Unit : 03

Module 19: Protecting Ecosystem services for

Sustainable Development

Learning objectives

By the end of this module, you will able to

 Learn the importance of protecting the ecosystem
 Understand the role of provisioning services, regulating services, supporting
services, cultural services in protecting ecosystem for sustainable development

Ecosystem

An eco refers to a natural habitat (Figure 1). An ecosystem is a region where a

bubble of life is created by plants, animals, and other organisms interacting with the
weather, environment, and other factors.

Figure 1 Ecosystem

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 The mechanism that enables biological groups (of species) to coexist organically
and engage with their physical surroundings is, in other words, an ecosystem.
Ecosystems support the "Biosphere" and keeps the planet's natural balance.
Components or structure of an ecosystem
Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or non-living
parts (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Biotic vs Abiotic

• Biotic factors or the living things includes plants, animals, and organisms
• Abiotic factors or non-living things includes weather, earth, sun, soil, climate,
atmosphere, land, rocks, temperature, and humidity.
Linking biotic and abiotic constituents together are two major forces:
• The flow of energy through the ecosystem and the cycling of nutrients within
the ecosystem.
Ecosystems vary in size: some are small enough to be contained within
single water droplets while others are large enough to encompass entire landscapes and
regions (Biome).
Energy flow
Radiant energy from the Sun is the primary source of energy in practically all
ecosystems (Figure 3).

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 Figure 3 Ecosystem
• The ecosystem's autotrophic, or self-sustaining, creatures utilise the energy of
sunshine (that is, those that can make their own food).
• The autotrophs (self-sustaining organisms) take up this energy and employ
photosynthesis to create simple carbohydrates by converting CO2 and H2O.
• These carbohydrates serve as energy stores for the autotrophs, who use that
energy to create more sophisticated organic products like lipids, proteins, and
starches that are necessary for the organism to thrive.
• The ecosystem's producers are these autotrophs.
Nutrient cycling
Nutrients are chemical elements and compounds that organisms need for growth
and the maintenance of life. Although autotrophs obtain nutrients primarily from the soil
while heterotrophs obtain nutrients primarily from other organisms, the cells of each are
made up primarily of six major elements. These elements— Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur make up the majority of an organism's protoplasm.
Heterotrophs—All mammals and fungi, as well as the majority of bacteria and many other
microbes, are heterotrophs.
Energy Pyramid
Together, autotrophs and heterotrophs make up different trophic levels in an
ecosystem, including the producer level (which is made up of autotrophs),

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 • the primary consumer level (which is composed of those organisms that feed
on producers),
• the secondary consumer level (which is composed of those organisms that feed
on primary consumers), and so on.
• A food chain is made up of the flow of organic matter and energy from
producers through various consumer levels.
For example, a typical food chain (Figure 4) in a grassland might be grass
(producer) → mouse (primary consumer) →snake (secondary consumer) →
hawk (tertiary consumer).

Figure 4 Food chain

Earth's surface is made up of a network of interconnected ecosystems. In a bigger
biome, ecosystems are frequently interconnected. Large areas of land, water, or
atmosphere are known as biomes. Examples of biomes include forests, ponds, reefs, and
tundra. We may find a variety of habitats within each forest, pond, reef, or area of tundra.
For instance, the Sahara Desert biome has a diverse range of ecosystems. The biome is
characterized by its hot and dry weather. Oasis habitats with date palm trees, freshwater,
and creatures like crocodiles can be found within the Sahara. Additionally, the Sahara
features dune ecosystems, with the wind controlling the shifting topography.
These ecosystems' inhabitants, such snakes and scorpions, must be able to
endure long periods of time in sand dunes. Even the ocean is a part of the Sahara, as the
Atlantic Ocean produces cold fogs on the coast of Northwest Africa. This Saharan habitat
is home to shrubs and creatures like goats that eat tiny trees. China's and Mongolia's
Gobi Desert. A chilly desert with frequent precipitation and subfreezing temperatures is
the Gobi. In contrast to the Sahara, the Gobi features ecosystems built on miles of bare

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rock, not sand. Some grasses can thrive in the harsh, dry weather. As a result, grazing
animals like gazelles and even the endangered wild horse species takhi can be found in
these Gobi environments.

Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem consists of three types of ecosystems, another term for which is

‘Biomes’.
The three major types are:
i. Aquatic biomes
ii. Terrestrial biomes
iii. Lentic biomes

i. Aquatic Biomes/ Freshwater ecosystem: Oceans, rivers, seas, lakes, springs,

and other bodies of water all contain aquatic biomes. This biome is further divided into
smaller ecosystems: Pond, River, Shallow water, Deepwater, Warm water, cold water
Pond Ecosystems: Pond ecosystems are often quite modest and comprise a
wide variety of invertebrates and amphibians. Fish are occasionally seen here as
well, but they are not as mobile as amphibians.
River Ecosystems: Fish are a component of this ecosystem, which also includes
plants, amphibians, and insects. Additionally, there are birds that hunt for food near
and in the water (small fishes).
Shallow water: Here one can only find tiny fishes and corals that live in shallow
waters close to land.
Deepwater Ecosystem: These types of ecosystems are home to enormous
marine life that dwells in the ocean's deepest depths. creatures that the average
human eye would not be able to see.
Warm water: The Pacific Ocean and other warmer oceans are home to some of
the most remarkable and complex ecosystems on earth.
Cold water: Cold waters with less diversity still sustain very complex ecosystems.
The food chain often starts with plankton and then moves on to small fish, which
are then either eaten by larger fish or by other animals like seals or penguins.

ii. Terrestrial Biomes: Forests, deserts, grasslands, tundras, and coastal regions
are all examples of terrestrial ecosystems, which are ecosystems that are found on land.

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Depending on the climate, there may be more than one terrestrial biome. This ecosystem
further divides into: Rainforests, Tundra, Deserts, Forests, Savannas, Grasslands
Rainforests: rainforests are a particularly dense type of environment, so many
different types of organisms live in such a small space.
Tundra: Only a small number of life forms can live in tundra ecosystems, which
are generally simple ecosystems due to their extreme environmental conditions.
Deserts: They are the polar opposite of tundras but nevertheless feature harsh
weather. Intense heat is preferable than extreme cold for animals.
Forests: One can find more forests than any other ecosystem in the world such
as deciduous and coniferous forests. Forests can support many life forms and
complex ecosystems.
Savannas: These are different from deserts in that they receive more annual
rainfall. Deserts, however, only receive a relatively small amount of precipitation
each year. Savannas typically have greater rainfall, which is beneficial for
sustaining more life.
Grasslands: Grasslands can have incredibly intricate and diverse ecosystems
that support a wide range of life.

iii. Lentic Biomes: These kinds of ecosystems that support both aquatic and
terrestrial life. examples: Swamps. Since the ecosystem's inhabitants depend on the
carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis, the only prerequisite for photosynthesis to
occur in this type of environment is exposure.

Food chain

Trophic Levels are the nutrient levels in a food chain (Figure 5). Based on their
eating habits, the organisms in the trophic levels of the food chain are divided into several
groups.

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 Figure 5 Food chain
Green plants, or producers, make up the lowest level of the chain. The second
level is created when herbivores or other primary consumers ingest these producers'
byproducts. The third stage is then created by carnivores or tertiary consumers eating
these herbivores. The third level also includes omnivores, or species that eat both plants
and animals. Organisms that consume these carnivores are considered quaternary
consumers.
In addition to the levels just mentioned, decomposers represent an entirely
separate level of the food chain. These decomposers aid in the breakdown of waste
products and turn them into nutrients that benefit the producers. Lastly, decomposers
make up for a completely different level of the food chain alongside the given levels.
These decomposers help in breaking waste materials and convert them into nutrients
which is useful for the producers.
Importance of Ecosystem
The importance of ecosystem are
i. Wild flora and animals can live there and find habitat.
ii. It encourages different food webs and food chains.
iii. It supports life and regulates crucial ecological processes.
iv. It play a part in the transfer of nutrients between biotic and abiotic elements.
v. It aids in preserving an ecosystem's regular energy flow, which includes the
carbon, energy, nitrogen, oxygen, and water cycles.

