MIDI stands
MIDI stand for musical instrument digital interface. MIDI devices are used to enter music and
other sound effects in computer. These devices connect to sound card in the computer. The user can
compose and edit music and many other sounds using software. Electronic piano keyboard is an
example of MIDI device.
Voice Input
The process of entering data by speaking into a microphone attached to the computer is called
voice input. The microphone is attached to the computer with the help of sound card. The capability of
a computer to distinguish spoken words is called voice recognition or speech recognition. Voice input is
a faster way of entering data. Many word processing applications provide the facility of voice input. The
user speaks into the microphone and the application software writes the spoken words as text.
There are two types of voice recognition software
1.Speaker-indepent software.
In speaker-dependent software, the user has to
train the computer. He speaks the words
repeatedly and computer stores his voice pattern
for future use.
2.Speaker-independent software.

In speaker-independent software, the user

does not train the computer. This software
has a built-in set of word patterns.
Some voice recognition software requires discrete speech. It means that the user has to speak
slowly. Each word should be spoken separately. On the other hand, some software understand
continuous speech. The user can speak continuously in a flow.
Digital Camera
 Digital camera is an input device that takes pictures and stores them as digital images. Digital
cameras store captured images on storage in the camera or on some type of memory card. Photos
taken with a digital camera are typically transferred to a computer using a wired or wireless connection.
Many digital cameras allow the user to edit the image. The number of digital photos depends on the
amount of memory in the camera. The main advantage of digital cameras is that making photos is
inexpensive and fast. It does not require any film processing. Many smartphones and other mobile
devices have built-in digital cameras. Digital still cameras are available in a wide variety of sizes and
capabilities.
The quality of a digital camera photos depends on its resolution. Resolution describes the
sharpness of an image. Image resolution for digital camera is measured in megapixels. Megapixels are
millions of pixels in a graphic. Today's cameras are typically between 5 and 20 megapixels.
Types of Digital Cameras
Some important digital cameras are as follows:
1.Point-and-shoot Camera
A point-and-shoot camera is an affordable and lightweight digital camera. It has lenses built into
it and a screen that displays an approximation of the image to be photographed Point-and-shoot
cameras are available in wide variety of sizes and capabilities It provides acceptable quality
photographic images for the home or small business user Must point-and- shoot cameras include zoom
and autofocus capability and use built-in flash. Many point-a shoot cameras can also take videos.
2. DSLR Camera
DSLR (Digital Single Lens Reflex) camera is the most versatile and expensive type of digital
camera. It allows the user to change the lens to get the required zoom. Its lens may curt hundreds or
thousands of dollars. It has a screen to display the image to be photographed. The user can manually
adjust focus and exposure. Many USLRs can also record high definition videos. DSLR cameras are much
heavier and larger than point-and- shoot cameras. point-and-shoot camera.
Video Input
The process of entering full-motion recording into a computer is called video input or video
capture. Video can be entered from an analog device like VCR but the analog signals must be converted
into digital format before storing it in the computer. An expansion card that converts the analog video
signal into digital signal is called video capture card.
Two types of video cards are as follows:
1. Frame-grabber video card
It can capture and convert into digital form only a single frame at a time. An image of a video at
a specific time called frame.
2. Full motion video card
It is also called adapters It can convert analog to digital signal at the rate of up to 30 frames per
second. It gives the effect of a motion picture.
The video camera that records video as digital signals instead of analog signals called digital
video (DV) camera. Many digital video cameras can capture still frames as well as motions. These
cameras are connected to the computer through USB port or FireWire pet on the system unit.
Webcams
Webcam is also called PC video camera. It is a type of digital video camera that can b used for
the following purposes.
 Capture video and still images.
 Send emails with video attachments.
 Add live images over the Internet.
 Make video telephone calls on the Internet etc.
Webcams are normally placed on the top of the monitor. Most notebook computers have built-
in webcams. Webcams can be attached to the computer through USB port or FireWire port. Some
cameras are portable and can be detached easily.
Some webcams display output on the Webpages. This use of webcam attracts website visitors as
different images are displayed on the website regularly. It is normally used to show any work in
progress. Some Websites use live webcams to display still pictures at a specified time or time intervals
such as 20 seconds.
Video Compression
The process of minimizing the size of video clips is called video compression. Videos compression
recognizes that only a small part of a video changes from frame to frame. Video compression software
stores the first frame completely. It then stores only the changes from one frame to the another. Some
computers also use video decoders. Video decoder is a cand that decompresses video data. It is more
effective than compression software. Video digitizer captures individual frame from an analog video and
saves the picture in a file.
Video Conferencing
Video conference is a meeting between two or more people over a network or Internet. The
people sitting at distant locations can transmit audio and video data. Video conference requires
microphone, speakers and a video camera attached to the computer. When one participant speaks, the
other participants hear his voice.
Video conference also provides whiteboard. It is a window on the screen to display cost-
effective notes and drawings on the screens of all participants. Video conferencing is a way to conduct
business meetings, trainings and educational classes etc.
Scanners and Reading Devices
Scanner reads data or information from a source. This source could be a written document, a
price tag, a graphic image or a photograph. A scanning device reads the data or information and then
converts it into a form that can be processed by the computer. Two types of scanning devices are
optical scanner and optical readers.

Optical Scanner
An optical scanner is also known as scanner. It is a light-sensing input device that reads printed
text or images and stores them in the computer in digital form. The advantage of scanner is that the
user does not need to type the input. The input can be entered into the computer quickly and
accurately using the scanner.
 The quality of scanned images depends on the resolution. Resolution describes the sharpness of
an image. It is usually measured in the dpi. The typical scanner scans at a resolution of 300 or 600 dpi.
Professional scanners usually scan at 1200 dpi or more. A higher resolution results in a better image but
also creates a large file size. Many scanners also provide optical character recognition (OCR) software.
OCR software can read the document image and then convert it into text that can be edited in word
processor.
Types of Optical Scanner
Different types of optical scanners are as follows:
1. Flatbed Scanner
Flatbed scanner is the most commonly used scanner. It is also called image scanner. It inputs one
page at a time. It works like a photocopy machine. The image to be scanned is placed on a glass
surface and the scanner records the image. It is generally used at home and office to scan photos,
book pages and other documents etc.
2. Sheetfed Scanner
A sheetfed scanner works similarly to a flatbed scanner but documents are inserted on the top
of the scanner like a fax machine. This design reduces the scanner's cost and the amount of required
space. It also enables automatic sheet feeding. However, this feature also prevents the device from
scanning hound-book pages or other documents thicker or larger than a sheet of paper.
3. Handheld Scanner
A handheld scanner is a portable scanner. It typically can scan only 2 to 5 inches at a time. The
scanner is dragged by hand over the image to be scanned. It is very useful to scan magazines,
newspapers and books. The handheld scanners are typically powered by batteries.

Optical Readers
Optical reader is a device that uses a light source to read characters, marks and end It then
converts them into digital data that can be processed by computer. There are different types of optical
readers are available. The common types of optical readers are as follows
1.Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Optical character recognition is a technology that reads typewritten, computer-printed or
handwritten characters from ordinary documents. It translates the images into a form that can be
recognized by computer. A common OCR device is handheld
wand reader. It is used in retail stores to read price
reflecting light on printed characters.
ABCDEFGH tags by

OCR devices read printed characters using an IGKLMONK OCR font.

Most commonly used OCR font is called OCR-A. An OCR device
determines the shapes of characters by detecting, PQRSTUV patterns of
light and dark. OCR software compares these shapes with
predefined shapes stored in memory and converts WXYZ,.$/ the shapes
into characters.
2. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) *12345678
90
 OMR stands for Optical mark recognition. It is also called mark sensing device. These devices
use light beam to read data. The data is converted into digital signals. The signals are then sent to the
computer for further processing.
An OMR device detects marks such as circles and rectangles on specially printed forms. It is often
used in multiple choice test such SAT and GRE. The students answer the questions by filling the circles.
The OMR device reads the answer sheet and evaluates it.
Barcode Readers
Barcode reader is also called Barcode scanner. Bar code scanner uses a laser beam to read bar
codes and translate them into digital signals. The digital signals are then further processed by computer.
Barcode consists of vertical lines and spaces of different width. The bar code represents data that
identifies the manufacturer and the item.

Different products like groceries, pharmacy supplies, mail, magazines and books contain bar codes.
Different types of bar codes are used. Most popular are POSTNET used by US Postal Service and
Universal Product Code (UPC) used by retail stores.
The conventional types of barcodes are called one dimension (ID) barcodes because they
contain data horizontally in one direction. A type of barcode stores information both horizontally and
vertically and can hold more data. They are known as two-dimensional (2D) barcodes.
A common 2D barcode QR (Quick Response) code represents data with a matrix of small
squares. Most 2D barcodes today are designed to be used by consumers with mobile phones. For
example, the user can capture the image of QR barcode located on a newspaper or magazine with a
mobile phone's camera. The QR decoding software installed on the phone will open the browser and
load the Web page related to the QR barcode.

Bar Code
QR Code

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition Reader (MICR)

Magnetic-ink character recognition reader is used to read text printed with magnetized ink. It is
used by bank industry for check processing. Each check contains MICR characters at the lower-left edge.
These characters represent check number, bank number and account number.

RFID Reader
RFID stands for radio frequency identification. It is a technology that uses radio signals to
communicate with a tag attached to an object or a person etc. RFID tag contains a memory chip and an
antenna. These tags are available in different shapes and sizes. They can also be embedded in glass,
labels and cards. An RFID reader reads information on the lag using radio waves Some RFID readers are
handheld devices and some are placed on other objects such as motorway entrance etc.

RFID can be a better alternate of bar code in retail stores. The products in store may contain tags
to identify the product. The consumer can pick up the products and move to the checkout area. An RFID
reader can read the tag and send the information to computer to calculate the bill. RFID can also be
used for tracking the times of runners in a race, airline baggage, managing the inventory and tracking
payments as the vehicles pass through the motorway entrance etc.
Magnetic Stripe Card Reader
Magnetic stripe card reader is also called magstripe reader. It reads the magnetic stripe on the
back of credit cards and bank cards etc. The stripe is divided into three horizontal tracks. It contains
information to identify the user and the card issuing company.
The information on the stripe include user name, account number, card expiration date and
country code. This information can be used to make payments, authenticate users and grant access to a
secure area etc. The magstripe reader reads the information stored on the stripe when the user swipes
the card. The magstripe reader rejects the card if its damaged, dirty or erased. The contents of the
magnetic stripe can be erased due to magnetic fields.
Data Collection Devices/Wireless input
Data collection devices read data directly at the location where the transaction takes place. For
example, the user collects data wirelessly using bar code readers and handheld computers etc. These
devices are used in retail stores, factories and restaurants where heat and humidity cannot be
controlled easily. Data collection devices can transmit data wirelessly over a network or the Internet.
These devices are frequently used to send data wirelessly now a days.

