7

TE
Metallic bonding and ionic
bonding

Table salt is sodium chloride, which is composed of sodium ions

Chapter preview and chloride ions held together by ionic bonds.

7.1 Metallic bonding

7.2 Formation of ions from atoms
7.3 Ionic bonding and ionic compounds
7.4 Names and formulae of ions
7.5 Names and formulae of ionic compounds
7.6 Colours of ions
7.7 Migration of ions

Prior knowledge & Quick review

(For Chapter 7)
 All answers
Imperial State Crown

The Imperial State Crown is the main crown of the British monarchy. It symbolizes the complete
power of a king or queen to govern a country. This magnificent crown contains many jewels
including 2783 diamonds, 17 sapphires, 277 pearls, 11 emeralds and 5 rubies. Can you identify these
jewels from the photo below?

sapphire

pearl

ruby

emerald
diamond

The Imperial State Crown was made in 1838 and is currently owned by Queen Elizabeth II,
the queen of the United Kingdom. It is 31.5 cm in height and weighs 1.06 kg.

There are several thousands of known minerals in nature, but less than a hundred are gem
minerals. Of these, only about 10 are considered to be gemstones. Sapphire, pearl, emerald and ruby
are gemstones. They are beautiful, hard, durable and rare.

Think about...
1 Do you know why emerald is green in colour?

2 Most of the gemstones are ionic compounds. Do you know what ionic compounds are?

3 Would ions in an aqueous solution move under the influence of an electric field? How can you

carry out an experiment to demonstrate their movements?

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

gemstone 寶石 diamond 鑽石 monarchy 君主國

emerald 綠寶石 pearl 珍珠
Imperial State Crown 帝國皇冠 ruby 紅寶石
jewel 寶石 sapphire 藍寶石
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7.1 Metallic bonding
As mentioned in Chapter 6, all metals conduct electricity. Do you know any
special feature in their structures that make them good conductors of
electricity?

Consider a piece of sodium. The sodium atoms in the metal pack closely
together. A sodium atom has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1. This single
outermost shell electron is far away from the nucleus and is not strongly
attracted, so it can escape easily to leave a positively charged sodium ion.
The outermost shell electrons of all sodium atoms move freely and
randomly among the sodium ions. These are delocalized electrons, since
each electron is no longer held by the nucleus of its original atom.
Learning tip
• Refer to Section 7.2 for We can say that the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
more details about the delocalized electrons (Figure 7.1). The movement of delocalized electrons
term ‘ion’.
makes metals good conductors of electricity.
• We will learn why
metals can conduct
electricity in Section metal ions
9.2. (positively charged)

delocalized electrons
(negatively charged)

Figure 7.1 In a metal, positively charged metal ions are surrounded by a

‘sea’ of negatively charged delocalized electrons.

Learning tip
Metallic bond is Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction (i.e. attraction
non-directional. It between opposite charges) between negatively charged delocalized
acts in all directions.
electrons and positively charged metal ions.

Key point
Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between
delocalized electrons and metal ions.

delocalized electron 離域電子 metallic bond 金屬鍵 non-directional 無方向性的

electrostatic attraction 靜電引力
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Class practice 7.1
Magnesium has the electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 2.
(a) How many outermost shell electrons does each magnesium atom have?
(b) How many outermost shell electrons does each magnesium atom
contribute to the formation of metallic bond?
(c) What type of electrostatic attraction exists between delocalized electrons
and magnesium ions?

What is a chemical bond?

In the microscopic world, atoms or ions are held together by chemical
bonds. A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction that holds
atoms or ions together. Metallic bond is a type of chemical bond.

Apart from metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond are two
other types of chemical bond.
• Ionic bond is mainly found in compounds formed between metals and
non-metals.
• Covalent bond is mainly found in non-metals and in compounds
formed from non-metals only.

In the coming sections, we will discuss ionic bonding. Then we will

discuss covalent bonding in Chapter 8.

7.2 Formation of ions from atoms

Atoms of elements other than those of the noble gases are usually not
stable. In chemical reactions, these atoms tend to attain a stable
electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas atoms by gaining or
losing outermost shell electrons. When an atom gains or loses one or more
electrons, an ion forms.

Formation of positive ions

A metal atom has few outermost shell electrons (usually 1 to 3). To attain
the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the easiest way is to lose
these electrons, forming a cation (positively charged ion).

cation 陽離子 ion 離子 attain 達致

70 chemical bond 化學鍵 ionic bond 離子鍵 charge 電荷
covalent bond 共價鍵
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Formation of sodium ions
A sodium atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,1. It tends to lose one
electron to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8). Thus, a
sodium ion (2,8) forms. See Figure 7.2.

–
loses 1e

+
sodium atom (Na) sodium ion (Na )
2,8,1 2,8

Figure 7.2 Formation of sodium ion from sodium atom

In a sodium atom (Na), there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. It is

overall electrically neutral. When it loses one electron, a sodium ion forms.
A sodium ion contains 11 protons and 10 electrons, so it has an overall
charge of 1+. See Table 7.1.

+
Na atom Na ion

Number of protons 11 11

Number of electrons 11 10

Overall charge 0 1+

Table 7.1 The number of protons and the number of electrons in a sodium
atom and a sodium ion respectively

Formation of magnesium ions

The electronic arrangement of a magnesium atom (Mg) is 2,8,2. It tends to
lose two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8).
Thus, a magnesium ion (2,8) forms. The magnesium ion has an overall
charge of 2+. See Figure 7.3.

Think about it
How many protons and –
loses 2e
electrons are there in a
magnesium atom and a
magnesium ion
respectively?
2+
magnesium atom (Mg) magnesium ion (Mg )
2,8,2 2,8

Figure 7.3 Formation of magnesium ion from magnesium atom

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Skill corner 7.1

Drawing electron diagrams to represent cations

Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of a cation (e.g. a sodium ion).

1 Write the correct symbol

of the element

4 Write the charge of the ion on the

top right-hand corner outside the
bracket
a Omit the number ‘1’ if the
2 Draw the electron shell(s) Na overall charge of the cation
and the correct number of is 1+, i.e. write ‘+’
electrons in each shell b If the overall charge of the
cation is larger than 1, write
the number of the charge,
followed by the ‘+’ sign e.g.
3 Draw a pair of square 2+, 3+
brackets

Example 7.1

Predicting the cation formed by an atom

27
Consider an 13Al atom.
(a) Write the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons in the atom.
27
(b) Draw the electron diagram of an 13Al atom.
27
(c) Describe briefly how an 13Al atom can attain a stable octet electronic arrangement.
27
(d) Write the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons in the aluminium ion formed from an 13Al
atom.
(e) What is the charge on an aluminium ion?
(f) Draw the electron diagram of an aluminium ion.

Solution
(a) Number of protons: 13; number of electrons: 13; number of neutrons: 14
(b)

(c) An aluminium atom loses three outermost shell electrons in order to attain the stable octet
electronic arrangement of neon atom (2,8). Thus, an aluminium ion forms.
(d) Number of protons: 13; number of electrons: 10; number of neutrons: 14

Cont’d

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(e) 3+
(f)

Formation of negative ions

Compared with a metal atom, a non-metal atom has more outermost shell
electrons. To attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the
easiest way is to gain electrons, forming an anion (negatively charged
ion).

Formation of chloride ions

A chlorine atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,7. It tends to gain one
electron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom (2,8,8).
Thus, a chloride ion (2,8,8) forms. See Figure 7.4.

–
gains 1e

–
chlorine atom (Cl) chloride ion (Cl )
2,8,7 2,8,8

Figure 7.4 Formation of chloride ion from chlorine atom

Learning tip In a chlorine atom (Cl), there are 17 protons and 17 electrons. When it
Refer to Section 7.4 for gains one electron, a chloride ion forms. A chloride ion contains 17 protons
the names of negative and 18 electrons, so it has an overall charge of 1–. See Table 7.2.
ions.

–
Cl atom Cl ion

Number of protons 17 17

Number of electrons 17 18

Overall charge 0 1–

Table 7.2 The number of protons and the number of electrons in a chlorine
atom and a chloride ion respectively

anion 陰離子
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Formation of oxide ions
The electronic arrangement of an oxygen atom (O) is 2,6. It tends to gain
two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8).
Thus, an oxide ion (2,8) forms. An oxide ion has an overall charge of 2–. See
Figure 7.5.

Think about it
How many protons and gains 2e
–

electrons are there in an

oxygen atom and an
oxide ion respectively?

2–
oxygen atom (O) oxide ion (O )
2,6 2,8

Figure 7.5 Formation of oxide ion from oxygen atom

Skill corner 7.2

Drawing electron diagrams to represent anions

Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of an anion (e.g. a chloride ion).

1 Write the correct symbol of the element

2 Draw the correct number

5 Write the charge of the ion on the top
of electron shell(s)
right-hand corner outside the bracket
a Omit the number ‘1’ if the overall
3 Usually, ‘•’ and ‘×’ are used charge of the anion is 1–, i.e.
to indicate the electrons from Cl
write ‘–’
a the atom itself and b If the overall charge of the anion
b the other atom(s) is larger than 1, write the
respectively number of the charge, followed
However, this is NOT a must by the ‘–’ sign e.g. 2–, 3–
because the electrons of the
atoms itself and those from the 4 Draw a pair of square brackets
other atoms are indistinguishable

Simple ions and polyatomic ions

So far, we have seen several simple ions like sodium ion, magnesium ion,
chloride ion and oxide ion. A simple ion is derived from a single atom.