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Threats to Ecosystems
As the human population has increased, many ecosystems have been replaced
by humans. For instance, the Great Plains' tallgrass prairie was converted to agricultural
land. Fewer bison could live as the habitat dwindled. All of these Amazonian rain forest
ecosystems are under threat from human activity. For agriculture, habitation, and
industry, tens of thousands of acres of land are removed. Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador
are examples of Amazon rain forest nations that are undeveloped. Many impoverished
farmers gain from clearing land for crops like soy and corn. They have a consistent source
of income and food thanks to these resources. Families are able to afford better health
care, and kids may be able to go to school. However, destroying rain forest ecosystems
comes with a price. Plants found in rain forests have been used to create several
contemporary medications. These medications include quinine, which is used to treat
malaria, and curare, a muscle relaxant. Many experts are concerned that damaging the
environment of the rain forest could stop the development of new medications.
The ecosystems of rain forests are not very good for farming. The soil in the
Amazon rain forest is thin and nutrient-poor, in contrast to the rich soils of the Great
Plains, where humans devastated the ecosystem of the tallgrass prairie. Crops may only
be able to grow for a few seasons before all the nutrients are utilized. The farmer or
agribusiness must leave the empty ecosystem behind and go on to the next plot of land.

Four Types of Ecosystem Services

The categories of ecosystem services include: provisioning, regulating, cultural

and supporting services.
i. Provisioning services is given in Table 1.
Table 1 Provisioning services

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ii. Regulating services is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Regulating services

iii. Supporting services is given in Table 3.

Table 3 Supporting services

iv. Cultural services is given in Table 4.

Table 4 Cultural services

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 Provisioning services

i. Food

Agriculture
Currently, the world produces enough food to feed the 7 billion people who live
there. With the rate of production increasing more quickly than the population over
the last 20 years, there is 17% more food produced globally today than there was
30 years ago.
Food production is one of the ecosystem services that has steadily increased over
time. It is now understood, however, that the increases in agricultural productivity
and production were frequently accompanied by detrimental consequences on
agriculture's natural resource base, compromising its future productivity potential.
Over the past two decades, ecosystem approaches to agriculture intensification
have arisen as farmers have adopted sustainable practices, which are essential to
achieving the advantages of ecosystem services while minimizing the adverse
effects from agricultural activities.
Cattle

Nearly one-third of the protein consumed by humans comes from livestock. When
it comes to micronutrients, animal products are crucial to human nutrition.
The only way to create food on large tracts of rangeland that are not ideal for
growing crops is through ruminant animals, which can digest the cellulose in grass
and convert it to human-edible proteins. However, alternative animal production
methods rely on grains, which may cause a conflict between human food and cattle
feed.
Fish

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 People all across the world get a considerable quantity of animal protein from the
capture and culture of marine and freshwater fish. Between 15 and 20 percent of
all animal proteins are thought to derive from aquatic creatures.
Fish is a particularly good source of long chain omega-3 fats, making it a helpful
supplement for diets that are deficient in certain vitamins and minerals. The sector
also depends on the food services for significant financial income and jobs. Half of
the fish consumed by humans is produced through aquaculture, one of the fastest-
growing food-producing industries.
Forest

The Non-Timber Forest products also contribute to a large part of the nutrition in
developing countries.

ii. Wood
Agriculture

Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials including wood, biofuels, and

fibres from wild or cultivated plant and animal species. Examples of raw material:
biofuel and fibres.
Cattle

Different types of raw materials are provided by livestock, including fiber (wool,
mohair), skin, and other products utilized in the feed and food industries (bones,
blood).
Fish

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 The development of microalgae and fish waste for biofuels, the use of mangroves
as building materials and for smoking fish, and the use of shells for jewelry and
other cultural artifacts are a few examples of raw materials related to capture
fisheries and aquaculture.
Forest

Examples of raw material: wood and fibres.

iii. Water
Agriculture

No water means no life. Fresh water movement and storage are essential functions
of ecosystems. Since irrigation uses account for about 60% of all freshwater
withdrawals worldwide, crops are strongly reliant on it. Cropping technologies that
are improved can also help the soil retain more water and provide more water.
Cattle

A significant user of freshwater resources is livestock. The majority of this water

footprint is caused by the feed they eat. An estimated 15% of the water used in
agriculture worldwide is used by livestock
However, in many of the major watersheds around the world, grasslands are an
important habitat. When compared to exposed soils, grassland cover can hold 50
to 80 percent more water, lowering the likelihood of drought and flooding. Some of
the land uses that produce the most water are traditional grazing pastures.
Fish

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 The provision of freshwater by aquatic ecosystems can be supported through
sustainable fisheries management and aquaculture development.
When conserving existing ponds, for instance, aquaculture might act as a steward
of freshwater resources. Freshwater management must be done sustainably, and
frameworks for water management must incorporate fisheries and fish
management.
Forest