Biometric Input Devices

Biometric is a technology to authenticate the identity of a person by verifying personal
characteristics. Biometric devices analyze some biometric identifier and then grant access to a program,
system or room. A biometric identifier is a physiological or behavioral characteristic of a person. It is
related to the physical or chemical activities in the body. The fingerprints, hand geometry, facial
features, voice and eye patterns are some examples of biometric identifiers.
A biometric device converts a personal characteristic in digital code. This digital code is
compared with a digital code stored in the computer. The access is not granted to the user both digital
codes do not match.
A fingerprint reader is the most widely used biometric device. It scans the curves and
indentations of a fingerprint. The fingerprint reader is very inexpensive and costs less than $100. It can
be easily used by home and small business users to authenticate users. The external fingerprint readers
are also available that can be plugged into a USB port. Some latest keyboards and notebook computers
also have fingerprint reader for logging on the computer using fingerprints without entering user name
and password.

A facial recognition system captures the live face image of a person. It compares this image with
another image stored in the computer to authenticate the person. This system is used in the buildings
to authenticate a person before allowing him to enter. It is also used in airports to protect the public.
Some notebook computers use this system to protect computer system. The system can also identify
the user with or without glasses, makeup or jewellery.
The hand geometry system is used in biometric devices to measure the shape and size of hand.
The cost of this system is more than $1000 and only
A voice verification system compares the voice of a person with the stored voice. Some large
companies use this system as time and attendance devices. It is also used for accessing sensitive files
and networks. The financial organizations use this system in secure telephone banking transactions.

A signature verification system identifies the shape of handwritten signature. It also measures
the pressure and motion used to write the signature. This system uses special pen and tablet.
An iris recognition system uses iris recognition technology to read the patterns in the iris of an
eye. These patterns are unique in the eyes. This system is very expensive and are used by government
security organizations, military and large financial organizations. Some organizations use retinal scanner
that works similarly. However, this scanner scans the patterns of blood vessels in the back of retina.
Line-of-sight systems are used to use your eyes to point at the screen. This technology allows
some physically disable users to direct a computer. For example, a disable person can focus his eyes on
specific area of the screen to issue a command to the computer. A camera is used to identify the area
on which the user is focusing.
Sensors Input Devices
Sensor is an input device that inputs data directly from the environment and stores it in the
computer. It is usually used to detect speed, movement, weight, pressure, temperature, humidity, wind
and images etc. Sensors can be used to sense the weather conditions and earthquakes
Output
The data that has been processed into useful information is called output. The output can be in
two forms:
1. Soft Copy
The output shown on display screen is called soft copy. Soft copy output is not tangible. It
means that it cannot be touched.
2. Hard Copy
The output printed on paper is called hard copy. The common devices to produce hard
copy output are printers and plotters.

Difference between Soft and Hard Copy

The difference between input and output devices is as follows:

Soft Copy Hard Copy

1. Soft copy is in electronic form. 1. Hard copy is in printed form.
2. It is easier to modify. 2. It is difficult to modify.
 3. It is intangible. 3. It is tangible.
4. It is stored on storage devices.
4. It is printed on papers.
5. Its duplicate copies can be produced 5. Its duplicate copies can be produced
without any cost. with cost.

Types of Output
Different types of output are as follows:
1. Text
Text include characters used to create words, sentences and paragraphs. Letters,
announcements, advertisements, brochures and newsletters are examples of text
2. Graphics
Graphic output includes drawing, charts and photographs. Some graphics appear on websites
with motion
3. Audio
Audio output includes music, speech or any other sound. Many software applications and
websites use audio for more effective output.
4. Video
Video is a set of full-motion images played at high speed. It may also include audio.
Output Devices
The hardware components that are used to receive information from the computer are called output
devices. Output devices take information from the computer and convert it in a form that is
understandable by the users. The common output devices are display devices, printers, speakers and
headphones.

Moniter Display Printer

Output
Devices
Speaker
Headphones

Display Devices
A display device or display is an output device that displays text, graphics and video The output
displayed by a display device is called soft copy. The display for a desktop typically is a monitor that is a
separate physical device. The screen is a part of monitor that also includes the housing for its electronic
components Mobile computers and devices typically integrate the display in their same physical case.
Some displays have touch screens. Display devices are available in a wide variety of sizes.

Features of Display Devices

Display devices can be distinguished on the basis of the following features:
1. Size and Aspect Ratio
Display screens are measured diagonally from corner to corner. Display screens are
available in various sizes. Desktop computer monitors range from 17 to 30 inches but the large
ones are available for special purpose. Laptop screens are usually between 14 and 17 inches
Netbooks typically have 10-inch displays. Tablet screens are between 7 and 10 inches. Most
current displays are wide screen which means they use a 16.9 or 16:10 aspect ratio similar to
widescreen televisions. The aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to the height.

2. Color
The display devices can be monochrome or colour. The color display sevens display output in multiple
colours. The color display screens also called RGB monitors. The number of colors a monitor can display
is called colour depth or bit depth. The RGB display screens can cate 256 colors and thousands of
variations of these colors RGB stands for Red, Green and Blue.
The monochrome display screens display output in single color Monochrome display screens
show images in a single color usually white, green, blue, red or amber. However. monochrome monitor
can display different shades of one color. The number of shades of one lar that the mentor can display is
referred to as gray-scale
3. Resolution
Resolution is an important characteristic of any display device. The number of pixels displayed
on screen is called screen resolution. Pixels are the dots or picture elements that form images on the
screen. A higher screen resolution displays more information than a lower screen resolution but
everything appears smaller. A higher resolution provides sharper and clearer image.
Resolution determines the amount of information that can be displayed at one time. It is
expressed as the number of horizontal pixels by the number of vertical pixels. For example. a monitor or
screen with a Te0×900 resolution displays up to 1600 pixels per horizontal row and 90 pixels per vertical
row. It displays a total of 1,440,000 pixels to create a screen image
4. Refresh Rate
The refresh rate is the speed with which a monitor redraws the image on screen. It is also known
as vertical scan rate or Vertical frequency. It is measured in Hertz. It indicates the number of times the
screen is refreshed in one second. Refresh is necessary because the phosphors hold their glow for a
fraction of a second. The image on the screen appears more sold if the refresh rate is high. The screen
will flicker less. The refresh rate should be at least 7 Common monitors have refresh rates between 75
and 85 Hz.

5. Dot Pitch
 The distance between each pixel on a display is called dot pitch or pixel pitch. It is measured in
millimeters. The display devices typically have a dot pitch between 26 and 23 A lower dot pitch means
less blank space between pixels and results in sharper image.

6. Video Adapters
The video adapter is a circuit board that determines the graphics capabilities of the computer
such as:
 Screen resolutions available
 The number of bits used to store color information about each pixel called bit depth
 The total number of colors that can be used to display images.
 Number of monitors that can be connected to the computer via that video card.
 Types of connectors that can be used to connect a monitor to the computer.
Most video cards also have memory chips known as video RAM or VRAM. It is used to support
graphics display A sufficient amount of video RAM is required to support higher resolutions, higher bit
depths and a greater number of colors. Most video cards today contain a video RAM from 256 MB to 2
GB.
Different standards for graphics cards are as follows:

Standard Resolution

VGA (Video Graphics Array) 640 x 480

SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array)

800 x 600
XGA (Extended Graphics Array) 1024 x 768

SXGA (Super XGA) 1280 x 1024

UXGA (Ultra XGA) 1600 x 1200

WUXGA (Wide Ultra XG) 1920 x 1200

WQXGA (Wide Quad XGA) 2560x1600

Types of Display Devices

Different types of display devices are as follows:
Cathode Ray Tube
CRT monitor is an older type of monitor. This monitor uses a cathode ray tube (CRT). CRT tube
creates an image on the screen using a beam of electrons CRT consists of one or more guns that fire a
beam of electrons inside the screen. The screen is coated with very tiny phosphor dots from inside. The
beam of electrons repeatedly falls on the surface of screen. Every beam-fall takes only a fraction of a
second. CRT in color monitors consists of three guns. These guns generale red. green and blue (RGB)
colors. The other colors are generated with a combination of these three colors.
Flat Panel Displays
Flat-panel displays use electronically charged chemicals or gases between thin panes of glass or
other transparent material to form images. Flat-panel displays take less space and are lightweight. They
also consume less power than CKTS but are more expensive than CRTs They do not emit harmful
radiations and use digital signals to display sharper images. Flat- panel displays are available in a variety
of sizes.

Flat Panel Display Technologies

Different technologies used in flat panel displays are as follows:

i. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) uses charged liquid crystals between two sheets of material such as
glass or plastic to light up the appropriate pixels to form the image on the screen. It uses CCFL. (cold
cathode fluorescent lamp) as the light source also known as the backlight. LCDs provide a sharper
picture than CRTs and emit less radiation. It also requires less power and takes up less space than CRT.
ii. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A display that uses LED for the backlight is called an LED display. It is also known as LED-LCD
display. It consumes less power and is thinner, lighter and brighter than LCD display that uses CCFL
technology. However, it can be more expensive than LCD. The display screens of laptops and mobile
devices often use LED backlight technology.
iii. Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)
Organic light emitting diode (OLED) is a type of flat panel display that uses emissive organic
material to display brighter and sharper images. OLED displays use layers of organic material that emits
a visible light when electric current is applied. OLED displays do not use backlighting as they emit a
visible light. This characteristic makes OLED more energy efficient than LCD and LED.
The portable devices using OLED provide longer battery life. OLEDs are thinner and have a wider
viewing angle than LCDs. They are also brighter and sharper than LCD, OLED displays are incorporated
into many digital cameras, mobile phones, portable digital media.
iv. Gas Plasma Display
Gas plasma display uses gas plasma technology. This technology uses a layer of gas between two
glass plates. The gas releases ultraviolet light when voltage is applied. The pixels on the screen glow due
to this ultraviolet light and form an image. Plasma display is available in the sizes of up to 150 inches
wide. It provides richer colors than LCD monitors but are more expensive. That is why, it is not
commonly used. It provides higher display quality. This type of monitor can hang directly on a wall.
Flat panel screens are active matrix or passive matrix.
1. Active Matrix Display
In active-matrix display, each pixel on the screen is controlled by its own transistor. It is also
called thin film transistor (TFT) monitor. It is much brighter and sharper than passive screens. It is
more complicated and more expensive. It also requires more power.
2. Passive Matrix Display
In passive matrix display, two transistors control a whole row or column of pixels each at the
same time. It is also called dual-scan monitor. Its advantage is that it is less expensive. It uses less
power than active matrix displays. The clarity of the image is not sharp.
Differentiate between CRT and LCD
CRT The difference between CRT and LCD monitors is as follows.