A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms. Examples of

polyatomic ions include ammonium ion, hydroxide ion, sulphate ion and
carbonate ion. See Figure 7.6.

ammonium ion 銨離子 polyatomic ion 多原子離子

74 carbonate ion 碳酸根離子 simple ion 簡單離子
hydroxide ion 氫氧離子 sulphate ion 硫酸根離子
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+ –
Learning tip H
The atoms in these N O H
polyatomic ions are held H H H
together by covalent
bond, which is another + –
ammonium ion (NH4 ) hydroxide ion (OH )
type of chemical bond.
More details about
2– 2–
covalent bond will be
discussed in Chapter 8. O
O
S
C
O O O O
O

Figure 7.6 Models of some

2– 2–
sulphate ion (SO4 ) carbonate ion (CO3 ) polyatomic ions

What’s wrong In an ammonium ion, there are one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen
The following electron
diagram for a sulphide atoms. It has an overall charge of 1+. Can you find out the number and type
ion (i.e. a simple ion of atoms in other polyatomic ions shown in Figure 7.6?
formed from the sulphur
atom) is wrong. Can you
re-draw it? Key point
When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, an ion forms. A
simple ion is derived from a single atom while a polyatomic ion is
derived from a group of atoms.

Class practice 7.2

1. Complete the following table by filling in the numbers of protons,
neutrons and electrons in each of the following ions.

Number of
Ion
protons neutrons electrons
9 2+
(a) Be
39 +
(b) K
31 3–
(c) P

2. How many electrons and neutrons are there in a doubly charged cation
64
formed from a 30Zn atom?
3. Which of the following statements concerning the formation of a fluoride
ion from a fluorine atom is correct?
A. The atomic number of fluorine increases by 1.
B. The number of neutrons increases by 1.
C. The number of electrons decreases by 1.
D. The number of occupied electron shells in a fluoride ion is equal to
that in a fluorine atom.

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7.3 Ionic bonding and ionic compounds

Formation of ionic bond between sodium and

chlorine
Flipped classroom When sodium reacts with chlorine (Figure 2.6 in Book 1A), each sodium
Formation of ionic
atom loses one electron and each chlorine atom gains one electron. As a
bonds
result of the transfer of electron, sodium ions and chloride ions form.

Figure 7.7 shows the transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to a

chlorine atom forming a sodium ion and a chloride ion respectively.

electron
+
transfer
Figure 7.7 The transfer of an
+ –
electron from a sodium atom sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl) sodium ion (Na ) chloride ion (Cl )
(loses one electron) (gains one electron)
to a chlorine atom when
sodium reacts with chlorine. (both unstable, therefore reactive) (both stable)

The sodium and chloride ions formed have opposite charges, so they
attract each other strongly. The electrostatic attraction which holds the
oppositely charged ions together is called ionic bond.

Learning tip
• We will look at the In the reaction between sodium and chlorine, trillions of sodium and
structure of NaCl in chlorine atoms are converted into sodium ions and chloride ions. The ions
greater detail in
pack closely and regularly to form a three-dimensional giant structure
Section 9.3, p.138.
(Figure 7.8). In the structure of sodium chloride, sodium ions and chloride
• Ionic bond extends
in all directions, so it ions are held together by ionic bonds.
is non-directional.

– –
Cl ion
+ +
– – –
+ +
–
+ +
– – +
Na ion
+
– –
+ +
–
sodium chloride crystal

Figure 7.8 An ionic crystal of sodium chloride consists of sodium ions and chloride ions
+ –
held together by ionic bonds. (Note: this figure just shows several Na and Cl ions. Even a
single sodium chloride crystal contains trillions of ions.)

ionic bond 離子鍵 trillion 萬億

76 transfer of electron 電子轉移
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Key point
Ionic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions.
An ionic bond forms by the transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom (or group of atoms) to another.

In the reaction between sodium and chlorine, only the outermost

shell electrons are involved. This is true for most chemical reactions.
For simplicity, electron diagrams in the latter part of this book will show
the outermost shells only.

Thus, Figure 7.7 can be simplified as:

electron
+
transfer
2,8,1 2,8,7
2,8 2,8,8

or even more simply,

Formation of ionic bond between magnesium and

fluorine
When magnesium reacts with fluorine, a magnesium atom loses two
electrons, while a fluorine atom gains one electron. As a result of the
transfer of electrons, magnesium ions and fluoride ions form.

Figure 7.9 shows the transfer of electrons from a magnesium atom to

two fluorine atoms to form one magnesium ion and two fluoride ions
respectively.

electron
+ +
transfer

2,7 2,8,2 2,7 2,8 2,8 2,8

fluorine atom magnesium fluorine atom fluoride ion magnesium fluoride ion
atom ion

(unstable atoms) (stable ions)

Figure 7.9 The transfer of electrons from a magnesium atom to two fluorine atoms when magnesium reacts
with fluorine.

magnesium fluoride 氟化鎂

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Formation of ionic bond between lithium and
oxygen
When lithium reacts with oxygen, a lithium atom loses one electron, while
an oxygen atom gains two electrons. As a result of the transfer of electrons,
lithium ions and oxide ions form.

Figure 7.10 shows the transfer of electrons from two lithium atoms
to an oxygen atom to form two lithium ions and one oxide ion respectively.

electron
+
transfer

2,8
oxide ion
2,1 2,6 2
lithium atom oxygen atom lithium ion

(unstable atoms) (stable ions)

Figure 7.10 The transfer of electrons from two lithium atoms to one
oxygen atom when lithium reacts with oxygen.

Learning tip
It is inappropriate to draw Ionic compounds
the electron diagrams of
magnesium fluoride and In the above examples, the positively charged ions are attracted to the
lithium oxide as: negatively charged ions by ionic bonds. The compounds formed (sodium
chloride, magnesium fluoride and lithium oxide) are called ionic
compounds. They all consist of ions.

From the electron diagrams of ionic compounds (Figure 7.11), it is

clear that the charges on the positively charged ions balance those on the
negatively charged ions. Thus, ionic compounds are electrically neutral.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.11 Electron diagrams of ionic compounds: (a) sodium chloride, (b) magnesium fluoride
and (c) lithium oxide

ionic compound 離子化合物

78 lithium oxide 氧化鋰
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Key point
An ionic compound is a compound consisting of ions. It is electrically
neutral.

Example 7.2

Drawing electron diagrams of ionic compounds

2+ 3–
W, X and Y are three different elements. The ions formed from W and X, W and X , have the same
electronic arrangement as a neon atom. (Note: W, X and Y are NOT symbols of elements.)
(a) Suggest what W and X are.
(b) Draw the electron diagram for the compound formed between W and X, showing electrons in the
outermost shells only.
(c) Y belongs to the same period as W and the same group as X in the Periodic Table. Suggest what Y
is.

Solution
(a) W: magnesium; X: nitrogen
(b)

(c) Phosphorus

Class practice 7.3

For each of the following pairs of elements, draw the electron diagram for the
compound formed, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.
(a) Sodium and iodine (b) Magnesium and oxygen
(c) Potassium and sulphur (d) Calcium and bromine
(e) Aluminium and oxygen

7.4 Names and formulae of ions

Names and formulae of cations

We can refer to an element, a compound or an ion by its name.
Alternatively, we can refer to it by its formula (plural: formulae). The names
and formulae of some common cations are shown in Table 7.3.
formula 化學式
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Charge Name Formula
Learning tip +
• Group I to Group III
sodium ion Na
+
elements tend to potassium ion K
+
form cations (ions copper(I) ion Cu
+
with positive 1+ silver ion Ag
+
charge). mercury(I) ion Hg
+
• Ions with charge 4+ hydrogen ion H
+
are uncommon. ammonium ion NH4

2+
magnesium ion Mg
2+
calcium ion Ca
2+
barium ion Ba
2+
lead(II) ion Pb
2+
iron(II) ion Fe
2+
2+ cobalt(II) ion Co
2+
nickel(II) ion Ni
2+
manganese(II) ion Mn
2+
copper(II) ion Cu
2+
zinc ion Zn
2+
mercury(II) ion Hg

3+
aluminium ion Al
3+
3+ iron(III) ion Fe
3+
chromium(III) ion Cr

Table 7.3 The names and formulae of some common cations

Refer to Table 7.3, we should note that:

+ 2+
1. All simple ions of metals (e.g. Na , Mg ) are cations.
+ +
2. H and NH4 are non-metal cations.
+
3. NH4 is the only common polyatomic cation.
4. If a metal forms only one cation, the ion has the same name as the
+
metal, e.g. sodium metal (Na) forms sodium ion (Na ).
5. Some transition metals can form more than one simple cation with
different charges. To name each ion, a Roman numeral indicating the
charge is written in brackets after the name of the metal. For example,
2+ 3+
iron metal (Fe) can form iron(II) ion (Fe ) and iron(III) ion (Fe ).