Forests are a stable source of pure freshwater and aid in maintaining healthy
aquatic habitats. In addition to filtering and purifying water, forests also assist
prevent soil erosion and lessen reservoir sedimentation.
It also lessens the likelihood of mudslides, floods, and other issues that could
endanger downstream water supplies. Furthermore, while trees themselves use
water, they also increase infiltration rates, recharging subsurface aquifers in the
process. Freshwater supply may be negatively impacted by forest cover loss.
iv. Medicinal resources
Agriculture

Natural habitats offer a variety of plants and mushrooms that work well as
treatments for a wide range of health issues. They are employed in the creation of
medications as well as in conventional and alternative medicine.
There is a growing interest in the use, development, cultivation, conservation,
sustainable use, etc. of medicinal and aromatic plants all over the world, in both
developed and developing nations. In many nations today, medicines made from
plants serve as the foundation for healthcare. These procedures are conventional
or viewed as more "contemporary."
Cattle

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 A large diversity of therapeutic plants can be found in grasslands. In one study
conducted in the Philippines, 58 species were discovered. These herbal remedies
will disappear as grasslands degrade.
Fish

Traditional medicine makes use of a number of aquatic plants and creatures,

including sea horses, starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.
These plants and animals are in danger due to overfishing, habitat destruction,
and pollution. To maintain the health of this medication reservoir, sustainable
management is required.
Forest

Quinine, a key medication that successfully combats malaria, comes from trees.
As long as the delicate balance of the forest ecosystems is preserved, traditional
knowledge can tell us a lot about other potential natural remedies.

Regulating services

i. Local Climate Air Quality

Agriculture

Air quality and local climate are influenced by ecosystems. For instance, trees offer
shade while forests affect local and regional rainfall and water supply. By
eliminating pollutants from the environment, trees and other plants also have a
significant impact on controlling the quality of the air.
Agricultural crops, including annual and perennial species, are impacted by air
pollution because they may have an impact on internal plant processes that
regulate or alter growth and reproduction, which in turn affects productivity. Like
other plants, crops have the potential to purify the air. A farmer's crop may be
protected from chemical drift from nearby fields, for instance, by rows of coniferous
trees along a field's edge.

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 Cattle

Local air quality can be negatively impacted by livestock, particularly by ammonia

(NH3) emissions from high density livestock systems. Filters can be installed in
barns to assist lessen this impact.
Fish

Fluctuations in air and water temperatures have a direct impact on fish

reproduction cycles, geographic ranges, illness risks, and fish habitats like coral
reefs, which are sensitive to temperature changes.
Forest

Urban trees can improve air quality by:

i. converting carbon dioxide into oxygen through photosynthesis;
ii. intercepting particulate pollutants (dust, ash, pollen, and smoke) and
absorbing toxic gases like ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide;
iii. lowering local air temperatures

ii. Carbon sequestration and storage

Agriculture

Ecosystems regulate the world temperature by storing greenhouse gases. As

plants and trees grow, they, for instance, take in carbon dioxide from the air and
effectively store it within their tissues.

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Cattle

Cattle supply chains account for 7.1 gigatonnes (GT) of yearly CO2-eq emissions,
or 14.5% of all GHG emissions brought on by human activity.
Direct and indirect land use change, which affects soil and plant carbon stocks and
their potential to store carbon, is a factor in a portion of the greenhouse gas
emissions from livestock. On the other side, the estimated 0.6 gigatonnes CO2-eq
of annual grassland carbon sequestration might greatly reduce emissions.
Fish

The seas and aquatic systems are crucial for the sinking and sequestering of
greenhouse gases (GHGs). Currently, the oceans hold around 93% of the carbon
dioxide on the world and absorb about one-third of the excess CO2 released into
the atmosphere. Global warming and acidification-related changes in biological
processes and distributions, such as sea level rise, coral bleaching, extreme
weather events, disease, and post-harvest risks, might have an impact on fisheries
and aquaculture. Fisheries and aquaculture can aid with carbon sequestration and
storage by maintaining "Blue carbon" sinks (peatlands, mangrove forests,
seagrass beds, and other vegetated ocean habitats) as well as carbon
sequestering products, such as seaweed.
Forest

Urban trees can improve air quality by: (i) converting carbon dioxide into oxygen
through photosynthesis; (ii) intercepting particulate pollutants (dust, ash, pollen,
and smoke) and absorbing toxic gases like ozone, sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen
dioxide; (iii) emitting different volatile organic compounds that contribute to ozone
formation in cities; (iv) lowering local air temperatures; (v) reducing summer and
winter extremes in building temperatures; and consequently reduce pollution
emissions from power-generating facilities.