CRT LCD Monitor

1. CKT is less expensive 1. LCD is more expensive.
2 It takes more desk space 2. It takes less desk space.
3 It uses more energy 3. It uses less energy.
4 It uses picture tube technology 4. It uses liquid crystal technology
5. Its weight is more
5. Its weight is less.
6. It emits harmful radiation. 6. It does not emit harmful radiation.
7. It produces more heat LCD Monitor 7. It produces less heat

Difference between LCD and LED Monitors LCD

The difference between LCD and LED monitors is as follows:

LCD LED

1. LCD is thicker and heavier than LED 1. LED is thinner and lighter than LCD.

2. It is cheaper than LED 2. It is a bit expensive than LCD.

3. It consumes higher power 3. It consumes less power.

4. produces more heat.

4. It produces less heat.-
 5. It provides lower brightness 5. It generally provides higher
brightness.

6. Its lifespan is shorter. 6. Its lifespan is longer.

Difference between Active & Passive Flat Panel Display

The difference between active and passive flat panel display is as follows:

Active Flat Panel Passive Flat Panel

1. In passive flat panel, transistor
1. In active flat panel, each pixel on the controls the whole row or column of
screen o controlled by its own transistor pixels.
2. Active matrix screen is much brighter 2. Passive matrix screen gives sharp
and sharper than passive matrix screen. image for one color but subdued for
more colors.
3. Active matrix screens are more 3. Passive matrix screens are less
complicated and expensive. complicated and expensive.
4.It consumes more power. 4. It consumes less power.

High-definition Television (HDTV)

HDTV is the most advanced type of digital television. It provides the resolution up to 1920 1080
pixels. It delivers a much clearer and detailed wide-screen picture than normal television It displays
digital output and the user can take still images easily from the video This technology is useful for
graphic artists, designers and publisher.
Printers
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols and graphics on paper The printed
output is called hard copy Print resolution is commonly measured in dots per inch (dpi).
Features of Printer
Different features of printer are as follows:
1. User Friendly
The printer must be user friendly. It means that it should easy to use and understand. The user should
be able to use it easily.
2. Reliability
 The printer must be reliable. It should not break down often. It should also print smoothly
without jamming the papers etc.
3.Resolution
The quality or sharpness of printed images and text depends on printer's resolution. It is
measured by the number of dots printed per linear inch and abbreviated as dots per inch (dpi) A printer
with higher DI'I produces better output.
4.Print Speed
Speed is an important characteristic of printer. Printer speed is measured by pages per minute
(ppm) or characters per second (eps). A faster printer finishes the printing tasks quickly Color printouts
typically take longer than black-and-white printouts. The pages with text are printed quickly than the
pages that contain graphics. Typical speeds for personal computer printers range between 6 and 35
pages of text per minute.
5. Duty Cycle
Duty cycle determines how many pages a printer can produce. It is usually measured in pages
per month. For example, a personal laser printer has a duty cycle of about 3,000 pages per month. It
means roughly 100 pages per day.
6. Operating Costs
The operating cost of a printer is very important. For example, ink jet printers require frequent
replacements or refills for relatively expensive ink cartridges Laser printers require toner cartridge refills
or replacements. Dot matrix printers require replacement ribbons. It is important to determine the
operating costs of a printer before buying it.
7. Duplex Capability
A duplex printer can print on both sides of the paper. This option saves paper but can low down the
printing process in some printers. The ink jet printers pause to let the ink dry before printing the second
side.

8. Memory
A computer sends data and instructions for a printout to the printer. Printer Command
computers and printers. The data and instructions are stored in printer memory. Most laser Language
(PCL) and PostScript languages are widely used for the communication between printers allow to add
more memory.
8. Network Enabled
A network-enabled printer can connect directly to a computer network instead of a single computer.
The network connection can be wired or wireless. The advantage of network printer is that it can be
used by all the network users. These printers are essential for printing from handheld devices that
cannot be connected to a printer by cable.
Different categories of printers are as follows:
Impact Printers
An impact printer print characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism
against an inked ribbon that physically contacts the paper. Impact printers do not provide high quality
output. They produce a lot of noise while printing. The printing cost of these printers is very cheap. They
are typically used to print invoices, bank statements and utility bills etc. Three most common forms of
impact printers are dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printer and line printer.
1. Dot Matrix Printer
A dot matrix printer is an impact printer. It produces printed images when tiny pins on a print head
strike an inked ribbon. When the ribbon presses against the paper, it creates dots that form characters
and graphics. The print head on a dot matrix printer can contain nine to twenty-four pins. This number
of pins depends on the manufacture and the printer model. A higher number of pins print more dots
that produces higher quality.
The speed of dot matrix printer is measured by the number of characters it can print in one second.
The speed of most dot matrix printers ranges from 350 to 1100 characters per second (cps). Dot matrix
printers do not provide high quality output. They produce a lot of noise while printing. The printing cost
of these printers is very cheap.
2. Line Printer
Line printer is a fast impact printer. It prints an entire line at a time. Its speed is measured in lines
per minute (1pm).
Many line printers can print 3000 lines per minute.
Two types of line printers are as follows:
1. Band Printer:
Band printer prints characters by striking hammers on a rotating horizontal band. A band
contains the shapes of numbers, letters and other characters.
2. Chain Printer
Chain printer is similar to band printer. It uses a chain of print characters wrapped around two
pulleys. The chain rotates at a high speed. Print hammers are located at each horizontal print
position. The paper and ribbon are located between the hammers and the chain. The chain
rotates and the hammers strike when the proper characters are in front of the print positions.
3. Daisy Wheel
Printer Daisy wheel printer is similar to a typewriter. It uses a print wheel. The print
wheel is called daisy wheel. Each petal of daisy wheel contains a character.
A motor rotates the wheel. A hammer strikes a petal against the ribbon when the desired
character reaches the position on the paper. This prints the character on the paper. Daisy wheel
printer is slower than dot matrix printer but better in quality.
Non-Impact Printers
A non-impact printer prints characters and graphics without striking the paper. Some printers
use spray ink and some use heat and pressure to create images. The non-impact printers are faster but
more costly than impact printers. They produce little noise during printing. The print quality of non-
impact printers is better than impact printers.
Different kinds of non-impact printers include laser, inkjet and thermal printers.
1. Laser Printer
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The laser printer is a non-
impact printer. Its working is similar to photocopying machine. It uses laser beams to burn special
powder on the page to create a permanent image. The powder is contained in the toner.
 Laser printer prints complete page at a time. It is also known as page printer. The printing speed
of laser printers for home and small office user is 12 to 45 pages per minute (ppm). The printer speed
of lower prices for large business user is 150 ppm or more. The speed depends on the contents being
printed. The plain text is printed faster than graphics.
Laser printer prints text and graphics in high quality resolution A typical laser printer provide a
resolution of 1200 DPI or more. It also prints at higher speed than inkjet and dot as peers. It does not
make much noise Laser printer is mostly used in the business Gold The black and white printing cost of
laser printer is less than inkjet printers. Laser printers are available in black and white as well as color
models
2. Inkjet Printer
An ink-jet printer is a type of non-impact printer. It prints characters and graphics by spying a deps
of quid ink on paper. These printers can produce quality text and graphics in both black-and-white and
color including photos. A typical inkjet printer, penises a solution of 600 DPI or more.
The price of inkjet printers is less than laser printers. However, they are slower than ser printers.
Most inkjet printers can print from 10 to 35 pages per minute. However, they pet graphics and colors at
slower rate. The print quality of inkjet printers is higher than dot matrix printer. They are also
comparatively inexpensive. Most inkjet printers usually have two print cartridges. One cartridge
contains black ink and the other contains color.
3. Thermal Printer
A thermal printer produces output by melting was-based ink onto paper or by burning dots onto
specially coated paper. The basic thermal printer is not very expensive. Its print quality is not very high
and it fades over the time. It is typically used to print ATMs receipts, electrons tickets at airports,
purchase receipts at retail stores etc.
Some special types of thermal printers can produce very high quality output. These printers are
more expensive and are used in professional applications such as photography stains and medical labs
etc.
4. Photo Printer
Photo printer is a color printer designed to print high-quality photographs. It is also called snapshot
printer: Some photo printers print photos of one or two sizes only. For example, some photo printers
print photos of 3 x 5 inches. Some printers can print up to letter size, legal size photos etc. Some
printers use inkjet technology to print photographs. Many photo printers have a built-in card slot. The
printer can print digital photos directly from a media card. It means that there is no need to transfer
the images from media card to the computer to print them. Some photo printers also have built-in LCD
color screens. The user can view pictures before printing them.

5. Portable Printer
Portable printer is a small, light-weight and battery-powered printer. It can be used by mobile users
to print images from notebook computer, tablet or smartphone while traveling. Its size is a bit wider
than the page on which it prints. Portable printer fits in briefcase easily.
Many printers connect to parallel port or USB port. Some portable printers have built- in
wireless port to communicate with computer wirelessly.
6. Label and Postage Printer
Label printer is a small printer. It prints on an adhesive type material that can be placed on
different items, like envelopes, packages, CDs, toys etc. Many label printers also print bar codes.
Postage printer is a special type of label printer. It has a built-in digital scale. It prints postage stamps. It
allows the users to buy and print digital postage from their personal computers. The digital postage is
also called Internet postage.
Difference between Impact and Non-impact printer
The difference between impact and non-impact printer is as follows:

Impactor Printer Non-Impact Printer

1. It prints characters or images by striking 1. It prints characters and images without

print hammer or wheel against an inked striking the papers.
ribbon.
2. Its speed is slower. 2. Its speed is faster.

3. Its printing quality is lower. 3. Its printing quality is higher.

4. It normally uses continuous paper sheet. 4. It normally uses individual paper sheet.

5. It generates noise during printing. 5. It does not generate noise during printing.

6. It uses inked ribbon for printing. 6. It uses toner or cartridge for printing.

7. It is less expensive. 7. It is more expensive.

Plotter
A plotter is an output device that is used to print high quality large graphics in a variety of colors.
Plotters are typically used to print engineering drawings, graphs, machine parts, building designs, maps
and large posters etc. Such large printing is not possible with printers. Plotters are more expensive than
printers.
Types of Plotters
Different types of plotters are as follows:
 Flatbed Plotter
 Drum Plotter
1-Flatbed Plotter
Flatbed plotter is used to plot or draw images on the paper. It contains pens for drawing images.
The paper is placed on table-like surface. The software instructs the pens to move down on the paper.
The pen then moves on the paper for creating images Most flatbed plotters have one or more pens of
different colors and widths.
3. Drum Plotter
 Drum plotter uses a rotating drum or cylinder. The drawing pens are mounted on the drum. The
pens move to the left and right as the drum rotates. This movement creates the desired image. The
advantage of drum plotter is that the length of the plot is almost unlimited. The roll paper can be used
to draw very lengthy images. The width of the image depends on the width of the drum. It is used to
print panaflexes of large sizes.
Data Projectors
Data projector is an output device that projects the output of computer screen onto a larger
screen. The output projected by data projector can be viewed by a number of people very clearly. Data
projectors are used in classes to deliver lectures to many students etc.