Names and formulae of anions

The names and formulae of some common anions are shown in Table 7.4.

barium ion 鋇離子 copper(I) ion 銅(I) 離子 manganese(II) ion 錳(II) 離子 potassium ion 鉀離子
80 calcium ion 鈣離子 hydrogen ion 氫離子 mercury(I) ion 汞(I) 離子 silver ion 銀離子
chromium(III) ion 鉻(III) 離子 iron(II) ion 鐵(II) 離子 mercury(II) ion 汞(II) 離子 zinc ion 鋅離子
cobalt(II) ion 鈷(II) 離子 iron(III) ion 鐵(III) 離子 nickel(II) ion 鎳(II) 離子
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Learning tip Charge Name Formula
• Group V to Group
–
VII elements tend hydride ion H
–
to form anions (ions chloride ion Cl
–
with negative bromide ion Br
charge). iodide ion I
–

–
• Ions with charge hydroxide ion OH
4– are uncommon. nitrate ion NO3
–

–
1– nitrite ion NO2
–
hydrogencarbonate ion HCO3
–
hydrogensulphate ion HSO4
–
cyanide ion CN
–
permanganate ion MnO4
–
chlorate ion ClO3
–
hypochlorite ion ClO

2–
oxide ion O
2–
sulphide ion S
2–
sulphate ion SO4
2–
sulphite ion SO3
2–
2– thiosulphate ion S2O3
2–
silicate ion SiO3
2–
carbonate ion CO3
2–
chromate ion CrO4
2–
dichromate ion Cr2O7

3–
nitride ion N
3–
3– phosphide ion P
3–
phosphate ion PO4

Table 7.4 The names and formulae of some common anions

Refer to Table 7.4, we should note that:

+
1. All simple ions of non-metal (except H ) and most polyatomic ions
+ – –
(except NH4 ) are anions (e.g. OH , HCO3 ).
– 2–
2. Some polyatomic ions consist of non-metals only (e.g. NO3 , CO3 ,
2– –
SO4 ) while some consist of a metal and a non-metal (e.g. MnO4 ,
2– 2–
CrO4 , Cr2O7 ).

3. Simple anions have names ending in -ide, e.g. an oxygen atom (O)
2– 2–
forms an oxide ion (O ); a sulphur atom (S) forms a sulphide ion (S ).

4. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen often have names ending in -ate

or -ite. Polyatomic anions with more oxygen are named as -ate, and
2– 2–
those with less oxygen as -ite, e.g. SO4 sulphate ion and SO3 sulphite
– –
ion; NO3 nitrate ion and NO2 nitrite ion.

chlorate ion 氯酸根離子 hydride ion 氫陰離子 iodide ion 碘離子 phosphide ion 磷離子
chromate ion 鉻酸根離子 hydrogencarbonate ion 碳酸氫根離子 nitride ion 氮離子 silicate ion 硅酸根離子
81
cyanide ion 氰離子 hydrogensulphate ion 硫酸氫根離子 permanganate ion 高錳酸根離子
dichromate ion 重鉻酸根離子 hypochlorite ion 次氯酸根離子 phosphate ion 磷酸根離子
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Relation between ionic charge and group
number of an element
Atoms of Group I elements have only one outermost shell electron. These
+ + +
atoms form simple ions with one positive charge, e.g. Li , Na and K .
Atoms of Group II elements have two outermost shell electrons. These
2+ 2+
atoms form simple ions with two positive charges, e.g. Mg and Ca .
Similarly, Group III elements form simple ions with three positive charges,
3+
e.g. Al .

Key point
For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of positive charges on
the simple ion formed is equal to its group number in the Periodic
Table.

The situation is different for atoms of Groups V to VII elements. Take

oxygen as an example, an atom of oxygen (a Group VI element) gains (8 – 6)
or 2 electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom (an
octet), forming an oxide ion.

Key point
For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of negative
charges on the simple ion formed is usually equal to ‘8 minus the
group number’.

Like elements, the charges on the simple ions formed show a periodic
pattern in the Periodic Table (Figure 7.12).

Group
no simple ions

no ions formed

transition metals form

more than one ion,
2+ 3+
e.g. Fe , Fe

Figure 7.12 Relation between

ionic charge and group number metals, forming positively
non-metals, forming negatively
charged simple ions
of an element charged simple ions

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Class practice 7.4
1. (a) State which of the following formulae stand for simple ions and which
for polyatomic ions.
+ + – 2+ 2– 2+ –
H , NH4 , OH , Mn , O , Cu , MnO4
(b) Name each of these ions.
2. Write the charges of the simple ions formed from the elements in each
group of the Periodic Table.

Group I II III V VI VII

Charge of
ions

7.5 Names and formulae of ionic compounds

Names of ionic compounds

We can name ionic compounds according to the following rules:
1. Refer to Table 7.3 and Table 7.4 for the names of the cation and anion
in an ionic compound.
2. The cation is named first, followed by the anion. The word ‘ion’ is
omitted.

The names of some ionic compounds are shown in Table 7.5.

Cation Anion Name of compound

2+ 2–
Mg , magnesium ion O , oxide ion Magnesium oxide
3+ 2–
Al , aluminium ion SO4 , sulphate ion Aluminium sulphate
+ 2–
NH4 , ammonium ion CO3 , carbonate ion Ammonium carbonate
+ –
Na , sodium ion NO3 , nitrate ion Sodium nitrate
+ –
Na , sodium ion NO2 , nitrite ion Sodium nitrite
+ 2–
Cu , copper(I) ion O , oxide ion Copper(I) oxide
2+ 2–
Cu , copper(II) ion O , oxide ion Copper(II) oxide

Table 7.5 The names of some ionic compounds

omit 略去
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Formulae of ionic compounds
The formula of an ionic compound is a representation of the compound. It
shows the types of ions and their simplest ratio in the compound. We
can work out the formula for an ionic compound by following two simple
rules.

• As ionic compound is overall electrically neutral, the total number of

positive charges must be equal to the total number of negative charges.

• The formula of the cation is written first, followed by the anion.

Formula for sodium oxide

+ 2–
Sodium oxide consists of sodium ions (Na ) and oxide ions (O ). As an
ionic compound has no overall electric charge, every oxide ion needs two
sodium ions to balance the charges. Hence, the formula for sodium oxide is
Na2O. The formula does not show the charges on the sodium or oxide ions.

Formula for magnesium nitrate

2+
For the compound made up of magnesium ions (Mg ) and nitrate ions
–
(NO3 ), every magnesium ion needs two nitrate ions to balance the charges.

Learning tip The formula for magnesium nitrate is written as Mg(NO3)2. We should
Place the nitrate ion in note that the nitrate ion (a polyatomic ion) is placed in brackets and the
brackets. Otherwise, the
subscript ‘2’ is written outside the bracket.
formula would become
MgNO32, which cannot
indicate the presence of
–
Formula for ammonium carbonate
two NO3 ions.
+
For the compound made up of ammonium ions (NH4 ) and carbonate ions
2–
Learning tip (CO3 ), every carbonate ion needs two ammonium ions to balance the
+
Ammonium ion (NH4 ) is charges.
a non-metal polyatomic
cation.
The formula for ammonium carbonate is written as (NH4)2CO3. We
should note that the ammonium ion is placed in brackets and the subscript
‘2’ is written outside the bracket.

Table 7.6 summarizes the deduction of the formulae for sodium oxide,
magnesium nitrate and ammonium carbonate discussed above.

ammonium carbonate 碳酸銨 sodium oxide 氧化鈉

84 magnesium nitrate 硝酸鎂
 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
TE All answers
Name of Ratio of ions to Formula of
Ions present
compound balance the charges compound
+ 2–
Na O
What’s wrong Sodium oxide
+ 2–
Na and O Na
+
Na2O
A student wrongly wrote
Charge: 2+ 2–
the formula of calcium
hydroxide as CaOH2. Can Mg
2+
NO3
–

you rewrite it? Magnesium 2+ – –

Mg and NO3 NO3 Mg(NO3)2
nitrate
Charge: 2+ 2–
Table 7.6 Deduction of the + 2–
NH4 CO3
formulae for sodium oxide, Ammonium + 2– +
NH4 and CO3 NH4 (NH4)2CO3
magnesium nitrate and carbonate
Charge: 2+ 2–
ammonium carbonate

Problem-solving strategy 7.1

Constructing formulae of ionic compounds

Try it now
Construct the formula of magnesium fluoride. Construct the formula of
1 Write the formulae of the cation and anion involved side aluminium oxide.
by side. 2+ –
Mg F
2 Highlight the number of the charge on each ion.
2+ 1 –
Mg F
3 Take the number of the charge on each ion across to the
other.
2+ 1 –
Mg F

= Mg1 F2
4 Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio.
MgF2
(Omit the number ‘1’ for Mg)

Activity 7.1
Card game for ‘formula determination’
Your teacher will provide a set of game cards to each group of students. The task
of each group is to combine the cards together to form a rectangle. For example:

Na
+
+ Cl
–
Na
+
Cl
–

– –
NO3 NO3
Ca
2+
+ Ca
2+
– –
NO3 NO3

Work out as many combinations as possible and write the formula of the ionic
compound for each of the combinations.

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Example 7.3
Integrated
Understanding the formation of metallic bond and ionic bond
When potassium burns in oxygen, potassium oxide is produced.
(a) With the help of a simple diagram, describe the bonding in potassium metal.
(b) Describe the formation of ionic bond in potassium oxide.
(c) Draw the electron diagram for potassium oxide, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.
(d) With reference to your answer in (c), write the formula of potassium oxide.

Solution
(a) The metallic bond holds the atoms in a piece of potassium metal together. The bonding is a result
of the electrostatic attraction between delocalized electrons and potassium ions.
delocalized electron
Learning tip
+
K ion In the drawing, the number
+
of K ions which carry 1+
charge is equal to the
number of delocalized
electrons.

(b) Each potassium atom loses one electron to form potassium ion and each oxygen atom gains two
electrons to form oxide ion in order to attain stable octet structures. Potassium ions are positively
charged and oxide ions are negatively charged. They are attracted to each other by electrostatic
attraction (i.e. ionic bond).
(c)

(d) K2O

Class practice 7.5

1. Complete the table below by filling in the names and formulae of the
compounds.

Name of the Formula of the

Cation Anion
compound compound
2+ –
(a) Mg OH
+ 2–
(b) Li O
2+ 2–
(c) Zn SO4
+ –
(d) NH4 NO3

Cont’d
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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
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2. Write the name of each of the following compounds.