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iii. Moderation of extreme events
Agriculture

Living things and ecosystems act as barriers against natural calamities. They
lessen the harm caused by droughts, floods, storms, tsunamis, avalanches, and
landslides.
More severe and frequent drought spells have been generated in recent years by
an increase in climate variability, which affects agricultural systems at all phases
of growth and, as a result, crop yields. The impact of droughts on the lives of the
rural poor can be lessened by diversification and crop-pattern adjustments, among
other strategies.
Cattle

Events like drought have a significant impact on livestock. Breeds that are resistant
to drought, harsh heat, or tropical illnesses are extremely important in a world
endangered by climate change.
To withstand catastrophic catastrophes, it is crucial to preserve the diversity of
these historic breeds. Mixed crop-livestock and sylvo-pastoral systems are
examples of diverse systems that are more resistant to harsh disasters. Livestock
also helps to prevent fires or avalanches by reducing vegetation.
Fish

Protecting coastal people from extreme weather occurrences requires healthy

mangrove and coral reef systems. Through, for instance, integrated mangrove-
aquaculture ponds, sustainable direct mangrove use in the sector, and elimination
of hazardous activities harming coral reef systems, fisheries and aquaculture can
aid in the moderation of extreme events.
Forest

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 The threat to the world's forests from extreme weather and natural disasters is
growing. Extreme events may be impacted by the state of the woods themselves.
Deforestation and inadequate management, for instance, can exacerbate flooding
and landslides during storms.
However, it doesn't appear that the amount of large-scale flooding in the lower
reaches of significant river basins is related to the amount of forest cover and the
management techniques used in the catchment area. Similar to tectonic or
extreme rainfall occurrences, woods are unable to stop large-scale landslides and
mass movements.
iv. Waste-water treatment
Agriculture

Wetlands are an example of an ecosystem that filters effluents, breaks down waste
through the biological activity of microorganisms, and gets rid of dangerous
infections. Water pollution is frequently caused by agricultural effluents.
Using wetlands or buffer strips, agricultural systems can be created to support
waste water treatment. Working to reduce these effluents can help relieve some
of the ecosystem's stress. Agrochemicals that could wind up in run-off and water
bodies can also be used less frequently in agricultural systems.
Cattle

Animal feces is produced by livestock, which can also pollute the water. The
concentration of livestock in the landscape, either at watering holes where animals
congregate, or pollution from manure and fertilizer for feed crops, or both, has an
impact on the water quality. Water contamination can be prevented by
implementing management measures.
Fish

Functional wetlands, which are the primary natural method of treating waste
water, depend on a variety of fish species. The operation of ecosystems and the
processes that are necessary for maintaining water quality depend heavily on
fish, mollusks, and other aquatic species as well as fish habitats. Planning your

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 space to support healthy fisheries and aquaculture helps reduce the harm done
to those ecosystems.
Forest

Trees contribute heavily to waste-water treatment through their root system and
their role in nutrient cycling.

v. Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility

Agriculture

Through natural biological processes like nitrogen fixation, vegetation cover

guards against soil erosion and promotes soil fertility. The process of land
degradation, loss of soil fertility, and desertification are all largely influenced by soil
erosion, which also lowers the productivity of fisheries downstream.
Achieving food and livelihood security requires reversing the degradation of
biological, soil, and water resources. Deterioration of soil structure, loss of organic
matter, acidification, salinization, alkalization, faster wind and water erosion, drop
in soil fertility, and biodiversity loss are only a few of the symptoms of soil
degradation. As a result, socioeconomic effects include decreased farm labor
productivity and agricultural revenue, rising urban migration, and a worsening of
rural poverty. The restoration of deteriorated soil productivity requires
complementary actions, such as conservation agriculture, sound agricultural
practices, irrigation management, and integrated plant nutrition management.
Cattle

In grazed grasslands and croplands, animal excretions can be a significant supply

of nutrients and preserve soil fertility, particularly in poor nations. Around 15% of
the nitrogen (N) used to fertilize crops worldwide comes from livestock dung.
In contrast, animals can worsen soil quality and induce erosion due to overgrazing,
pedo-climatic conditions, and other management techniques (fire suppression,
clear cutting). To prevent soil degradation or encourage its restoration, livestock
exclusion, rotational grazing, or rational grazing may be required.