Types of Data Projects

Two types of data projectors are as follows:
1. LCD Projector
LCD stands for liquid crystal display LCD projector uses liquid crystal display technology. It is
attached to the computer directly. It uses its own light source to display the information shown on the
computer screen.
2. DLP Projector
DLP stands for digital light processing. DLP projector uses tiny mirrors to reflect light It
produces brighter and sharper images than LCD projectors.
Interactive Whiteboards
An interactive whiteboard is a touch-sensitive device that displays the image on connected
computer screen such as a projector. A presenter controls the program by clicking a remote control,
touching the whiteboard, drawing on or erasing the whiteboard with a special digital pen and eraser or
writing on a special tablet. The notes written on interactive whiteboard can be saved directly on the
computer. Interactive whiteboards are frequently used in classrooms as a teaching tool and in meetings
as a collaboration tool.
Audio Output Devices
Audio output devices are the components that produce voice, music and other audible
sounds. The most commonly used audio output devices are speakers, headphones and earbuds
Speakers, Headphones, Headsets and Earbuds
Speaker is the most common type of audio output device. It connects to a sound card on the
motherboard in the system unit. It produces softcopy output in the form of voice. It provides audio
output for the computer games, music, video clips and other applications. The speakers for some
desktop computers are built directly into the monitor. Portable computers and mobile devices typically
have speakers integrated into the device. The speakers are available in different shapes and sizes.
Headphone can be used instead of speakers so that other people are not disturbed at places
such as public library. The headphones are placed outside of the car. Headset is a headphone with a
built-in microphone. It is often used when making telephone calls or participating in Web conferences
using computer. Wireless headsets are commonly used with mobile phones.
 Earbuds are often used with portable digital media players, handheld gaming devices and other
mobile devices. The earbuds are placed inside the ear. Both headphones and earbuds usually include
noise-cancelling technology to reduce interference of sounds from surrounding environment.
Combined Input/Output Devices
Many devices combine both input and output devices. This combination saves space and also
helps in specialized applications. Some important combined input/output devices are as follows:
1. Facsimile Fax Machine
Facsimile fax machine transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. The document
may contain text, images or hand-written contents Fax machine at sending side scans the document. It
converts it into digital form and then transmits. The fax machine at receiving side converts this digital
form into its original form and prints it.
Types of Fax Machines
There are two types of fax machines:
a. Dedicated Fax Machine
It is a normal fax machine. It can send information to another fax machine. It can also receive
information from another fax machine.
b. Fax Modem
It is a circuit board inside the system unit. It can send and receive information to and from
another computer. It can also send information to a fax machine.

2. Internet Telephone
Internet telephone is also called telephony or Internet telephony. It uses the Internet to connect
two or more people via telephone. The communication requires Internet telephone, Internet, a special
service provider, a sound card and special software. The user can make long distance telephone calls
very inexpensively. Internet telephone connections are rapidly becoming popular.
3. Multifunction Device
Multifunction device (MFD) is a device that provides the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy
machine and fax machine. These devices are also called multifunction peripherals (MFPs) or all-in-one
devices. These devices are commonly used in offices to provide all facilities.
An advantage of using multifunction device is that it occupies less space and is less expensive
than using multiple machines. A disadvantage is that the quality and functionality is not as good as
separate single-purpose devices. Some examples of multifunction devices are HP OfficeJet and Canon
MultiPass. 4. Terminals
Terminal is a device that performs input and output. It consists of a monitor, keyboard and a
video card.
Different types of terminals are as follows:
1. Dumb Terminal
 It has no processing power and cannot function as independent device. It can enter and transmit
data to a computer to which it is connected. Dumb terminal is normally connected to a host computer.
Host computer performs the processing and then sends the output back to dumb terminal. Such
terminal may be used by airline reservations clerk to access mainframe computer for flight information
2. Intelligent Terminal
Intelligent terminal also contains memory and a processor to perform some functions independent
of the host computer. It is also called programmable terminal. It does not have its own storage
capacity. Intelligent terminals are often used in local area networks in an office. The users share
applications software and data stored on a server.
3. Special-purpose Terminal
It performs specific tasks. It is designed for use in a particular industry. Two examples are point-of-
sale terminals and automated teller machines.

a. Point-of-sale (POS) Terminal

It records purchases when the consumers purchase a product or service. It is used in grocery
stores etc.
b. Automated Teller machine (ATM)
It is a self-service banking machine. It connects to a host computer through a network. The user
inserts a plastic bank card with a magnetic strip into the ATM and enters the password. The
password is also called personal identification number (PIN). It is used to access the bank
account.

Short Questions

Q.1. What is input?

Anything given to the computer such as data or instructions is known as input. Computer inputs
data and converts it into information after processing.
Q.2. What are the two types of input?
Two major types of input are data and instructions. Data is a collection of raw facts and figures.
Instructions are in the form of programs commands and user responses.
Q.3. What are input devices?
List out some important input devices. An input device is a hardware component that is used to
enter data and instruction into a computer. Some input devices are keyboard, mouse, microphone,
scanner and digital camera etc.
Q4. What are the characteristics of keyboard?
Keyboard is the most commonly used input device. The buttons on keyboard are called keys, A
keyboard contains over 100 keys. A keyboard contains keys to type alphabets, letters, numbers,
punctuation marks etc. A keyboard also contains numeric keypad to enter numbers. Function keys are
used to execute commands for certain tasks. Arrow keys are used to move insertion points.
Q5. What is the logic in the arrangement of keys in the typing area of keyboard?
The keys in the typing area of keyboard were originally arranged on old mechanical typewriters.
The frequently used keys are placed separate to improve typing speed. This arrangement is called a
QWERTY because the first six letters on the top row of keys spell QWERTY.
Q6. What are modifier keys?
These are used to modify the pot of other keys. These keys are as follows: Control Keys CTRL
keys produce different results depending on type of software. Alt Keys: A1 keys are always used ur
combination with other keys to perform special functions Shift Keys and to output a capital letter or a
special symbol
Q7. What is numeric keypad?
The numeric keypad is located on the right hand side of most keyboards. It has arithmetic
opreators keys +,_,*,/ that are used in arithmetic operations and digits from 0 to 9. It also has a key
Saying "Num Lock", it's used to lock this pad means when it's on, this keypad cannot be used.
Q.8.What are function keys?
Function keys from F1 to F10 or F12 perform special functions. Their function depends on the
software being used in the computer
Q.9. List out some special-purpose keys?
Esc Key: Esc key is used to terminate command or current task.
Delete Key: It's deletes characters or commands to the right of the cursor. Insert Key: It can be used to
switch a program from Insert Mode to Overtype Mode.
Print screen: It allows to capture all seen on screen as an image.
Scroll Lock. It causes the cursor to remain stationary on the screen in some programs.
Q.10. List different types of keyboards.
QWERTY Keyboard: It is a standard keyboard it first six keys on top row are QWERTY.
Enhanced Keyboard: It contains twelve function keys, two control keys, two ALT keys, arrow keys and
additional keys between the typing area and numeric keypad.
Wireless Keyboard: It requires no wire and transmits data using wireless technology such as radio
waves.

Portable Keyboard: It can be easily attached or removed from a mobile devices.

Ergonomic Keyboard: It is designed to reduce the chance of wrist injuries during typing .
Q.11. Why is a wireless keyboard used?
The wireless keyboard is used to eliminate the use cable to connect it to the computer. A
wireless key board is a powered by the battery. The user can also type from a distance.
Q.12. What are pointing devices?
 An input device used to control a pointer on the screen is called pointing device. A pointer is a
small symbol that appears on the screen in graphical user interface. A pointing device can be used to
select text, graphics and other objects such as buttons, icons and menu commands. Mouse and
touchpad are examples of pointing devices.
Q.13. What are the various types of pointing devices?
A pointing device controls the movement of pointer Pointing devices include mouse, trackball,
touchpad, pointing, stick and pointing stick. Mouse is moved on a flat surface. It controls pointer and is
used to make selections on screen. A trackball remains stationary with a ball on its top. A touchpad or
trackpad is a flat device that is sensitive to pressure and motion. A pointing stick is a pressure-sensitive
pointing device like a pencil eraser.
Q.14. What is the use of mouse?
Mouse is used to input instructions with a pointer on the screen. Mouse is moved on a flat
surface he control the movement of the cursor or pointer on the screen. The mouse buttons are used to
performs different tasks such as selecting an object or opening a program etc. Mouse wheel can be
rolled with finger to scroll the screen.
System Unit
System Unit used to process data All computer systems have a system unit System unit is made
of plastic System unit is a case that contains different electronic components of the computer or metal
to protect the components inside it. The system unit typically contains motherboard processor,
memory, hard disk and other electronic components.
System unit components of a typical computer System units are available in different shapes and
sizes. The system unit of a desktop computer stands vertically on the desk called tower model Another
type called all-in-one computer contains the system unit and the monitor in the same case. In laptop
computers, keyboard and pointing devices are built on the top of the system unit. The system unit in the
slate tablet is behind the display screen whereas the system unit in a convertible tablet is below the
keyboard.

Motherboard
Motherboard is a communication medium for the entire computer system. It is ti main circuit
board inside the system unit. It is also known as system board or main boar All components or devices
of the computer system are connected to the motherboard. Som electronic components are built into
the motherboard and some can be attached to it.
Some important components on the motherboard are as follows:

Port A connection point that is used to attach peripheral

devices to the motherboard.
Expansion slot A component located on the motherboard that enables
you to connect an expansion card.
Driver controller It is a component of motherboard that provides drive
interface.
BIOS It is a program stored on a chip on the motherboard that
is used to start up the computer.
Memory slot Memory slots on the motherboard hold memory
modules.
CPU socket It is used to hold the processor.

Bus The data flows between computer components via bus.