(a) Ca(NO3)2
(b) Fe2O3
(c) Al(OH)3
(d) MgS

STSE issue 7.1

Universal convention of chemical symbols and formulae
Today, there are more than 7 billion people all over the world. They live in different places or countries and
use different languages. Refer to the table below:

Chemical symbol/ Element/compound Element/compound Element/compound Element/compound

formula in English in Chinese in Korean in German

Na Sodium

Cl Chlorine

NaCl Sodium chloride

Can you complete the table by filling in the appropriate words? You may have difficulties in doing this
because you do not know Korean and/or German. A set of universally accepted symbols and formulae have
th
been adopted by chemists in different parts of the world. In the 19 century, John Dalton, a British scientist,
invented a set of symbols to represent elements. Some of these symbols are shown below:

John Dalton (1766–1844) Dalton’s atomic symbols (actually

some of them are not elements)

Questions
1. Which set of chemical symbols, the one invented by John Dalton or the one we used today, is more user-
friendly?
2. Apart from easy communication, state another reason of using chemical symbols and formulae.

universal convention 全球通用的

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7.6 Colours of ions

Colours of ions in aqueous solution

Experiment 7.1 Some of the ions are coloured. We may deduce the colour of these ions by
observing the colours of aqueous solutions of a series of related compounds.
Predicting colours of
ions
Aqueous solutions of potassium chloride, potassium nitrate and
potassium sulphate are all colourless. This shows that potassium ion,
chloride ion, nitrate ion and sulphate ion are all colourless. Aqueous
solutions of iron(II) chloride, iron(II) nitrate and iron(II) sulphate are all
pale green. Therefore, we can infer that the common ion they contain, the
iron(II) ion, is pale green in colour.

See Table 7.7 and Figure 7.13 for the colours of some common ions in
aqueous solution.

Ion Formula Colour in aqueous solution

2+
Copper(II) Cu Blue or green
2+
Iron(II) Fe Pale green
3+
Iron(III) Fe Yellow or brown
2+
Cobalt(II) Co Pink
2+
Nickel(II) Ni Green
3+
Chromium(III) Cr Green
2–
Chromate CrO4 Yellow
2–
Dichromate Cr2O7 Orange
2+
Table 7.7 The colours of Manganese(II) Mn Very pale pink
some common ions in –
aqueous solution Permanganate MnO4 Purple

2+ 2+ 3+ 2+ 2+
Copper(II) ion, Cu Iron(II) ion, Fe Iron(III) ion, Fe Cobalt(II) ion, Co Nickel(II) ion, Ni
blue or green pale green yellow or brown pink green

infer 推論
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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7

3+ 2– 2– 2+ –
Chromium(III) ion, Cr Chromate ion, CrO4 Dichromate ion, Cr2O7 Manganese(II) ion, Mn Permanganate ion, MnO4
green yellow orange very pale pink purple

Figure 7.13 Aqueous solutions containing some common ions

We should note that the transition metals usually form coloured ions
2+
in aqueous solution, which include simple cations (e.g. Cu ) and polyatomic
–
anions (e.g. MnO4 ). Elements in the main groups of the Periodic Table
+ –
form colourless ions in aqueous solution (e.g. Na , Cl , etc.).

Chemistry in daily life

Gemstones
As you see in the chapter opening, the Imperial State Crown is made with lots of gemstones. Most gemstones
have a characteristic colour. The coloration of some gemstones is due to the traces of one or more coloured
metal ions in their minerals.

Emerald Jade Peridot

Gemstone

Colour Green Green Light green

Ion responsible 3+ 3+ 2+
Chromium(III) ion, Cr Chromium(III) ion, Cr Iron(II) ion, Fe
for the colour

Topaz Turquoise

Gemstone

Colour Yellowish brown Bluish green

Ion responsible 3+ 2+
Iron(III) ion, Fe Copper(II) ion, Cu
for the colour

emerald 綠寶石 trace 微量的

gemstone 寶石 topaz 黃玉
89
jade 翡翠 turquoise 綠松石
peridot 橄欖石
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Class practice 7.6
With reference to Table 7.7 on p.88, predict the colour of each of the
following aqueous solutions.
(a) Magnesium nitrate solution
(b) Potassium permanganate solution
(c) Ammonium dichromate solution
(d) Iron(II) sulphate solution
(e) Nickel(II) sulphate solution
(f) Iron(III) chloride solution
(g) Sodium bromide solution

7.7 Migration of ions

Migration of potassium ions and permanganate ions

We can show the migration (movement) of coloured ions under the
influence of an electric field using the set-up as shown in Figure 7.14.

filter paper moistened

a small crystal of
with sodium sulphate
potassium
solution
a small crystal of purple spot permanganate
potassium filter paper moistened microscope
permanganate with sodium sulphate slide
purple spot solution

positive negative
positive negative electrode electrode
electrode electrode
microscope slide

20 V d.c. power supply

Figure 7.14 To show the migration of purple permanganate ions under the influence of an electric field (using a strip of filter
paper on a microscope slide)

Moisten a piece of filter paper with sodium sulphate solution (to

Learning tip
The ions in ionic increase its electrical conductivity). Then place a small crystal of
compounds become potassium permanganate in the middle of the paper.
mobile when the ionic
compounds are molten
or in aqueous solution. After the circuit is closed, a purple spot moves slowly towards the
–
positive electrode. This is because permanganate ions (MnO4 ) are purple
in colour and negatively charged. They are attracted to the positive
+
electrode. Potassium ions (K ) which are positively charged are attracted to
the negative electrode. As potassium ions are colourless, we do not find
any colour patch moving towards the negative electrode.

electric field 電場 migration 遷移

90 microscope slide 玻片
 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
TE
The migration of ions under the influence of an electric field
provides evidence that the particles in ionic compounds are charged.

Example 7.4

Showing the migration of ions using a set-up with a U-tube

The set-up shown in the diagram below is used to study the migration of copper(II) ions and dichromate
ions under the influence of an electric field.

carbon electrode X carbon electrode Y

dilute hydrochloric acid dilute hydrochloric acid

gel containing
copper(II) dichromate

(a) State the use of the dilute hydrochloric acid in the set-up.
(b) Why is a gel containing copper(II) dichromate, rather than an aqueous solution of the compound,
used in this experiment?
(c) Suggest what would be observed around each of the following electrodes when an electric current
has passed through the circuit for some time. Explain your answer.
(i) Carbon electrode X
(ii) Carbon electrode Y

Solution

(a) This is to provide mobile ions for the conduction of electricity.

(b) This is to slow down the mixing of the copper(II) dichromate with the dilute hydrochloric acid. It
2+ 2–
also slows down the migration of Cu (aq) and Cr2O7 (aq) ions to make the results more easily
observed.
Learning tip
(c) (i) An orange colour gradually appears around Gas bubbles also appear on the surface
carbon electrode X. This is because dichromate of each electrode after the circuit is
ions are orange in colour and negatively charged. closed for some time. Hydrogen evolves
They are attracted to the positive electrode. at the negative electrode. Oxygen and
chlorine evolve at the positive electrode.
(ii) A blue colour gradually appears around carbon The reasons will be discussed in Book 3B,
electrode Y. This is because copper(II) ions are Chapter 32.
blue in colour and positively charged. They are
attracted to the negative electrode.

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Experiment 7.2 Class practice 7.7
Investigating the A set-up for studying the movement of ions is shown below.
migration of ions

Experiment video
Investigating the
migration of ions

small chromium(III) filter paper soaked with

sulphate crystal potassium nitrate solution

(a) After the circuit is closed for some time, what would be observed on the
filter paper? Explain briefly.
(b) Towards which electrode would sulphate ions migrate? Can we see the
movement of sulphate ions? Explain your answer.

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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
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Chapter review
Progress check

Chapter review
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
describe the simple model of metallic bond
state what an ion is
describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of ions
draw the electron diagrams of cations and anions
identify polyatomic ions
describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of ionic bonds
name common cations and anions according to the chemical formulae of ions
predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and those of non-metals from their positions in the
Periodic Table
name ionic compounds based on their component ions
interpret chemical formulae of ionic compounds in terms of the ions present and their ratios
construct formulae of ionic compounds based on their names and component ions
state the colours of some common ions in aqueous solutions
predict colours of some ions from a series of aqueous solutions containing these ions
investigate the migration of ions, e.g. copper(II) dichromate, potassium permanganate, towards
oppositely charged electrodes

e-Dictionary
Key terms (For Chapter 7)
Page Page
1. anion 陰離子 73 8. ionic bond 離子鍵 76
2. cation 陽離子 70 9. ionic compound 離子化合物 78
3. chemical bond 化學鍵 70 10. metallic bond 金屬鍵 69
4. delocalized electron 離域電子 69 11. polyatomic ion 多原子離子 74
5. electrostatic attraction 靜電引力 69 12. simple ion 簡單離子 74
6. formula 化學式 79 13. transfer of electron 電子轉移 76
7. ion 離子 70

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Key concepts
7.1 Metallic bonding
Chapter review

1. Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between delocalized electrons and metal
ions.

2. A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction that holds atoms or ions together. There
are three main types of chemical bonds, namely, ionic bonds, covalent bonds and metallic bonds.

7.2 Formation of ions from atoms

3. Atoms of elements other than those of the noble gases are usually not stable. By gaining or losing
outermost shell electrons in chemical reactions, these atoms can attain the electronic arrangement
of the nearest noble gas atoms. When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, an ion forms.

4. A simple ion is derived from a single atom. A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms.
+ + – –
Positive ions (e.g. Na , NH4 ) are called cations; negative ions (e.g. Cl , MnO4 ) are called anions.