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 Fish

Fish are essential for maintaining sediment processes, and integrated fisheries
and aquaculture systems, for instance, can reduce soil erosion along rivers, lakes,
and coastal areas.
Forest

According to studies, soil erosion is less likely the more an agricultural system
resembles a natural forest in terms of canopy structure, tree spacing, and ground
cover. Since ancient times, traditional agroforestry methods that provide natural
cover have been employed to provide food without enduring long-term
environmental harm.

vi Pollination
Agriculture

Plants and trees are pollinated by insects and the wind, which is crucial for the
growth of fruits, vegetables, and seeds. Animal pollination is primarily performed
by insects, while some birds and bats also participate in this ecosystem service.
In agro-ecosystems, pollinators are necessary for the growth of orchards,
horticulture, forages, and the development of seed for several root and fiber crops.
35 percent of the world's crop productivity is impacted by pollinators like bees,
birds, and bats, which also increase the yields of the top 75 percent of food crops
globally. Animal pollinators are crucial for food security, food diversity, human
nutrition, and food pricing, yet they are under threat due to causes like habitat
destruction, unsustainable agricultural methods like intensification, and pesticide
abuse. Through optimal agricultural management techniques that benefit wild
pollinators, such as building hedgerows, promoting plant diversity, mulching, or the
prudent/reduced use of pesticides, there is a resurgence of interest in assisting
nature in providing pollination services.

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 Cattle

When managed effectively, grasslands are a vital habitat for pollinators.

Additionally, there is a significant chance that increasing their floristic diversity will
help insect pollinators.
Fish

Important freshwater plants, such as water lilies need pollinators to reproduce.

Pollinators are therefore also important in freshwater systems, helping the balance
of the system, indirectly supporting fisheries.
Forest

For pollinators, natural woods are a vital habitat because they offer safety and
nourishment. When given the option, wild honeybees opted to build their nests in
trees rather than in an open area. A forest's biodiversity can be preserved and its
trees' ability to regenerate better when there are enough bees around to pollinate
the trees.

vii. Biological control

Agriculture

The actions taken by predators and parasites in ecosystems to keep populations

of potential pests and disease vectors under control.
Crops are only one component of agricultural output; agro-ecosystems' associated
biodiversity is also essential. Crop productivity is hampered by pests, diseases,
and weeds, which are further constrained by the actions of their natural enemies,
primarily arthropods and microorganisms. By using an ecosystem approach and
biological control, it is possible to increase biodiversity, use fewer pesticides, and
maintain production.

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Cattle

Both for individual farmers and at a national or regional level, animal diseases
result in significant financial losses. In the sub-tropics and tropics, gastrointestinal
nematode parasitism is one of the most significant diseases that restrict the
production of small ruminants.
Predacious fungi can be used to manage bovine gastro-intestinal nematodes
biologically. Additionally, chickens are used to manage ticks and other disease-
carrying animals and humans.
Fish

Fish populations control the structure of other species' communities, which in turn
controls the spread of pests and illnesses. For instance, in 1963 the United States
imported grass carp (white amur) to eradicate aquatic weeds.
To prevent favoring one species over another and upsetting the delicate balance
of the ecosystem, it is essential to thoroughly understand the ecosystem
interactions while utilizing biological control, whether it be to increase an existing
population or introduce a new one. The optimal use of biological control and the
balancing of various populations can be supported by sustainable fisheries and
stock management.
Forest

When biological control of pests is required in a forest, this strategy is frequently

used since a forest's generally stable ecosystem ensures freedom from harmful
effects like pesticide interference or disruptive agricultural practices. Forests that
are left to their natural or sustainable state are a fantastic source of organic pest
control agents.

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viii. Regulation of Water Flow
Agriculture

Water flow regulation is a crucial function offered by land cover and structure, but
most policy makers and land management organizations have a limited
understanding of its dynamics.
Agriculture uses a lot of water, and it also has a big impact on how the water flows.
Agriculture land management can either cause flooding or, as in the case of the
"Ganges Water Machine," be viewed as a regional water flow control device.
Cattle

Water consumption by livestock is significant, and it also has a significant impact

on controlling water flow. Grassland management has the potential to either cause
flooding or act as a regional water flow control mechanism.
Fish

Since fish and other aquatic animals are sensitive to changes in water flows, it is
crucial that the sector be included in conversations about managing water flows
for fisheries and aquaculture to flourish sustainably.
Forest

The availability of water and the timing of water supply are influenced by forests.
Stream-flow regulation by forests is the result of processes in the forest canopy,
on the surface and below the ground – a combination of interception, transpiration,
evaporation, evapotranspiration and infiltration. In light of this, managing forests
sustainably is essential for controlling water flows.