Central Processing Unit

CPU stands for central processing unit. It is the brain of the computer. It is the most important
component of a computer. It is also called processor. A computer cannot work without CPU. All
computers must have a central processing unit.
CPU is located on the motherboard. It carries out most of the work of a computer. CPU performs
all operations on data according to the given instructions. It executes instructions and tells other parts
of computer what to do. Most of the work consists of calculations and data transfer.
 All functions of processor usually are on a single chip in personal computers. The manufacturers
of processor chip are also providing multi-core processors. A single chip that contains two or more
separate processors is known as multi-core processor. Multi-core processing reduces access time and
increases overall processing. For example, if one core is busy in executing an instruction, another can
handle incoming data or instructions. It reduces energy consumption over multiple separate processors.
Multi-core processors include dual- core, quad-core, six-core and eight-core. AMD and Intel offer multi-
core processors.
Two most common multi-core processors are as follows:
1. Dual-core Processor
A dual-core processor chip contains two separate processors.
2. Quad-core Processor
A quad-core processor chip contains four separate processors.
CPU consists of two main units known as arithmetic & logical unit and control unit.
These components work together to perform processing operations.

1. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of instructions takes place in this part. All arithmetic and
logical operations are performed in ALU. It consists of two following units:
a. Arithmetic Unit
Arithmetic unit of ALU performs basic arithmetic functions such addition, subtraction,
multiplication and divison.
b. Logic Unit
Logic unit of ALU performs logical operation like comparing two data items to find which
data item is greater than, equal to or less than the other.
Control Unit
Control unit is an important component of CTU. It acts like a supervisor of the computer. It does
not execute program instruction by itself. It controls and coordinates all activities of computer system. It
performs this task by issuing necessary commands to different components of computer. Control unit
also provides clock pulses that are used to regulate and control all operations in the computer system.
Important operations performed by control unit are as follows
1. It fetches Instructions from the main memory.
2. It interprets the instructions to find what operation is to be performed.
3. It controls the execution of instructions.
Machine Cycle
Machine cycle is the sequence of actions performed by the processor to execute each
Instruction. The four steps of machine cycle are fech, decode, execute and story.
a. Fetch
Instruction fetch is a process of getting an instruction from the memory to execute This process
is performed by the control unit.
b. Decode
The control unit decodes the instruction This process examines the nature of instruction to
determine what further operations should be taken. CU directs to move the required data from
memory to ALU.
d. Execute
After decoding the instruction and getting the required data, CPU finally executes that
instruction. The instruction is executed by ALU.
e. Storing
The process of writing the result to the memory is called storing These four operations
collectively are called a machine cycle or instruction cycle. The me required to fetch and decode
instruction is called Instruction time or i-time. The time quired to execute and store is called
Execution time or e-time.

System Clock
System dock is an electronic component. It generates electric signals at a fast speed t controls all
functions of the computer using clock ticks. These ticks of system thick an known as clock cycle and set
the speed of CPU Computer clock can tick from millions o billions times in one second.
The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate. Processor
speed is measured in MIlz and GHz. A Hertz means machine cycles per second Megahertz (MHz) is a
million of cycles per second. Gigahertz (GHz) means a billion of cycles per second. For example, a
processor of 3.0 GHz can work at a rate of 3 billion machine cycles per second.
The power of a CPU is determined by the speed at which it processer data. System clock is one
of the major factors that affect a computer speed. A CPU that has a higher clock speed can process
more instructions per second than a CPU with a lower clock speed. For example, Core 17 processor
running at 3.2 GHz will be faster than Core i7 processor running at 2.66 GHz if all other components
remain the same. Today's fastest CPUs have clock speed of more than 3 GHz.

MIPS and FLOPS

The speed of workstation and some server computers is measured in MI'S MIPS stands for
millions of instructions per second. Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more. Mainframes perform at
200-1,200 MIPS MIPS is also applied to PCs. Computers can operate up to several thousand MIPS.
Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops. FLOPS stands for floating point
operations per second. Supercomputer applications are often scientific and frequently perform floating
point operations. Floating point operations accommodate very small or very large numbers. The speed
of modern supercomputers is more than a trillion FLOPS. The speed of IBM's Blue Gene/L is 70.72
teraflops (tera=trillion) per second.
Comparison of Processors
The most popular manufacturers of processor chip are Intel, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD),
IBM and Motorola. The processors of these manufacturers are normally identified by a model name or
model number.
Intel is the world's largest chip manufacturer and supplies microprocessors for all types of
computers Intel introduced the world's first microprocessor in 1971 called 4004. Intel's 8088 processor
powered the original IBM PC Intel has introduced many microprocessors such as Core 2 Quad and Core
2 Duo that have been used by most major computer manufacturers. The Intel Core family of processors
are used in most high- performance computers. The less expensive computers use the processors of
Pentium or Celeron. The Xeon and Itanium processors are used in workstations and server computers.
The Atom processors are used in tablets and handheld computers.
AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) is another popular processor manufacturer. It is the main
competitor of Intel. It provides less expensive processors than Intel. The Phenom and Athlon X2
processors are used in desktop and laptop. The Opteron processor is used in servers and workstations.
The Fusion processor is used in tablets.
ARM processors are designed and licensed by ARM Holdings. It is a British company founded by
Acorn Computers, Apple Inc. and VLSI Technology Its RISC processors are manufactured by Apple.
NVIDIA. Samsung and Nintendo. AKM processors are used in many mobile phones and other handheld
devices such as Apple iPad.
The processor chips include technologies for improving processing performance Tor example,
multi-core chips are used in most processors. Some processors of Intel contain Hyper Threading (HT)
technology. This technology allows a processor to mimic the power of two processors. It improves the
processing power and time. Most processors contain built- in instructions to improve the performance
of multimedia and 3D graphics.
The processors for notebook computers contain the technology for wireless capabilities and
improve battery life Intel's Centrino, Centrino Pro and Centrino Duo technologies provide wireless
capabilities for notebook computers and Tablet PC. The mobile devices often use a processor that
consumes less power and provides high performance.
Another type of processor is known as system on a chip It combines the function of a processor,
memory and video card on single chip. It is usually used in Table PCs, networking devices, portable
media players and games consoles. Its goal is to create a processor that has a faster clock speed and
consumes less energy.
Memory
Memory is an area of a computer that stores data and instructions to be accessed by processor
as well as the results of processing. It consists of one or more chips on motherboard or some other
circuit boards in the computer.
Structure of Main Memory
The main memory of a computer consists of thousands or millions of cells of storage
locations. Each cell can store a bit. One bit can represent 0 or 1. Bit stands for binary digit. The memory
cells are logically organized into groups of 8 bits known as byte.
 Each byte in the memory has a unique number assigned to it. The number is known as the
address of that byte. The scheme of arranging the cells into a byte and bytes into memory chip is shown
in the following figure. The number shows the byte number assigned to a byte. It is also known as the
address of the byte.
Accessing Data in Main Memory
The main memory can be viewed as a collection of bytes arranged in an order CPU can access
any byte from main memory. The byte in the memory can be accessed by specifying its address.
Different bytes can be accessed directly in random order in equal amount of time That is why it is called
direct access memory.
Types of Memory
There are two types of memory in computer that are as follows
1. Volatile Memory
Volatile memory loses its contents when the computer is turned off. RAM is the most
common type of volatile memory.
2.Non-volatile Memory
It does not lose its contents when the computer is turned off. ROM, flash memory and
CMOS are examples of non-volatile memory
RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is also called direct access memory. Random access
means that each individual byte in entire memory can be accessed directly. RAM is used to store data
and instructions temporarily. A program must be loaded into RAM before execution.
RAM is a volatile memory. It means that its contents are lost when the power is turned off. RAM
is a read/write memory. CPU can read data from RAM and write data to RAM. It is used to store data
and instruction while it is being executed. RAM is also called main memory or primary storage.
RAM plays very important role in the processing speed of a computer. A bigger RAM size
provides larger amount of space for processing. So the processing speed is increased. The amount of
data that can be stored in RAM is measured in bytes. Most desktop computers typically have 4 GB of
RAM or more.
Different types of RAM are as follows:
1. DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used in most of the computers. It is
the least expensive kind of RAM. It requires an electric current to maintain its electrical state. The
electrical charge of DRAM decreases with time that may result in loss of data. DRAM is recharged or
refreshed again and again to maintain its data. The processor cannot access the data of DRAM when
it is being refreshed. That is why it is slow.
2. SRAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It can store data without any need of
frequent recharging. CPU does not need to wait to access data from SRAM during processing. That is
why it is faster than DRAM. It utilizes less power than DRAM, SRAM is more expensive. It is normally
used to build a very fast memory known as cache memory.
 3. MRAM
MRAM stands for Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory. It stores data using magnetic
charges instead of electrical charges. MRAM uses far less power than other RAM technologies so it is
ideal for portable devices. It also has greater storage capacity. It has faster access times than RAM. It
retains its contents when the power is removed from computer.
Differences between SRAM and DRAM
The difference between SRAM and DRAM is as follows:

SRAM DRAM

1. It is faster than DRAM 1. It is slower than SRAM.

2. It is more expensive. 2. It is less expensive.

3. It does not need to be power-refreshed. 3. It has to be refreshed after each read

operation.
4. It utilizes less power. 4. It utilizes more power.

5. It holds data indefinitely as long as the 5. It holds data dynamically not indefinitely.
computer is turned on.
6 It is more complex and less compact. 6. It is less complex and more compact.

Memory Module
Memory modules are small circuit boards that hold RAM chips. These modules are plugged into
memory slots on the motherboard Most personal computers have slots for two to four memory
modules. They come in different sizes and have different pin configurations.
Two types of memory modules are as follows:
1. SIMM
SIMM stands for Single Inline Memory Module. It is an older standard of RAM memory
module. It was developed in 1983 at Wang Laboratories. It was used in old computers during 1980s
and 1990s The SIMM module has 72 pins and it only supports 32-bit data. The typical SIMM module
is 4.25 inches in length and 1 inch in width.
2. DIMM
DIMM stands for Dual Inline Memory Module. It provides faster data transfer speed and better
features. It typically supports 64-bit data transfer.
The most common pen configuration of DIMM module is 165 pins. Some other DIMM
configurations are 100 144, 172, 184, 204, 214 and 240 pins DIMM has a physical size of 167 to 5.25
inches in length and 1 to 1.75 inches in width. Most desktop computers today use DIMM The notebook
computers typically use a smaller type of memory module known as a small outline DIMM (SO-DIMM).
Interaction between CPU and RAM RAM
RAM and CPU are both placed on the motherboard. RAM is a temporary memory that stores data and
instructions for CPU. The CPU takes data and instructions from RAM when required. CPU also places
processed data in RAM. The interaction between CPU and RAM takes place every time an instruction is
executed. This interaction takes place with the help of computer buses.
RAM is connected to CPU through data bus, control bus and address bus. It is collectively known
as system bus. The system bus consists of electrical paths to transfer information between CPU and
RAM.
The following steps are performed when CPU wants to read data from RAM:
1 CPU places the read request on control bus.
2 CPU places the address of required byte or word on address bus.
3 Memory unit reads the command and address. It puts the required data on data bus.
4. CPU ads the data from data bus.