7.3 Ionic bonding and ionic compounds

5. Ionic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

6. When a metal atom (which tends to lose electrons) and a non-metal atom (which tends to gain
electrons) combine, they do so by the transfer of electrons, forming ions. The ions are held
together by ionic bonds. For example,

electron
+
transfer

2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

7. An ionic compound is a compound consisting of ions. It is electrically neutral.

7.4 Names and formulae of ions

8. Names and formulae of common cations are listed in Table 7.3 on p.80.

9. Names and formulae of common anions are listed in Table 7.4 on p.81.

10. For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of positive charges on a simple ion is equal to its
group number in the Periodic Table.

11. For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of negative charges on a simple ion is
usually equal to ‘8 minus the group number’.

7.5 Names and formulae of ionic compounds

12. The formulae of ionic compounds can be predicted using a short-cut method:
a + b –
X Y ⇒ XbYa
(where a, b = ionic charge)
2 + 1 –
e.g. Zn NO3 ⇒ Zn(NO3)2

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7.6 Colours of ions

13. Colours of some ions in aqueous solutions are listed in Table 7.7 on p.88.

Chapter review
7.7 Migration of ions

14. The migration of coloured ions under the influence of an electric field can be investigated using
the set-up shown in Figure 7.14 on p.90.

Concept map
Complete the concept map by filling in the items listed below:

anions, cations, electrostatic, gain, ionic, lose, metal atoms, metallic, non-metal, polyatomic

Simple ions
can be
IONS
(a)
_____________ ions
Metal
+ve charge ve charge
(e) (i)
consists of
electron(s) electron(s) (j)
(d) to form (b) (c) to form ______________
atoms

held together by

held together by
Electrostatic attraction
(f) (g)
( bond)
______________ attraction
(ionic bond)

compounds are called

(h)
__________ compounds

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Chapter exercise
A. Fill in the blanks
Section 7.1 Section 7.4
1. Metallic bond refers to the electrostatic attraction 6. For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of
between electrons and metal positive charges on an ion is equal to its
. number in the Periodic Table.
Chapter exercise

Section 7.2 7. For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number

2. Atoms of an element may become stable by of negative charges on an ion is usually equal to
gaining or losing in order to attain ‘ minus the group number’.
the electronic arrangement of the atoms of the
Section 7.5
nearest .
8. Potassium dichromate is the name of an ionic
3. Positively charged ions are called compound while its is K2Cr2O7.
while negatively charged ions are called
.

4. A ion is derived from a single atom.

A ion is derived from a group of
atoms.

Section 7.3
5. In the formation of calcium oxide from calcium and
oxygen, electrons are from a
calcium atom to an oxygen atom.
ion and ion are produced. The
oppositely charged ions are held together by
.

B. Practice questions
Section 7.3
9. Draw the electron diagram of the compound formed from each of the following pairs of elements (showing
electrons in the outermost shells only).
(a) Lithium and chlorine
(b) Calcium and nitrogen
(c) Magnesium and sulphur
(d) Sodium and sulphur
(e) Magnesium and phosphorus

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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
All answers
10. Draw the electron diagram for each of the following compounds (showing electrons in the outermost shells only).
(a) Sodium oxide
(b) Calcium fluoride
(c) Potassium iodide
(d) Magnesium iodide

Section 7.4
11. Complete the table below by filling in the formula of each compound.

Name of compound Formula of compound

Chapter exercise
(a) Lithium hydroxide

(b) Copper(II) oxide

(c) Lead(II) carbonate

(d) Potassium dichromate

(e) Iron(III) hydroxide

(f) Silver oxide

(g) Barium sulphate

(h) Aluminium hydride

(i) Sodium nitride

(j) Copper(I) bromide

Section 7.6
12. Complete the table below by filling in the name and colour of the aqueous solution of each compound.

Formula of compound Name of compound Colour of its aqueous solution

(a) NaMnO4

(b) FeCl2

(c) NiSO4

(d) Fe(NO3)3

(e) CoCl2

(f) NH4Cl

(g) KNO2

(h) K2CrO4

(i) CuBr2

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C. Multiple-choice questions
Section 7.2 Section 7.5
13. Which of the following particles have the same 15. Which of the following is the formula of aluminium
number of electrons as an argon atom? sulphate?
+
(1) K A. AlSO4
(2) Al B. Al2SO4
–
(3) Cl C. Al2(SO4)3
A. (1) and (2) only D. Al3(SO4)2
B. (1) and (3) only
16. An atom of element M has 11 electrons and an atom
Chapter exercise

C. (2) and (3) only

of element N has 15 protons. What is the formula of
D. (1), (2) and (3)
the compound formed between M and N?
Section 7.3 A. MN
14. Which of the following is the electron diagram of B. MN2
lithium oxide (only electrons in the outermost shells C. MN3
are shown)? D. M3N

A. Section 7.6
17. Which of the following metal ions is yellow in
B. colour?
2+
A. Cu (aq)
3+
C. B. Cr (aq)
2+
C. Co (aq)
3+
D. Fe (aq)
D.

D. Structured questions
Section 7.3
18. A student drew the electron diagram of sodium nitride as shown below. Is it correct? If not, draw a correct one
(showing electrons in the outermost shells only).

(1 mark)

Section 7.5
19. For each of the following statements, decide whether or not it is right. If it is wrong, you are required to correct it.
(a) The formula of magnesium sulphate is Mg(SO4). (1 mark)
(b) The name of K2O and that of MgF2 are oxide potassium and magnesium difluoride. (1 mark)

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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
20. Consider the four elements W, X, Y and Z. (Note: the letters are NOT the symbols of the elements.)

Element W X Y Z

Atomic number 6 8 10 12

(a) In which of these elements can its atoms form cations? (1 mark)
(b) State how a cation forms from an atom of the element mentioned in (a). (1 mark)
(c) Two of these elements react to form an ionic compound. Give the formula of the compound formed.
(1 mark)

Chapter exercise
(d) Draw the electron diagram of the ionic compound formed in (c) (showing electrons in the outermost shells
only). (1 mark)

Learn more: Building a better answer (see p.182)

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Exam practice
A. Multiple-choice questions
For some questions below, you need to refer to the 5. The atomic number of element Q is 13. Q reacts with
Periodic Table printed on the inside front cover of this element R to form an ionic compound with the
book. formula QR3. To which group of the Periodic Table
does R belong?
Section 7.1
A. Group I
1. Which of the following is a correct description of
B. Group III
metallic bond?
C. Group V
A. The electrostatic attraction between protons D. Group VII
and delocalized electrons
B. The electrostatic attraction between the nuclei 6. Metal Z reacts vigorously with water to form an alkali
and negative ions Z(OH)2 and hydrogen. An atom of Z has five
C. The electrostatic attraction between metal ions occupied electron shells. What is Z?
and delocalized electrons A. Rubidium (Rb)
Exam practice

D. The electrostatic attraction between oppositely B. Caesium (Cs)

charged ions C. Strontium (Sr)
D. Barium (Ba)
Section 7.2
2.
+
Metal X forms a stable ion of X . Which of the Section 7.6
following can be the atomic number of X? 7. Nickel(II) sulphate solution is green in colour. What
A. 1 are the colours of nickel(II) ions and sulphate ions
B. 11 respectively?
C. 13 Nickel(II) ion Sulphate ion
D. 20 A. Green Green
B. Green Colourless
Section 7.5
C. Yellow Blue
3. Which of the following is the formula of ammonium
D. Blue Yellow
sulphite?
2+
A. Al2S3 8. Y is an element in the Periodic Table and Y ion has
B. Al2(SO3)3 the electronic arrangement of 2,8,8. Which of the
C. (NH4)2S following statements about Y is correct?
D. (NH4)2SO3 A. Y is a Period 4 element.
B. Y is a Group 0 element.
4. An ionic compound has a formula of X3Y. If
C. Y gives a bluish green flame in a flame test.
elements X and Y are in the same period of the
D. The carbonate of Y is a blue solid.
Periodic Table, which of the following may be the
name of this compound?
A. Lithium nitride
B. Sodium nitride
C. Magnesium chloride
D. Potassium sulphide

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 Metallic bonding and ionic bonding 7
All answers
Section 7.7
9. The set-up of an experiment is shown below:

P Q

Na2Cr2O7(s) KMnO4(s)

filter paper
moistened with X

What can be observed after the circuit is closed for a

period of time?
A. If X is dilute H2SO4, a purple patch migrates
towards P.
B. If X is dilute H2SO4, an orange patch migrates
towards Q.
C. If X is ethanol, a purple patch migrates towards

Exam practice
P.
D. If X is ethanol, an orange patch migrates towards
Q.