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 Supporting services

i. Habitat for species

Agriculture

Ecosystems offer habitats for plants and animals, as well as support a variety of
intricate processes that support the other ecosystem services. 'Biodiversity
hotspots' are ecosystems that have an unusually high number of species, making
them genetically more diverse than others.
Agro-ecosystems that are well-managed and diverse can mimic the complexity
and diversity of natural ecosystems, resulting in excellent habitat for animals.
These kinds of systems can produce large yields while guaranteeing long-term
supply.
Cattle

Grasslands that are partially wild might be among the environments with the
greatest biodiversity. They support a special assortment of animals that have
evolved especially for these open settings. It is frequently impossible to maintain
these environments without intensive livestock management.
A dual threat of abandonment (for the less productive ones) and intensification
threatens them (intensive management practices, conversion to cropland). They
are disappearing at a startling rate in some nations. To maintain the health of these
important ecosystems, sustainable grassland management techniques must be
encouraged.
Fish

Millions of aquatic species that are exploited economically or consumed locally

depend on marine and freshwater ecosystems as important habitats (for example,
25% of marine fish species live on coral reefs). The main stresses on aquatic
ecosystems include habitat loss, pollution, and the effects of overfishing on
ecosystem health.

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 Forest

Together, tropical, temperate and boreal forests offer very diverse habitats for
plants, animals and micro-organisms. Many of the world's poorest nations derive
more than 10% of their GDP from their forests.
Despite playing such a significant part in the global economy, there has been little
advancement in sustainable forest management, and forests are still being lost
and degraded in many developing nations.

ii. Maintenance of genetic diversity

Agriculture

Different breeds or races are distinguished from one another by genetic diversity
(the variability of genes between and within species populations), which serves as
the foundation for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene pool for creating
commercially viable crops and livestock.
Conserving and using genetic diversity can provide the options needed for coping
with stresses. The ability of agro-ecosystems to sustain and expand their output
and adapt to changing conditions continues to be crucial for the global population's
access to food. The use of genetic resources for food and agriculture can be
conserved and used sustainably by promoting the ecosystem approach. Around
75% of plant genetic variety has been lost since the turn of the 20th century as
farmers all over the world switched from their diverse local varieties and landraces
to genetically uniform, high-yielding cultivars. Only 150 to 200 of the 250 000–300
000 identified edible plant species are consumed by humans, or 4%. Only three,
including rice, maize, and wheat, account for over 60% of the calories and proteins
that people get from plants.
Cattle

Currently, it has been determined that more than 20% of the breeds are in danger
of going extinct. 60 breeds have disappeared in the previous five years, or one
each month on average.

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 If livestock owners want to modify their animals' traits in response to shifting
environmental factors, they require access to a large gene pool. Traditional breeds,
which are adapted to local conditions, sometimes provide poor farmers with better
protection against hunger since they endure drought and hardships better than
exotic kinds.
Fish

Through smart harvesting techniques, the variety of aquatic ecosystems and

sustainable fishing can help to maintain the genetic diversity of aquatic systems.
The genetic diversity of species, communities, ecosystems, and landscapes can
all be impacted by aquaculture methods. In order to preserve genetic diversity,
aquaculture management should include both the compilation of interactions with
natural aquatic genetic resources and the documenting of genetic resources
employed in aquaculture.
Forest

Forests are among the most important repositories of terrestrial biological diversity.

Cultural services

i. Recreation and mental and physical health

Agriculture

Recreational activities that are grounded in nature are crucial for preserving both
physical and mental health, such as walking and playing sports in parks and other
urban green spaces. Agricultural landscapes offer a variety of recreational
activities and are known to be good for mental health.
Cattle

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 Grasslands are excellent outdoor recreation areas for activities like horseback
riding and bicycling. Some nations help farmers maintain intensive methods that
keep the pastures and grasslands in good condition.
Fish

Around the world, aquatic systems offer crucial leisure and health activities.
Recreational services can be directly supported by sustainable fisheries and
aquaculture. For instance, a strong aquatic ecosystem is correlated with
recreational fishing.
Forest

Numerous sports, including mountain riding, can be done in forests.

ii. Tourism
Agriculture

Millions of people travel the world to enjoy nature. Visitors will profit from this
cultural ecosystem service, and nature tourism service providers will have
opportunities to make money.
Urbanites can re-establish their connection to nature through the quickly
expanding business of farm tourism. Typically, farms that are attractive are those
whose food and products are sustainable, environmentally friendly, and extremely
connected to nature.
Cattle

Many landscape are a result of a co-evolution of nature and low-intensity livestock

grazing.