The following steps are performed when CPU wants to write data to RAM:
1. CPU places the write request on control bus.
2. CPU places the address of the word where to write data on address bus.
3. Memory unit gets ready to do the operation.
4. CPU puts data on the data bus.
5. Memory unit reads the data and places it in the required word.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
ROM stands for read only memory. The instructions in ROM prepare the computer for use.
These instructions can only be read but cannot be changed or deleted. It is not possible to write new
information or instructions into the ROM.
ROM stores data and instructions permanently. When the power is switched off, the instructions
stored in ROM are not lost. Therefore, ROM is called non-volatile memory.
The information in ROM is stored by the manufacturer. When the computer is switched on, the
instructions in the ROM are automatically loaded into the memory of the computer. ROM contains a
small set of instructions called ROM BIOS. BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. These instructions
tell the computer how to access hard disk, find operating system and load the operating system in RAM.
Types of ROM Different types of ROM are as follows:
1. PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This form of ROM is initially blank. The user
or manufacturer can write data and programs on it using special devices. The user can write data and
instructions on it only once. It is typically used in electronic machines to store some information
permanently.
2. EPROM
 EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The user can write data and
programs on it using special devices. The data and programs written on it can be erased using
ultraviolet light. The ROM then can be reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In this memory,
user can erase and write instructions with the help of electrical pulses. It is similar to flash memory. The
data can be written to EEPROM multiple times. It is typically used to store BIOS for the computer
system, The contents of EEPROM can be updated without removing it from the circuit board.
Cashe Memory
A cache (pronounced "cash") is a small and very fast memory. It is designed to speed up the
transfer of data and instructions. It is located inside or close to the CPU chip. It is faster than RAM. The
data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.
The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the first time. A copy
of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The next time the CPU needs that data or instructions, it
first looks in cache. If the required data is found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of
main memory. It speeds up the working of CPU.
Levels of Cache Memory
A computer can have several different levels of cache memory. The level numbers refer to
distance from CPU where Level 1 is the closest. All levels of cache memory are faster than RAM. The
cache closest to CPU is always faster but generally costs more and stores less data then other level of
cache. Different levels of cache memory are as follows:
1. Level 1 Cache
It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip. It has
small capacity from 8 KB to 128 KB.
2.Level 2 Cache
It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more Le from 64K to 16MB. The current
processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a type of L2 cache.
The common size of this cache is from 512KB to 8MB.
4. Level 3 Cache
This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the
computer that uses 1.2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache. The
personal computer often has up to 8MB of L3 cache.

Flash Memory
Flash memory consists of non-volatile memory chips. Most computer use it to store startup
instructions as it allows computer to update its contents easily. Flash memory chips are also built into
many devices such as tablets, mobile phones, digital cameras, printers and digital cameras etc. The data
in smartphones are stored on flash memory. Some portable media players store music on flash memory
chips.
CMOS
CMOS stands for complementary metal-oxide semiconductor. It stores configuration information
of computer. The information include the type of disk drives, keyboard and monitor, current date &
time and other startup information required during booting process.
CMOS chip uses battery power to retain information even when the computer is turned off. The
information in CMOS can be changed.
Ports
A port is an interface or connection point through which peripheral devices connect to the
computer. A peripheral device is a component such as monitor or keyboard that connects to the
computer. A computer has different types of ports to connect different devices. Each type of port
operates at a certain speed. The speed can be measured in kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per
second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps).

Ports in different devices Ports use different types of connectors. A connector joins the cable to
a port. The connector at the end of a cable is attached to the port. The connector at the other end of
cable is attached a port on the peripheral device.
Types of Ports
Different types of ports are as follows:
1.Serial Ports
A type of interface that transmits one bit at a time is called serial port. It is usually used to
connect devices that do not require fast data transmission like mouse and keyboard etc. Serial ports are
often known as communications (COM) ports. Data travels over a serial port at 115 kilobits per second.
Serial ports were one of the earliest ports used in the computer. A serial connector is used to
plug into a serial port. Some serial ports used 25-pin connectors for their serial port. The serial port in
the later computers has only nine pins. Serial ports are older ports and not typically found on modern
computers.
2. Parallel Ports
A type of interface that transmits many bits at a time is called parallel port. It is used to connect
devices that transfer many bits at a time and require fast data transmission like printer and scanner etc.
Parallel ports are often referred to as Line Printer (LPT) ports. The speed of parallel ports is 12 Mbps.
Parallel are older ports and not typically found on modern computers.
3. Universal Serial Bus Port
USB is the most common type of port to connect devices to a computer. It is used to connect
different devices such as keyboard, mouse, digital camera, scanner and printer, and USB flash drive etc.
It can connect up to 127 different peripheral devices. USB ports can be used as a power supply for
different devices like smartphone and tablets etc. Most laptops and desktop computers normally come
with at least two USB ports.
USB ports support hot swapping and Plug-and-Play (PnP). Hot swapping is the ability to connect
and disconnect devices without shutting down the computer. Plug-and-Play enables a computer to
automatically detect and configure a device when it is connected to the computer.
 Multiple devices can be attached to USB port through daisy chain. It means that the first device
is attached to the USB port of the computer, second USB device connects to the first USB device, the
third USB device connects to the second USB device and so on.
An alternate to daisy chain is USB hub. USB hub plugs into the USB port on the system unit. It
contains multiple USB ports used to connect many USB devices. Some USB hubs are wireless. The
receiver is connected to a USB port on computer and USB hub communicates wirelessly with the
receiver.
Several USB versions have been released. USB 1.0 and 1.1 were released between 1996 and
1998 with a speed range from 1.5 Mbps up to 12 Mbps. USB 2.0 was released in 2000 with a maximum
speed of 480 Mbps. The current USB 3.0 standard provides transfer speeds of 4.8 Gls and charges
devices faster than previous USB ports. USB 3.0 is backward compatible. It means that it supports the
older devices as well.

4. Thunderbolt Port
Thunderbolt is an interconnect technology developed by Intel. Thunderbolt port is the fastest
type of port used to connect devices to a computer. It supports a transfer speed of up to 10Gbps. It is
very useful for laptop and ultrabooks due to slim design. It can connect up to six different peripheral
devices. It can also be used to connect USB and FireWire peripherals using proper adapter. Apple was
the first company that used this port on its computer. The hard drive manufacturers like Western
Digital and audio/video processing companies like Avid are also using Thunderbolt products.
Thunderbolt 2 is an update to the original thunderbolt technology. It has max throughput of 20 Gbps
5. HDMI Port
HDMI stands for high-definition multimedia interface. HDMI port is a digital port that can
transmit both audio and video signals. It is the standard connection for high- definition TVs, video game
consoles and other media devices. All currently available monitors, DVD players, televisions and game
consoles have at least one HDMI port. It is the most common multimedia port.
6. FireWire Port
FireWire is also known as IEEE 1394. It was originally released by Apple in 1995. It supports hot-
swapping and can connect up to 63 devices per port. It can be used to transfer data between two or
more digital devices such as camcorders and digital cameras etc. Firewire can also provide power to
some devices. The original FireWire 400 has a data transfer rate of 400 Mbps. The current standard
FireWire 800 provides a speed of 800 Mbps.
A FireWire hub is a device that plugs into a FireWire port on the system unit. It Contains multiple
FireWire ports to plug the cables from FireWire devices. It can be used to attach multiple devices to a
single FireWire port
7. eSATA Port
eSATA stands for external Serial Advanced Technology Attachment. An eSATA port is used to
connect an external SATA hard disk to a computer. SATA hard disks are popular because of their fast
data transmission speeds. SATA connections provide up to six times faster data transmission speeds
than external hard disks attached to USB or FireWire port.
8. Ethernet Port
The Ethernet port is used to connect a computer to local network or cable modem. Ethernet
originally offered a transfer rate of 10 Mbps Fast Ethernet (called 100Base-T) provides a transfer rate of
100 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet provides higher speed of transmission with transfer rates of 1 Gbps.
Audio Port
Audio port is used to connect headphones, microphones and speakers to the computer.
Other Ports
Some other ports are as follows
1. MIDI Port
MIDI stands for musical instrument digital interface. MIDI port connects system unit to a
musical instrument like electronic piano keyboard. A system unit with MIDI port can record sounds
created by a synthesizer and then process these sounds. Synthesizer is peripheral or chip that creates
sound from digital instructions. Data is transferred between the computer and the MIDI device at a rate
of 31.5 Kbps.
2. SCSI Port
SCSI stands for small computer system interface. It is a special high-speed parallel port to attach
SCSI peripheral devices like disk drives and printers. It can connect up to 15 devices using daisy chain.
3. IrDA Port
IrDA stands for Infrared Data Association. It is also called Fast Infrared (FIR). IrDA is used to
transmit data between two devices by using infrared light waves. IrDA ports have a maximum transfer
rate of 4 Mbps and require that a line of sight be maintained between the two ports. Many printers,
digital camera, laptops and PDAs include IrDA ports.
IrDA port can be used to send information from a notebook computer to a wireless printer. PDAs
also have IrDA ports for sending information to a printer, a computer, or another PDA. IrDA works the
same way as TV remote control. It is useful for very short distance that is free of obstacles.
4. Bluetooth Port
Bluetooth port is an alternative of IrDA port. It uses radio waves to transmit data between two
devices. It covers a distance of up to 33 feet. Bluetooth-enabled devices can communicate with one
another without aligned to one another. Bluetooth port can be used to connect a cell phone to a
computer wirelessly. Many laptops and PDAs include Bluetooth chip to transfer data wirelessly to any
other device with a Bluetooth chip.
The maximum transfer rate of original Bluetooth 1.0 is 1 Mbps. The standard Bluetooth 20 has a
transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
Bays
Bay is an open area inside the system unit to install additional equipment such as storage drives.
Some bays are rectangular opening to hold disk drives whereas some bays hold card readers and ports
such as USB and FireWire etc. Bays are also called drive bays.
Two types of bays are as follows:
1. External or Exposed Drive Bay
 External or exposed drive bay is used to access the drive from outside the system unit. Same
examples of external drive bays are flash memory card reads, CD drive and DVD drive.
2. Internal or Hidden Drive Bay
Internal or hidden drive bay is hidden inside the system unit. An example of internal drive bay is
hard disk drive.
Power Supply and Battery
The power from the wall outlet is alternating current (AC) of 110 or 240 volts. Different
components of the computer system require direct current (DC) ranging from 3 to more than. 15 volts.
The power supply inside the system unit is used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). It also decreases the voltage to the level that is required for the computer.
The power supply is typically located at the back of the computer case. It often has its own fan
for cooling. The power supply connects to the motherboard. A computer cannot work without power
supply.
The AC adapter is an external power supply used to recharge the battery in a notebook and to
provide dependable power for operating the notebook for longer periods of time. If an AC adapter fails,
it will not recharge the battery and it will not provide power to operate the notebook without a battery.
It is also called AC/DC adapter, AC converter or charger.
A battery is a component that supplies power to a device. It enables the device to work without
a power outlet. Batteries can supply power to a laptop for several hours depending on how much power
it requires. Today, many devices such as laptops and smartphones use rechargeable batteries.
1. RAM
The amount of RAM directly affects the processing speed of the computer. Digger amount of
RAM means that more program instructions and data can be stored in memory. 1 a computer does not
have enough memory to run a program, it must move data between RAM and the hard disk frequently.
This process is called swapping that can greatly slow a computer's performance.
2. System Clock
System clock is an electronic component. It generates electric signals at a fast speed. It controls
all functions of the computer using clock ticks. These ticks of system clock are known as clock cycle and
set the speed of CPU. The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock
rate.
The power of a CPU is determined by the speed at which it processes data. System clock is one
of the major factors that affect a computer speed. A CPU that has a higher clock speed can process
more instructions per second than a CPU with a lower clock speed. For example, Core i7 processor
running at 3.2 GHz will be faster than Core i7 processor running at 2.66 GHz if all other components
remain the same. Today's fastest CPUs have clock speed of more than 3 GHz.