(HKDSE 2019 Paper 1A Q2)

B. Structured questions
Section 7.5
10. Element W belongs to Group II of the Periodic Table. It reacts with element Y to give an ionic compound
with the formula of W3Y2.
(a) What is the charge on the ion of Y? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
(b) To which group does Y belong? (1 mark)
(c) Draw the electron diagram for W3Y2, showing electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(d) Write the formula of the compound formed between W and sulphur. (1 mark)

Section 7.6
11. M is a metal. It forms an ionic compound with chlorine which has the formula of MCl2.
(a) Write the electronic arrangements of a chlorine atom and a chloride ion respectively. (2 marks)
(b) What is the charge on an ion of M in MCl2? (1 mark)
(c) An ion of M in MCl2 has 34 neutrons and 27 electrons. Suggest what M is. (1 mark)
(d) Predict the colour of an aqueous solution of MCl2. (1 mark)

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 II Microscopic World I

12. Bean curd, also known as tofu, is a nutritional food originated in

China. It is made from the coagulation of soybean milk, which is made
by grinding wet soybeans with water.
Calcium sulphate is one of the coagulants commonly used in making
bean curd. The calcium sulphate added can also increase the nutritional
value of tofu as it provides calcium ions for us.
(a) According to the above paragraph, what coagulant is added to
soybean milk? (1 mark)
(b) Write the formula for the coagulant. (1 mark)
(c) What are the constituent particles that made up the coagulant? (1 mark)
(d) What type of chemical bond holds the constituent particles together in the coagulant? (1 mark)

13. Strontium chloride is commonly used as an active ingredient in

toothpaste for sensitive teeth.
Strontium chloride deposits in the pores (small holes) in dentine and
forms a barrier to nerve endings of the teeth. Thus, it helps reduce the
sensitivity of the teeth to temperature changes.
Exam practice

(a) Describe the formation of strontium chloride from atoms of

strontium and chlorine, and state the type of chemical bond
involved. (2 marks)
(b) Draw the electron diagram of strontium chloride, showing
electrons in the outermost shells only. (1 mark)
(c) Write the formula for strontium chloride. (1 mark)

Section 7.7
14. The set-up shown in the diagram below is used to study the migration of ions. After the circuit is closed for some
time, a purple spot is found in the position of the filter paper as shown below.

small potassium
filter paper moistened with
permanganate
sodium sulphate solution
purple spot crystal
microscope slide

electrode X electrode Y

20 V d.c. power supply

(a) Why is the filter paper soaked with sodium sulphate solution instead of water? (1 mark)
(b) Which ion is responsible for the purple spot? (1 mark)
(c) Which electrode, X or Y, is the positive electrode? Explain your answer. (1 mark)
(d) If the positive and negative electrodes in the above set-up are reversed, what would be observed? Explain your
answer. (2 marks)

102
Answers to Chapter exercise 5. protons
6. protons; neutrons
Chapter 5 7. Isotopes
8. carbon-12; relative isotopic mass
A. Fill in the blanks (p.27)
9. relative isotopic masses
1. atom
10. electron shells
2. sizes; masses
11. electronic arrangement
3. nucleus; protons; neutrons; Electrons
4. proton; electron; neutron

B. Practice questions (p.27)

12. Number of
Atomic Mass Full atomic
Element
number number protons neutrons electrons symbol
4
Helium 2 4 2 2 2 2He
14
Nitrogen 7 14 7 7 7 7 N
19
Fluorine 9 19 9 10 9 9 F
23
Sodium 11 23 11 12 11 11 Na
35
Chlorine 17 35 17 18 17 17 Cl
39
Potassium 19 39 19 20 19 19 K

13. (a) 2,6 D. Structured questions (p.29)

(b) 2,8,3 21. (a) No. This is because in an atom, the number
(c) 2,8,4 of protons (positively charged) is equal to
(d) 2,8 the number of electrons (negatively
14. (Accept showing electrons by crosses) charged). 1
(a) (b) (b) Electrons 1
(c) Protons and neutrons 2
(d) In an atom, protons and neutrons are
(c) (d) concentrated in the nucleus. 1
Besides, the masses of protons and
neutrons are relatively much larger than
that of electrons. 1
15. (a) (b) Hence, most of the mass of the atom is in
the nucleus.
22. (a) Q and R 1
(c)
They have the same number of protons. 1
(b) Carbon 1
13
(c) For atom P: 5P 1
13
For atom Q: 6Q 1
14
For atom R: 6R 1
14
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.28) For atom S: 7S 1
16. A 23. (a) Isotopes are atoms of the same element,
1
There is no neutron in the atoms of H. with the same number of protons but
17. B different numbers of neutrons. 1
18. C (b) (i) Number of protons = 14;
19. C number of neutrons: 28 – 14 = 14 2
20. B (ii) 28 1
Relative atomic mass of element X (iii) (100 – 92.23 – 4.68)% = 3.09% 1
= 12 × 98.9% + 13 × 1.1% = 12.0
T1
 (iv) Relative atomic mass of Si 17. C
= 28 × 92.23% + 29 × 4.68% + 30 Potassium is more reactive than lithium and fluorine
× 3.09% = 28.1 2 is more reactive than bromine.
(v) (Accept showing electrons by crosses) 18. C
Down the group, the colour of the halogens
darkens and the melting point of the halogens
increases. As astatine is a black solid, it is
1 expected that tennessine is a dark solid.

D. Structured questions (p.63)

Chapter 6
19. (a) 50 1
A. Fill in the blanks (p.62)
(b) r: 18; s: 4 2
1. mercury; bromine
(c) Period 5 1
2. metals; carbon; graphite
(d) Any TWO of the following:
3. atomic number
• It is a shiny solid at room temperature
4. electronic arrangement; period; group
and pressure. 1
5. electrons; outermost
• It is hard and strong. 1
6. one; increases
• It is malleable and ductile. (1)
7. two; increases
• It is a conductor of heat and electricity. (1)
8. seven; halogens; decreases
20. (a) False
9. eight; noble gases
Although boron is a Group III element, it is
10. octet rule
a semi-metal. 1
B. Practice questions (p.62) (b) False
11. (a) Magnesium is in Period 3 and Group II of
the Periodic Table. 1
Atomic Electronic Period Group
Element (c) False
number arrangement number number
The outermost electron shell of a helium
P 5 2,3 2 III
atom has a duplet structure. 1
Q 8 2,6 2 VI
21. (a) Mg, Si and Cl 1
R 10 2,8 2 0
Period 3 1
S 11 2,8,1 3 I
(b) Cl, Br and I 1
T 14 2,8,4 3 IV
Group VII 1
U 20 2,8,8,2 4 II
(c) Mg and He 1
(b) Metals: S, U (d) H, O, Cl, He 1
Non-metals: Q, R (e) Rb 1
Semi-metals: P, T (f) Fe, Cu 1
(c) R (g) He 1
(h) Br and I 1
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.63)
12. D
–3
Chapter 7
The density of mercury is 13.534 g cm at near the
A. Fill in the blanks (p.96)
room temperature.
1. delocalized; ions
13. D
2. electrons; noble gas
14. A
3. cations; anions
Statement (3): elements in the same period have
4. simple; polyatomic
the same number of occupied electron shells in
5. transferred; Calcium; oxide; ionic bond
their atoms.
6. group
15. C
7. 8
Both X and calcium are Group II elements.
8. formula
16. D
Lithium is the least dense metal element. Refer to
T2 Section 6.4, p.48.
B. Practice questions (p.96) (d) Iron(III) nitrate; Yellow or brown
9. (a) (e) Cobalt(II) chloride; Pink
(f) Ammonium chloride; Colourless
(g) Potassium nitrite; Colourless
(h) Potassium chromate; Yellow
(b) (i) Copper(II) bromide; Blue or green

C. Multiple-choice questions (p.98)

13. B
14. C
(c)
15. C
16. D
When M reacts with N, each atom of M loses one
(d) electron and each atom of N gains three electrons
in order to attain the electronic arrangement of an
argon atom.
17. D
(e)
D. Structured questions (p.98)
18. Incorrect

10. (a)
1
19. (a) Wrong
The formula of magnesium sulphate is
(b) MgSO4. 1
(b) Wrong
The name of K2O is potassium oxide and
that of MgF2 are magnesium fluoride. 1
(c) 20. (a) Z 1
(b) An atom of Z loses two outermost shell
2+
electrons to form Z in order to attain
the electronic arrangement of a neon
(d) atom. 1
(c) ZX 1
(d)

11. (a) LiOH

(b) CuO 1
(c) PbCO3
(d) K2Cr2O7 Chapter 8
(e) Fe(OH)3
A. Fill in the blanks (p.127)
(f) Ag2O
1. share; covalent
(g) BaSO4
2. two; double
(h) AlH3
3. three; triple
(i) Na3N
4. molecular
(j) CuBr
5. structural
12. (a) Sodium permanganate; Purple
6. dative
(b) Iron(II) chloride; Pale green
7. Relative molecular mass
(c) Nickel(II) sulphate; Green

T3
 8. Formula mass (e) PBr3; Phosphorus tribromide
9. electrostatic; directional
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.128)
10. ions; molecules
14. A
B. Practice questions (p.127) The structural formula of CO2 is O=C=O.
11. (a) 15. D
A covalent compound is made up of two or more
non-metals chemically combined together. Mercury
is a metal element. It reacts with oxygen to form an
ionic compound. Neon is very unreactive. It has no
reaction with chlorine.
16. B
Option (A): number of lone pair of electrons in a
(b) molecule of NH3 is 1.
Option (B): number of lone pair of electrons in a
molecule of HCl is 3.
Option (C): number of lone pair of electrons in a
(c)
molecule of N2 is 2.
Option (D): number of lone pair of electrons in a
molecule of H2O is 2.
(d) 17. A
Relative molecular mass of SO3
= 32.1 + 16.0 × 3 = 80.1
Relative molecular mass carries no unit.
18. C

(e) D. Structured questions (p.128)

19. (a) It refers to the electrostatic attraction
between the shared electrons (negatively
charged) and the two nuclei (positively
(f) charged) of the bonded atoms. 1
(b)