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 Fish

Examples of tourism services from the aquatic systems include travel to fishing
villages or to aquatic protected areas.
Over the past 50 years, there has been a steady increase in demand for tourist
and recreational possibilities, with a focus on marine and coastal areas in
particular. Particularly significant and valuable are coral reefs for the tourism
industry. With an estimated 118 million fishermen in the industrialized world,
recreational fishing is a burgeoning tourism industry.
Forest

Today, when planning forest management, it is crucial to take into account tourism
in forests. Revenue from tourism is frequently a motivator for sustainable forest
management.

iii. Aesthetic appreciation and inspiration for culture art and design
Agriculture

Many of our arts, cultures, and designs have been influenced by animals, plants,
and ecosystems; more and more often, science is as well.
As acknowledged by the Satoyama Initiative and Globally Important Agricultural
Heritage Sites, agricultural landscapes provide significant cultural importance for
many nations. Additionally, in some communities, particular rice varieties are
preserved just for ceremonial usage.
Cattle

Some agro-pastoral systems have produced stunning landscapes, maintained and

adapted agricultural biodiversity of global significance, indigenous knowledge
systems, and resilient ecosystems, but most importantly, they have sustained the

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 provision of numerous goods and services, ensuring the security of food and
livelihood for millions of small-scale and poor farmers.
Fish

Wild species of fish in tropical reefs, packed streams during spawning, lakes, and
along the coasts, as well as fish in public aquariums, all produce highly prized
aesthetic services.
For millennia, engineers and artists have been inspired by the ocean. For instance,
the future generation of airplane wings might take design cues from humpback
whale flippers.
Forest

Many technologies, including one that helps cities capture rainfall, have been
developed as a result of inspiration from forests.

iv. Spiritual experience and sense of place

Agriculture

Most major faiths include some aspect of nature. A sense of belonging is

influenced by one's natural inheritance, spiritual sense of community, traditional
knowledge, and related customs
Many world religions place a high value on eating habits related to agriculture.
Dewi Sri, the goddess of rice, for instance, is revered in Bali, where rice is the main
crop. The goddess's tiny bamboo temples are built in the upstream, most sacred
areas of the rice fields during harvest, and communities are decorated with flags.
As offerings, small dolls made of rice stalks representing Dewi Sri are positioned
in granaries.
Cattle

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 The social significance of livestock among dryland pastoralists in East Africa
includes, but is not limited to, the following: rainmaking ceremonies, cleansing of
families or communities, protection against curses or disease outbreaks, oral
traditions, customary law and values, treating sick people, naming ceremonies,
initiation ceremonies and rites of passage, sacrifices in accordance with the
community's cultural beliefs, as a source of life without which life has no meaning,
as a means of obtaining food, as a means of transportation.
Fish

Aquatic ecosystems and society have always been intertwined. Many societal
institutions, including the Qoli Qoli, the customary tenurial systems of the pacific
islands, the Indonesian Panglima Laut, etc., are founded on traditional
management of fish and fisheries. Important culinary traditions (specialty dishes
and menus) have emerged out of traditional means of preserving and
curing/processing fish to deal with gluts and lean periods. Important traditions and
celebrations are also tied to annual fish harvesting cycles. The cultural significance
of fishing throughout the world is further attested to by the abundance of proverbs,
prayers, and legends.
Forest

Nature and wildlife have always had a part in ancient cultures hosting good and
bad spirits.

The nature of our ecosystem is

 Rivers do not drink their own water
 Trees do not eat their own fruits
 Sun does not shine on itself
 Flowers do not spread their fragrance for themselves
Living for others is the rule of nature.
How are we treating our nature?
How are we going to protect our ecosystem?
We human beings have a very important role.

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 Summary

In this module we have

 Learnt the importance of protecting the ecosystem
 Understood the role of provisioning services, regulating services, supporting
services, cultural services in protecting ecosystem for sustainable development

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