3. Buses
A bus is a path between the components of a computer. Data and instructions travel along
these paths. The bus width determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and other
devices. Bus width also affects the performance of the computer. A higher bus width means that the
bus can carry more data. It increases the performance of the computer.
5. Cache Memory
A cache (pronounced "cash") is high-speed memory that holds the most recent data and
instructions that have been loaded by the CPU It is designed to speed up the transfer of data and
instructions Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU and RAM It is faster than RAM.
The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the first time. A copy
of that data or instructions is stored in the cache. The next time the CPU needs that data or instructions,
it first looks in cache. If the required data is found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of
main memory. It speeds up the working of CPU. The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact
on the computer's speed.

Short Questions

Q.1. What is system unit? What are common components inside the system unit?
System unit is a case that contains different components of the computer used to process data.
All computer systems have a system unit. System units are available in different shapes and sizes. The
common components inside the system unit include processor, motherboard, memory, hard disk,
adapter cards, and power supply etc.
Q2 What are different types of system units?
System units are available in different shapes and sizes. The system unit of a desktop computer
stands vertically on the desk is called tower model. Another type called all-in-one computer contains the
system unit and the monitor in the same case. In laptop computers, keyboard and pointing devices are
built on the top of the system unit. The system unit in the slate tablet is behind the display screen
whereas the system unit in a convertible tablet is below the keyboard.
Q3. What is motherboard?
Motherboard is a communication medium for the entire computer system. It is the main circuit
board inside the system unit. It contains different sockets, slots and ports on it. All components or
devices of a computer are connected to the motherboard.
Q4. Write four hardware components attached to motherboard.
The four hardware components attached to the motherboard include processor, memory chips,
storage devices and input/output devices.
Q5. What is the use of CPU socket?
CPU socket is a connector that is used to hold the processor on motherboard. CPU socket is also
known as processor socket.
Q.6. What is Central Processing Unit?
Central processing unit is also called processor. It interprets and executes the instructions to run
the computer system. It is the brain of the computer. It performs all operations on the data according to
the instructions. It carries out instructions and tells other parts of computer system what to do.
Q7. Do all computers contain a processing unit?
 All computers contain a processing unit (CPU). CPU is like the brain of computer. A computer
cannot work without a processing unit.
Q.8. List out different units of CPU.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit - ALU is a part of CPU. Actual execution of the instructions takes place
in this part. All arithmetic and logical operations are performed in ALU.
Control Unit-Control Unit is an important component of CPU. It controls all activities of computer
system. It is also called the supervisor of the computer.

Q.9. What are important operations of control unit?

CU fetches instructions from main memory. It interprets the instruction to find what operation is
to be performed. It controls the execution of instructions.
Q.10. List out different units of ALU.
Arithmetic Unit - Arithmetic unit of the ALU performs basic arithmetic functions such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logic Unit - Logs unit of the ALU performs logical operations like comparing two data items to
find which data item is greater than, equal to, or less than the other.
Q.11. Distinguish between arithmetic operations and logical operations.
Arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logical operations
compare items and determine whether one item is greater than, less than or equal to the other.
Q.12. What is multi-core processor?
A single chip that contains two or more separate processors is known as multi-core processor.
Multicore processing reduces access time and increases overall processing.
Q.13. Why is multi-core processor better than single-core processor?
Multicore processing reduces access time and increases overall processing. For example, if one
core is busy in executing an instruction, another can handle incoming data or instructions. It reduces
energy consumption over multiple separate processors.
5.1 Storage
Storage is used to store data, information and programs permanently. It is also known as secondary
storage, auxiliary storage or mass storage.
Storage is required for the following reasons:
 The main memory is a temporary memory. The storage is required to store data and
programs permanently.
 The capacity of main memory is limited. The storage is required to store a large amount
of data and programs.
Different storage media are used to store data, information and programs. It is called nonvolatile
because its contents remain safe even if the computer is turned off. Storage media are available in
different sizes and capacities. The storage media can be a removable, internal or external storage.
Examples of storage media are hard disks, solid state drives, USB flash drives, memory cards and optical
discs etc.
A hardware unit used to store and retrieve data to and from a storage medium is called storage device.
Two important functions of a storage device are reading and writing
1. Reading
The process of copying data, instructions or information from the storage medium to memory is called
reading.
2. Writing
The process of copying the data, instructions or information from the memory to a storage medium is
called writing.
A storage can be compared on the basis of the following characteristics:
Capacity
Capacity is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on a media. it is usually indicated in
gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB).
Speed
Speed is measured by access time and the data transfer rate. The time in which a device locates an item
on a storage medium is called access time It is measured in milliseconds (ms). A millisecond is one-
thousandth of second. Transfer rate is the speed with which data can be transferred to and from device.
It is measured in KBps (kilobytes/second), MBps (megabyte/second) or GBps (gigabyte/second) etc.
5.1.1 Basic Units of Data Storage
The basic units of data storage are as follows:
Bit
Computer works with binary digits. These digits are in the form of 0's and 1's. A binary digit is called bit.
One bit takes one storage location in memory. It is the smallest unit of data storage.
Byte A collection of eight bits is called byte. It is used to store single character.
kilobyte A kilobyte consists of 1024 bytes (210 bytes). It is denoted by KB.
Megabyte A megabyte consists of 1024 kilobytes (220 bytes). It is denoted by MB.
Gigabyte A gigabyte consists of 1024 megabytes (230 bytes). It is denoted by GB.
Terabyte A terabyte consists of 1024 gigabytes (240 bytes). it is denoted by TB.
Petabyte A petabyte consists of 1024 terabytes (250 bytes). It is denoted by PB.
Exabyte An exabyte consists of 1024 petabytes (260 bytes). It is denoted by EB.
Zettabyte A zettabyte consists of 1024 exabytes (270 bytes). It is denoted by ZE.
Yottabyte A yottabyte consists of 1024 zettabytes (280 bytes). It is denoted by YB.
5.1.2 Data Access Methods
Different methods of accessing data from secondary storage devices are as follows:
1. Random Access Method
Random access means that data can be retrieved directly from any location on the storage medium in
any order. Random access devices move directly to a particular location on the medium when data
located at that location is needed. Almost all storage devices use with computers today are random
access devices such as hard drives, CD/DVD drives and USB flash drives. Random access method is also
known as direct access method. The media that use random access are sometime called addressable
media. It means that the storage system can locate each piece of stored data at a unique address.

2. Sequential Access Method

Sequential access means that data can be retrieved in the same order in which it is stored on the
medium. The data cannot be accessed directly. This process reads data from the beginning. It continues
reading data until the required data is found. This method of accessing data is slow and time-
consuming. It is not commonly used access method and is used in magnetic tapes. The magnetic tapes
are typically used with computers for backup purposes. It moves in sequence to read the data from a
specific location like an audio tape.
5.1.3 Difference between Memory and Storage
1 The difference between memory and storage is as follows:
Memory Storage
1. Memory is volatile 1. Storage is nonvolatile
 2. It is faster than storage 2. It is slower than memory
3. It is more expensive than 3. It is less expensive than
storage memory
4. It is generally smaller in size 4. It is generally bigger in size than
than storage storage
5. . Programs are copied from 5. Programs are stored in storage
storage during execution when no execution takes place
6. The capacity of memory is less 6. The capacity of storage is much
than storage. more than memory

5.2 Magnetic Disk

Magnetic disks use magnetic material to store data, instructions and information on disk surface. The
data on magnetic disks is stored in tracks and sectors. Tracks form circles on the surface of a magnetic
disk. Each track on a disk is divided into sectors. Each sector typically stores up to 512 bytes of data.
Hard disk is the most widely used magnetic disk.

5.3 Hard Disk

Hard disk is the primary storage device in a computer to store the programs and data permanently. It is
also known as hard disk drives (HDD) or hard drive (HD). Most personal computers have at least one
hard disk drive. Some large-scale computers contain hundreds of hard disks. The capacity of hard disk
can be up to 8 TB or more.

The traditional hard disk is a type of magnetic disk. It is also called fixed disk because it is fixed in the
system unit. It consists of several circular disks called platters that are coated with magnetic material.
The platters are stacked on the top of one another enclosed in a sealed case. Each platter has two
read/write heads, one for each side. The hard disk also has arms that move the read/write heads to the
proper location on the platters to read and write data. The platters in the hard disk typically spin at a
high rate between 5,400 and 15,000 revolutions per minute (RPM). The user can write and read data
from the hard disk many times. The disk must be formatted before any data can be written on a hard
disk. Formatting is a process that creates tracks and sectors on the disk. Tracks are in the form of circles
on the surface of a hard disk. Each track on a disk is divided into sectors. Each sector typically stores up
to 512 bytes of data. Two or more sectors can be combined to form a cluster. A cluster is the smallest
unit of disk space that stores data. Ali tracks in the same position on all surfaces of all disks in a hard
drive form a cylinder.

5.3.1 Hard Disk Performance

The following factors affect the performance of hard disk:
Seek time: It is also called positioning performance. It is the time required by read/write head to reach
the correct location on the disk. It is often used with rotational speed to compare performance of hard
drives. It is measured in milliseconds (ms).
Spindle speed: It is also called transfer performance. It is the speed at which the drive transfers data. It
is measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).
Latency: It is the time required by the spinning platter to bring the desired data to read/write head. It is
measured in milliseconds (ms).