1
(c)
12. (a)
1
OR
(b)
(1)
20. (a) XY3 1
(b) When X and Y react, the atom of X
contributes three electrons while the three
(c)
atoms of Y each contributes one electron for
sharing, resulting in formation of three X–Y
covalent bonds. 1
13. (a) CO2; Carbon dioxide Each of the X–Y bonds forms by sharing of a
(b) NH3; Ammonia pair of electrons between the X and Y
(c) CF4; Tetrafluoromethane atoms, one from each other. 1
(d) SCl2; Sulphur dichloride
T4
 (c) Chapter 9
A. Fill in the blanks (p.167)
1. giant metallic
2. delocalized; malleable; high
1
3. high; molten; aqueous solution; soluble; organic
21. (a) Electronic arrangement of an atom of
4. low; non-conductors; water; soluble
element A: 2,1 1
5. solids; high; insoluble; graphite
Electronic arrangement of an atom of
6. bonding; structure
element B: 2,4 1
Electronic arrangement of an atom of B. Multiple-choice questions (p.167)
element C: 2,6 1 7. B
Electronic arrangement of an atom of In this structure, each ion of non-metal X is
element D: 2,8 1 surrounded by 8 ions of metal M and vice versa.
Electronic arrangement of an atom of 8. C
element E: 2,8,2 1 9. D
Electronic arrangement of an atom of 10. C
element F: 2,8,7 1
C. Structured questions (p.168)
(b) D 1 + –
11. The Na and Cl ions in sodium chloride are
(c) (i)
held together by strong ionic bonds while the
molecules in heptane are held together by weak
1 van der Waals’ forces. 1
(ii) The weak attraction between the ions and
heptane molecules are not strong enough to
break the attraction between the ions in the
1 lattice. 1
(iii) 12. (a) I2 1
(b) Simple molecular structure 1
1 (c) The iodine atoms in a molecule are bonded
(d) Molecular formula: BC2 1 together by strong covalent bonds. 1
Structural formula: C=B=C 1 The iodine molecules in the lattice are held
(e) A diatomic molecule is a molecule together by weak van der Waals’ forces. 1
composed of only two atoms. 1 (d) The attraction between iodine and ethanol
(f) (i) molecules is strong enough to overcome
the attraction between ethanol molecules. 1
1 On the other hand, the weak attraction
(ii) between iodine and water molecules is not
strong enough to overcome the attraction
1 between water molecules. 1
22. 13. (a) X: giant ionic structure; Y: giant covalent
structure; Z: simple molecular structure 3
(b) X: sodium chloride; Y: diamond; Z: dry ice 3
(c) No. This is because the ions are not mobile
1 in solid X. 1
2+ 2–
23. (a) Ca and CO3 2 (d) The atoms in a molecule are bonded
Ionic bond exists between these two types together by strong covalent bonds. 1
of ions. 1 The molecules in the lattice are held
(b) (i) Covalent bond 1 together by weak van der Waals’ forces/
(ii) A polyatomic ion is an ion derived from intermolecular forces. 1
a group of atoms. 1

T5
 (e) Y has a higher melting point than X. This is 2. D
39
because a larger amount of energy is K has 20 neutrons and the atom under discussed
needed to break lots of strong covalent has 20 protons.
bonds between the atoms in a giant 3. B
covalent structure 1 Option (A): number of neutrons = 55 – 25 = 30
than to break many strong ionic bonds Option (B): number of neutrons = 57 – 26 = 31
between the ions in a giant ionic structure. 1 Option (C): number of neutrons = 57 – 27 = 30
(f) No. This is because covalent bonds Option (D): number of neutrons = 58 – 28 = 30
holding the atoms in the lattice of Y are 4. B
much stronger than those intermolecular 5. C
forces between water molecules. 1 6. C
69 71
14. (a) False Let the relative abundance of 31X and that of 31X be
Diamond cannot be used as electrodes. 1 y% and (100 – y)% respectively.
(b) False 69.7 = 69 × y% + 71 × (100 – y)%
Silicon is not a good conductor of heat 69.7 = 0.69y + 71 – 0.71y
under room conditions because there are y = 65
69 71
no delocalized electrons. 1 ∴ the relative abundance of 31X and that of 31X are
(Besides, silicon has a giant covalent 65% and 35% respectively.
structure.) 7. D
15. (a) B 1 8. B
(b) (i) E 1 If Q is one of the first 20 elements in the Periodic
This is because it conducts electricity Table, then the electronic arrangement of the atoms
in the solid state. 1 of Q may be 2,5 or 2,8,5.
(ii) A 1 9. C
This is because it does not conduct Boron has two naturally occurring isotopes in
electricity in the solid state but nature, namely boron-10 and boron-11 (refer to
conducts electricity when molten. 1 Self-test 5.1 on p.15).
(iii) B and C 1
B. Structured questions (p.32)
This is because they do not conduct
10. (a) 2 1
electricity no matter in the solid state
(b) Yes. This is because the isotopes of an
or when molten. Besides, they have
element have the same chemical properties. 1
low melting points. 1 3
(c) 1H 1
(iv) D 1
(d) They have the same number of protons
This is because it does not conduct
but different numbers of neutrons. 1
electricity no matter in the solid state
11. (a) Isotopes 1
or when molten, but it has a very high
(b) 18 1
melting point. 1
(c) These atoms have different numbers of
(c) B and C 1
neutrons. 1
(d) C 1
(d) The relative atomic mass of argon is the
Wax does not conduct electricity no matter
weighted average of the relative isotopic
it is in the solid state or when molten.
masses of all of its naturally occurring
Besides, it is a low-melting solid. 1 12
isotopes on the C = 12.00 scale. 1
As the relative atomic mass of argon is
Answers to Exam practice almost equal to the relative isotopic mass of
40
18Ar, the most abundant type of atoms in the
40
sample is 18Ar. 1
Chapter 5
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.31)
1. A (60%)

T6
12. (a) 2,7 1 (d) beryllium 1
(b) Sulphur has more than one isotope. 1 8. (a) The number of occupied electron shells the
OR element has in its atoms 1
Some sulphur atoms have the same number (b) V 1
of protons but different numbers of neutrons. (c) (i) They have the same number of
(1) outermost shell electrons in their
(c) A fluorine atom has 9 protons, 9 electrons atoms. 1
and 10 neutrons. 1 (ii) They have the same number of
The protons (positively charged) and occupied electron shells in their
neutrons (neutral) are concentrated in the atoms. 1
nucleus of fluorine atom. 1 (d) T conducts electricity under room
Electrons (negatively charged) are moving conditions when an electric current passes
in electron shells surrounding the nucleus through it. 1
of fluorine atom at a very high speed. 1 (e) The elements change from metals through
Communication mark 1 semi-metals, and then to non-metals. 1
9. (a) Group 0 1
Chapter 6 Noble gases 1
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.65) (b) (i) 2 1
1. B (ii) 8 1
Both W and Y are Group V elements. (c) Xenon is a gas under room conditions. 1
2. A (d) The reactivity of xenon and that of helium
Elements in the same period have the same number are more or less the same. This is because
of occupied electron shells in their atoms. all noble gases are very unreactive. 1
3. C (e) The balloon will rise because helium is less
39 41
Option (B): 19Y and 19Z show the same chemical dense than air. 1
properties.
7 41
Option (C): both 3W and 19Z have one electron in Chapter 7
the outermost shell. A. Multiple-choice questions (p.100)
4. D 1. C
5. D 2. B
6. B Hydrogen is a non-metal with the atomic number of
Statement (1): the physical state of the halogens at 1. As X is a metal, its atomic number cannot be 1.
room temperature and pressure changes from gas 3. D
to liquid, and then to solid down the group. 4. A
Statement (3): the reactivity of the halogens A lithium atom has the electronic arrangement 2,1.
decreases down the group. A nitrogen atom has the electronic arrangement
2,5. The formula of lithium nitride is Li3N.
B. Structured questions (p.66)
5. D
7. (a) 2 1
Q belongs to Group III of the Periodic Table. Each
(b) They have a low density. 1
atom of Q loses three outermost shell electrons
OR
when Q reacts with R. From the given formula, the
They are good conductors of heat and
charge on the ion of R is 1–. Hence, R belongs to
electricity. (1)
Group VII of the Periodic Table.
(c) (i) Test the gas with a burning splint. 1
6. C
If the gas burns with a ‘pop’ sound, it 2+
Metal Z forms a simple ion with the formula Z in
is hydrogen. 1
the reaction. Hence, it is placed in Group II and
(ii) radium + water radium hydroxide +
Period 5 of the Periodic Table.
hydrogen 1
7. B
(iii) Blue 1

T7
 8. A (c) Electrode X
Y is calcium. It has the electronic arrangement This is because a purple spot moves
–
2,8,8,2. Calcium gives a brick-red flame in a flame towards it. MnO4 (aq) ions are negatively
test. charged and they are attracted to the
9. A (68%) positive electrode. 1
–
Ethanol does not conduct electricity. MnO4 (aq) (d) The purple spot will moves towards
ions are purple in colour and negatively charged. electrode Y. 1
They move towards the positive electrode P. This is because negatively charged
–
MnO4 (aq) ions will then be attracted to
B. Structured questions (p.101)
the electrode Y which is now a positive
10. (a) 3– 1
electrode. 1
The charge on the ion of W is 2+. From
2+
the given formula, every three W need
3–
Chapter 8
two ions of Y in order to balance the
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.130)
charges. 1
1. B
(b) 5 1
The electronic arrangement of an atom of Z is 2,5.
(c)
Each atom of Z shares three of its outermost shell
electrons with another atom of Z, forming a triple
1 covalent bond. In this way, each atom of Z has a
(d) WS 1 stable octet.
11. (a) Electronic arrangement of a chlorine atom: 2. C
2,8,7 1 Element X is a metal. It forms ionic compounds but
Electronic arrangement of a chloride ion: not covalent compounds with non-metals. Z is a
2,8,8 1 noble gas. It seldom forms compounds with other
(b) 2+ 1 elements.
(c) Copper 1 3. D
(d) Blue or green 1 Option (B): a covalent compound, CS2, forms when
12. (a) Calcium sulphate 1 carbon reacts with sulphur.
(b) CaSO4 1
2+ 2–
(c) Ca /calcium ion and SO4 /sulphate ion 1
(d) Ionic bond 1
13. (a) When strontium reacts with chlorine, each Option (C): a covalent compound, NO2, forms when
strontium atom loses two electrons, while nitrogen reacts with oxygen.
each chlorine atom gains one electron. As
a result of the transfer of electrons,
strontium ions and chloride ions form. 1
The positively charged strontium ions and 4. B
the negatively charged chloride ions are 5. C
held together by ionic bonds. 1 6. B
(b) 7. B
Statement (1): the atom of X has 7 electrons in the
outermost shell. X is probably a Group VII element.
1 Thus, the atomic number of element X must be
(c) SrCl2 1 greater than 7.
14. (a) This is to increase the electrical Statement (2): in the electron diagram of this
conductivity of the filter paper. 1 compound, the electrons in the outermost shell of
(Water is a poor conductor of electricity.) an atom of Z are represented by small circles.
–
(b) Permanganate ion/MnO4 1 Statement (3): as shown in the electron diagram,
none of the shared pairs of electrons are contributed
by the same atom.
T8
8. A Statement (2): gold is malleable and ductile while
Y belongs to Group IV of the Periodic Table. It forms iron pyrite is brittle.
four single covalent bonds with four atoms of X, Statement (3): gold and iron pyrite are both
which is a Group VII element. insoluble in heptane.
9. B 7. A
The formula masses of NaBr, NCl3, CaO and OCl2 Since Y has a high melting point and conducts
are 102.9, 120.5, 56.1 and 87.0 respectively. electricity in the solid state, it is a metal. Metals are
10. C good conductors of heat.
X is a Group VI element and Y is a Group VII 8. D (60%)
element. A solution which forms from dissolving a substance
with a giant ionic structure in water can conduct
B. Structured questions (p.131)
electricity. Besides, substances with giant covalent
11. (a) 2,8 1
structures or with giant metallic structures are
(b)
insoluble in water.

1 B. Structured questions (p.171)

(c) Neon atoms have a stable octet. They have 9. (a) Giant metallic structure 1
no tendency to share its electrons with (b) Each potassium atom has one outermost
other neon atoms. 1 shell electron. It tends to attain an octet
Nitrogen atoms are very unstable because structure/the electronic arrangement of an
they have five electrons in the outermost argon atom by losing the outermost shell
shell only. They tend to share three of its electron through reaction with other
outermost shell electrons with another elements. 1
nitrogen atom, forming a triple covalent (c) Ionic bond 1
bond. In this way, each nitrogen atom has (d) (i) A large amount of energy is needed to
a stable octet. 1 break the strong ionic bonds between
+ –
12. (a) (i) Three 1 the K and Cl in the structure of KCl. 1
(ii) Two 1 (ii) The attraction between the ions in KCl
(iii) 1 and water molecules is strong enough
(b) to overcome the attraction between the
ions in the lattice of KCl. 1
10. HKDSE 2020 Paper 1B Q3b(iii)
11. (a) There are only weak van der Waals’ forces
between layers of carbon atoms in graphite. 1
1 (b) Giant covalent structure 1
(c) It has delocalized electrons for conducting
Chapter 9 electricity. 1
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.170) (d) The carbon atoms are linked by strong
1. D covalent bonds throughout the structure of
2. C (80%) graphene. Their relative movement is
3. D (68%) restricted. 1
4. C To break graphene, a lot of strong covalent
5. B bonds must be broken. 1
X is a metal and Y is a non-metal. They react to form (e) Yes. In the structure of graphane, all the
an ionic compound. outermost shell electrons on each carbon
6. A atom have been used to form single
Statement (1): gold conducts electricity in the solid covalent bonds. 1
state while iron pyrite does not. There are no delocalized electrons in the
structure of graphane. Hence, it does not
conduct electricity. 1

T9
 Answers to Part exercise 11. (a) (i) B 1
(ii) H 1
Chapter 9 (iii) C 1
(iv) E 1
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.172)
(b) K. This is because its atoms have a stable
1. C
octet/an octet structure. 1
2. A
(c) A has delocalized electrons for conducting
3. B
electricity but G has no delocalized
Relative atomic mass of Y = 185 × 40% + 187 × 60%
electrons or mobile ions for conducting
= 186.2
electricity. 1
4. B
(d) H, I, J 1
Charge on the ions of iron in FeO is 2+.
12. (a) (i) The relative atomic mass of an element
Charge on the ions of iron in Fe2O3 is 3+.
is the weighted average of the relative
5. A
isotopic masses of all of its naturally
X, Y and Z are Group VII, 0 and I elements of the 12
occurring isotopes on the C = 12.00
Periodic Table respectively. Among them, X and Y
scale. 1
belong to the same period.
(ii) Relative atomic mass of Rb
6. A 2.6 1
7. A = 85 × + 87 × 1
3.6 3.6
Each atom of Y shares its four outermost shell = 85.6 1
electrons with two oxygen atoms in forming a YO2 (b) (i)
molecule. This shows that the atom of Y needs four
additional electrons to attain an octet structure.
1
Therefore, Y is a Group IV element.
(ii) Similarity:
8. C
Both rubidium and rubidium chloride
9. B
are composed of positively charged
C. Structured questions (p.173) particles and negatively charged
10. (a) (i) A purple colour gradually appears in particles. Electrostatic attraction holds
the dilute sulphuric acid around the the oppositely charged particles
positive electrode. 1 together. 1
–
This is because MnO4 (aq) ions are OR
purple in colour and negatively In the structure of rubidium and that of
charged. They are attracted to the rubidium chloride, the positively
positive electrode. 1 charged particles have a regular
(ii) There is no observable change at the arrangement. (1)
negative electrode. 1 Difference:
+
Though the positively charged NH4 (aq) Rubidium chloride contains anions but
ions migrate towards the negative rubidium does not. 1
electrode, they cannot be seen as they (iii) Rubidium conducts electricity in the
are colourless. 1 solid state or when molten because it
(b) (i) It acts as an electrolyte to complete the contains delocalized electrons. 1
circuit. 1 Rubidium chloride does not conduct
(ii) It slows down the mixing of the electricity in the solid state but it
ammonium permanganate solution and conducts electricity when molten or in
dilute sulphuric acid. 1 aqueous solution. This is because in the
OR solid state, the ions in rubidium chloride
+
It slows down the migration of NH4 (aq) are held in a fixed position. But when
–
and MnO4 (aq) ions to make the result molten or in aqueous solution, the ions
more easily observed. (1) in rubidium chloride become mobile
and hence it can conduct electricity. 1
T10
13. (a) The elements change from metals through (b) Group II. This is because there are two
semi-metal(s) and then to non-metals outermost shell electrons in its atoms. 1
across a period. 1 (c) Period 3. This is because there are three
(b) (i) Na2O, MgO and Al2O3 1 occupied electron shells in its atoms. 1
(ii) SiO2 1 (d) magnesium ion
(iii) SO2 1
delocalized electron
(c) Melting of MgO needs a lot of energy to
break the strong ionic bonds between the
2+ 2–
Mg and O ions in a giant ionic structure. 1
Melting of SO2 needs a small amount of 1
energy to overcome the weak van der (e)
Waals’ forces between SO2 molecules in a
simple molecular structure. 1
14. BN is a compound. Thus, it does not have a 1
giant metallic structure. 1 (f) The oxide of X has a giant ionic structure. 1
BN has a high melting point, indicating that it A large amount of energy is needed to
does not have a simple molecular structure. 1 break the strong ionic bonds between the
2+ 2–
BN does not conduct electricity in the molten X and O ions in the structure. 1
state, indicating that it does not have a giant (g) The attraction between the ions in oxide of
ionic structure. 1 X and water molecules is just slightly strong
Therefore, BN has a giant covalent structure. 1 enough to overcome the attraction between
the ions in the lattice. 1
(h)
Answers to Revision test
Chapter 9 Mg
2+

2–
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.176) O 1
1. C 12. (a) (NH4)2CO3 1
+
2. D (b) No. This is because both NH4 (aq) and
2–
3. D CO3 (aq) are colourless. 1
+
4. C (c) Ionic bonds exist between the NH4 and
2–
5. C CO3 . 1
6. D Covalent bonds exist between the N atom
2– +
From the electron diagram of CO3 provided, the C and H atoms in NH4 and exist between the
2–
atom contributes its four outermost shell electrons C atom and O atoms in CO3 . 1
for sharing, two electrons for the oxygen atom on (d) (i)
its right-hand side and probably one electron for
each of the rest of oxygen atoms. Two electrons
gained from other atom(s) may involve in the 1
formation of the two C–O bonds. (ii) The molecular size of ammonia is
7. C relatively small. The intermolecular
8. B forces between ammonia molecules
The melting point of sodium and that of graphite are relatively weak. 1
are 98°C and 3730°C respectively. 13. (a)
9. B
10. C 1
(b) Simple molecular structure 1
B. Structured questions (p.177)
11. (a) 12 1

T11
 (c) No. This is because dry ice has no
delocalized electrons or mobile ions for
conducting electricity. 1
(d) (i) Sublimation 1
(ii) In a dry ice lattice, the carbon dioxide
molecules pack together regularly and
are held together by weak van der
Waals’ forces. 1
When dry ice is heated, some of the
van der Waals’ forces are overcome
and the molecules become further
apart. 1
(e) It is non-toxic./No liquid would be
produced and wet the place. 1
(Accept other reasonable answers.)

T12