5.3.2 External and Removable Hard Disks

An external hard disk is a separate hard disk that is connected to the USB port or FireWire port on the
system unit. The advantage of external hard disk is that it can be Installed without opening the stem
unit. Some hard disks can also communicate with system unit wirelessly. The entire hard disk is
enclosed in a sealed case. The storage capacity of external hard disk is up to 4 TB and more. A
removable hard disk is a type of hard disk that can be inserted and removed from a drive. The
removable hard disk drive is used to read and write data on the removable hard disk. The storage
capacity of removable hard disk can be up to 2TB and more. The data transfer rate of external and
removable hard disks is slower than internal hard disks. However, there are different advantages of
these disks over internal hard disks. Some important advantages of external and removable hard disks
are as follows:
 These disks can be used to transfer a large number of files among computers.
 These disks can be used to backup important files or entire internal hard disk.
 These disks can store a large number of audio and video files easily.
 These disks can be removed from computer and locked at a secure place for the
protection of data.
 These disks can be used to increase storage space of the computer without opening the
system unit.
5.3.3 Miniature Hard Disks
The miniature hard disks are very small hard disks. These disks are available in different sizes such as
0.85-inch. 1 inch and 1.8 inch. Both internal and external hard his are available in miniature sizes. The
devices such as portable media player, digital camera and smart phones usually have internal miniature
hard disks. These disks provide more storage capacity than flash memory. The storage capacity of
miniature hard disks is from 1 GB to 320 GB.

5.3.4 Disk Cache

Disk caching is often used to speed up magnetic hard drive performance Today's hard drives typically
use a disk cache consisting of memory chips that is located on a circut board inside the hard drive case.
The computer copies the requested data to the disk cache any time the hard drive is accessed. It first
checks the disk cache for the required data the data is requested. It retrieves the data from disk cache if
it is available otherwise, the data is retrieved from the hard disks.

5.6 Optical Disc

Optical disc is a form of removable storage. It includes CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs Optical drives use a
laser to read and write data on optical disc. The LASER stan is for Light Amplification through Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the surface by creating, small pit (hole) in the disc. Optical
discs commonly store data in a single track that spirals from the center of the disc to the edge of the
disc. Most desktop and laptop computers have at least one optical drive. Optical drive reads data by
focusing, laser beam on the surface of the disc. A laser detects the presence of a pit. The presence of pit
indicates 1 and absence of pit indicates 0. Laser beams converts these pits into digital data. Optical disc
storage capacity is from 700 MB to several GB.

5.6.1 CD
CD stands for Compact Disc. It is mainly used to store photos, audio and compute software. The
contents of CD can be read by CD drive. CDs are available in three types which are read-only, recordable
and rewritable. Different types of CDs are as follows:

1.CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory. The data stored on CD-ROM can only be read. It
can cannot be deleted or changed. It can store up to 700MB of data.
Uses of CD-ROM
 CR-ROM is mostly used to store photos and audio.
 It is often used to distribute new application software and games.
Advantages of CD-ROM
 It is the least expensive way to store data and information.
 CD-ROM discs are durable and easy to handle.
 Information can be stored on CD-ROM for many years.
Disadvantages of CD-ROM
  The data cannot be edited.
 It retrieves data and information more slowly than magnetic hard disk.

2.CD-R
CD-R stands for CD Recordable. The user can write data on CD-R only once but can read many times.
The data written to CD-R cannot be erased. CD-R drives are known as CD burners. The process of
recording data on CD-R is called burning CD-R is also known as work (Write One Read Many).
3.CD-RW
CD-RW stands for Compact Disc Rewritable. It is also known as erasable optical disc. The user can write
data on CD-RW many times by erasing the existing contents. The most common type of erasable and
rewritable optical disc is magneto-optical disc (MO). It uses the technologies of both magnetic disk and
optical disc. Such discs are normally used for applications using large volumes of storage with little
update activity.

5.6.2 DVD
DVD stands for Digital Video Disc. It is similar to CD except that it uses a laser beam with shorter
wavelength. The storage capacity of DVD is much greater than CD. It can store up to 17 GB of data.
DVDs are available in three types which are read-only, recordable and rewritable. Different types of
DVDs are as follows:

1.DVD-ROM
DVD-ROM stands for Digital Video Disc Read Only Memory. It is a high-capacity optical disc that the
users can only read but not write or erase. DVD-ROMs are used to store high-definition videos, music
and software etc.

2.DVD-R
DVD-R stands for Digital Video Disc Recordable. It is similar to CD-R discs. The user can write data on it
once but can read it many times. The written data cannot be erased.

3.DVD-RW
DVD-RW stands for Digital Video Disc Rewritable. The user can write data on CD- RW many times by
erasing the existing contents.

5.6.3 Blu-Ray Disc

Blu-Ray disc is a new and more expensive DVD format. It has higher capacity and ther quality than DVDs
especially for high-definition video. It can store up to 100GB data.
Flash Memory Storage
Flash memory is a nonvolatile memory. It consists of solid chips with no moving parts. That is why it is
more durable and faster. It does not need continuous power to retain the data and is more expensive
than magnetic storage. The data stored on flash memory storage can be erased and new data can be
written. Flash memory storage is widely used in smart phones, digital camera, portable media players,
tablets and other mobile devices. Different types of flash memory storage are solid- state drives, USB
flash drives and memory cards.
5.7.1 Solid State Drives
The solid-state drives (SSD) are storage devices that typically use flash memory to store data and
programs. The term solid-state means that they have no moving parts. They are available in different
sizes such as 1.8 inches, 2.5 inches and 3.5 inches. They are used in all types of computers such as
desktop, laptops, tablets and mobile devices etc. The storage capacity of SSDs can be up to 1TB or more.
External SSDs are also available.
Advantages
Solid-state drives have several advantages over magnetic hard drives as follows:
Solid-state devices provide faster data access and data transfer
. They use very little power and produce less heat.
They are light-weight.
They are more durable.
They do not generate noise.
Disadvantages.
• Solid-state drives are more expensive than magnetic hard drives
. The recovery of data in case of failure can be more difficult than magnetic hard drive.
5.7.2 USB Flash Drives
USB flash drive is a small and portable storage device. It is connected to the computer through USB
port. It is commonly used to transfer documents, photos, music and videos from one computer to other.
It can be carried in pocket easily. It is available in different shapes, sizes and capacities. The storage
capacity of USB drive can be up to 256 GB or more. It is also called thumb drive, key drive or jump drive.
A special type of USB flash drive includes an installed software that is accessed through an interface like
Windows. It is called U3 smart drive. Some USB flash drives have fingerprint reader to authenticate the
users.

5.7.3 Memory Cards

5.10: USB Flash Drives
A memory card is a removable flash memory to store data. Most of these cards are very small and can
retain data without power. The existing data can be erased and new data can be written easily. Memory
cards are available in many shapes and sizes. They are commonly used with smart phones, portable
media players, digital camera and other portable devices.
A memory card can be inserted into a slot on computer or mobile device. However, a card reader can be
attached to the computer if it does not have a slot. The card reader is usually connected to the USB port
of the computer. The card readers are designed to read multiple types of memory cards.
Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is a service to the computer and mobile device users to store data online. This service is
provided and managed by a cloud storage service provider in data centers that may consist of hundreds
of servers to store data. The data center can be located anywhere in the world. The storing of data on
cloud storage allows the user to access it from anywhere in the world using the Internet.
Many cloud storage providers are available on the Internet. Different providers offer different types of
services for the users. Some provide storage for specific types of media such as photos. The others allow
the users to store any type of data and provide backup services. Many service providers offer a limited
amount of storage for free with monthly fees for higher capacities. The others charge fee per gigabyte
per month.
Cloud storage also allows the user to share data with other people. The other people can view or
download the files from anywhere. This is an easier way to share data with friends, family and others.
Some important examples of cloud storage services are Dropbox, Apple iCloud, Google Drive, Amazon
Cloud Drive, Box, and Microsoft OneDrive.
1. OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive)
OneDrive is a cloud storage service provided by Microsoft. It can be used to store photos, videos and
documents etc. The files are stored by their type and can be searched easily. The user can access this
service from computer or mobile devices. Windows 8 provides built-in access to OneDrive using file
explorer.
OneDrive works closely with Microsoft Office applications such as MS Word. It is easy to open and edit
files from OneDrive in the applications such as Word. The user must sign up for a Microsoft account to
use OneDrive. It provides 15GB of free space for storing files. The user can also buy more space if
required.
2. Dropbox
Dropbox is a popular cloud storage service that is reliable and casy to use. The user can store and access
the files at any time using Dropbox's Website, desktop applications or mobile applications.
The user can store any type of file in Dropbox. The files can be easily moved from the computer to the
cloud storage by dragging and dropping them to Dropbox folder on the computer. The service
automatically synchronizes the files across all of devices. Their size limit on files to upload on Dropbox. It
provides 2GB free space on sign up. The user can also buy more space if required. There is no limit on
file size.
3. Google Drive
Google Drive is cloud storage service from Google. It provides different services such as word processor,
spreadsheet application and presentation builder. It provides 15GB of free to store files. The maximum
size of a file size can be up to 10GB. Any user with a account can access this service using Google Drive
website as well as desktop or mobile application. It is also available in Google's Web-based operating
system Chromium.

5.10.1 RAID
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disks. It is a group of hard drives connected and setup
in a way to protect or speed up the performance of a computer's disk storage. RAID is commonly used
on servers and high-performance computers. It is more reliable but expensive system.
RAID system uses different techniques for reliability of data. The simplest technique is called level 1 or
mirroring. This technique has one backup disk for each disk. If a disk fails, the data is available on
another backup disk. Another technique is called striping. It splits data, instructions and information on
multiple disks. It does not duplicate data but increases the data access time.
5.10.2 NAS
NAS stands for Network Attached Storage. NAS devices are the special devices to store and manage all
network data. They provide centralized data storage and access through an assigned network address.
They connect directly to the network. A specialized software is installed on computers attached to the
network. It ensures that all data saved to an individual computer is also stored on NAS device as backup.
NAS provides a widely supported storage system for any organization requiring a reliable network
system. NAS devices typically connect to the network via wired connection. However, some NAS devices
also use wireless connection.

5.10.4 Magnetic Tape System

Magnetic tape consists of plastic tape coated with a magnetic substance. The magnetic tape is not used
for everyday storage applications because of its sequential-access method. However, it is still used for
business data archiving and backup. One advantage of magnetic tape is its low cost to store a large
amount of data. Most computer tapes today are in the form of cartridge tapes.
Computer tapes are read by tape drives and can be an internal or an external piece of hardware. Tape
drives contain one or more read/write heads over which the tape passes and the tape drive reads or
writes data. Cartridge tapes are available in a variety of sizes and formats. Tape cartridge capacity varies
widely from 500 MB to more than 1 TB per cartridge. The enterprises use tape library to store a very
large amount of data. A tape library is a device that contains multiple tape drives and can increase the
storage capacity up to 10 PB.