Optical illusion

This article is about visual perception. For the albums, ical visual illusions arise from a pathological exaggera-
see Optical Illusion (Time Requiem album) and Optical tion in physiological visual perception mechanisms caus-
Illusion (Splean album). ing the aforementioned types of illusions.
An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is Optical illusions are often classified into categories in-
cluding the physical and the cognitive or perceptual,[1]
and contrasted with optical hallucinations. Because

1 Physiological illusions

The checker shadow illusion. Although square A appears a

darker shade of grey than square B, the two are exactly the same.

In this animation, Mach bands exaggerate the contrast between

edges of the slightly differing shades of gray, as soon as they come
in contact with one-another.

Physiological illusions, such as the afterimages[2] fol-

lowing bright lights, or adapting stimuli of excessively
longer alternating patterns (contingent perceptual after-
effect), are presumed to be the effects on the eyes or brain
of excessive stimulation or interaction with contextual or
competing stimuli of a specific type—brightness, color,
position, tile, size, movement, etc. The theory is that a
stimulus follows its individual dedicated neural path in
the early stages of visual processing, and that intense or
repetitive activity in that or interaction with active adjoin-
Drawing a connecting bar between the two squares breaks the
ing channels cause a physiological imbalance that alters
illusion and shows that they are the same shade.
perception.
characterized by visually perceived images that differ The Hermann grid illusion and Mach bands are two
from objective reality. The information gathered by the illusions that are best explained using a biological ap-
eye is processed in the brain to give a perception that proach. Lateral inhibition, where in the receptive field
does not tally with a physical measurement of the stim- of the retina light and dark receptors compete with one
ulus source. There are three main types: literal optical another to become active, has been used to explain why
illusions that create images that are different from the ob- we see bands of increased brightness at the edge of a color
jects that make them, physiological illusions that are the difference when viewing Mach bands. Once a receptor is
effects of excessive stimulation of a specific type (bright- active, it inhibits adjacent receptors. This inhibition cre-
ness, colour, size, position, tilt, movement), and cognitive ates contrast, highlighting edges. In the Hermann grid il-
illusions, the result of unconscious inferences. Patholog- lusion the gray spots appear at the intersection because of

1
2 4 EXPLANATION OF COGNITIVE ILLUSIONS

the inhibitory response which occurs as a result of the in- 2. Distorting or geometrical-optical illusions are char-
creased dark surround.[3] Lateral inhibition has also been acterized by distortions of size, length, position or
used to explain the Hermann grid illusion, but this has curvature. A striking example is the Café wall illu-
been disproved. More recent empirical approaches to op- sion. Other examples are the famous Müller-Lyer
tical illusions have had some success in explaining optical illusion and Ponzo illusion.
phenomena with which theories based on lateral inhibi-
tion have struggled (e.g. Howe et al. 2005).[4] 3. Paradox illusions are generated by objects that
are paradoxical or impossible, such as the Penrose
triangle or impossible staircase seen, for example,
in M.C. Escher's Ascending and Descending and
2 Pathological visual illusions Waterfall. The triangle is an illusion dependent on
a cognitive misunderstanding that adjacent edges
A pathological visual illusion is a distortion of a real must join.
external stimulus[5] and are often diffuse and persis-
tent. Pathological visual illusions usually occur through- 4. Fictions are when a figure is perceived even though
out the visual field, suggesting global excitability or sen- it is not in the stimulus.
sitivity alterations.[6] Alternatively visual hallucination is
the perception of an external visual stimulus where none
exists.[5] Visual hallucinations are often from focal dys- 4 Explanation of cognitive illusions
function and are usually transient.
Types of visual illusions include oscillopsia, halos 4.1 Perceptual organization
around objects, illusory palinopsia (visual trailing, light
streaking, prolonged indistinct afterimages), akinetopsia,
visual snow, micropsia, macropsia, teleopsia, pelopsia,
Alice in Wonderland syndrome, metamorphopsia,
dyschromatopsia, intense glare, blue field entoptic
phenomenon, and purkinje trees.
These symptoms may indicate an underlying disease state
and necessitate seeing a medical practitioner. Etiologies
associated with pathological visual illusions include mul-
tiple types of ocular disease, migraines, hallucinogen per-
sisting perception disorder, head trauma, and prescription
drugs. If a medical work-up does not reveal a cause of the
pathological visual illusions, the idiopathic visual distur-
bances could be analogous to the altered excitability state
seen in visual aura with no migraine headache. If the vi-
sual illusions are diffuse and persistent, they often affect Reversible figures and vase, or the figure-ground illusion
the patient’s quality of life. These symptoms are often
refractory to treatment and may be caused by any of the
aforementioned etiologes, but are often idiopathic. There
is no standard treatment for these visual disturbances.

3 Cognitive illusions
Cognitive illusions are assumed to arise by interaction
with assumptions about the world, leading to “uncon-
scious inferences”, an idea first suggested in the 19th
century by the German physicist and physician Hermann
Helmholtz.[7] Cognitive illusions are commonly divided
into ambiguous illusions, distorting illusions, paradox il-
Rabbit–duck illusion
lusions, or fiction illusions.
To make sense of the world it is necessary to organize
1. Ambiguous illusions are pictures or objects that incoming sensations into information which is meaning-
elicit a perceptual “switch” between the alternative ful. Gestalt psychologists believe one way this is done
interpretations. The Necker cube is a well-known is by perceiving individual sensory stimuli as a meaning-
example; another instance is the Rubin vase. ful whole.[8] Gestalt organization can be used to explain
4.2 Depth and motion perception 3

many illusions including the rabbit–duck illusion where determined by using the average of values of brightness
the image as a whole switches back and forth from being in each framework.[11]
a duck then being a rabbit and why in the figure–ground
illusion the figure and ground are reversible.
4.2 Depth and motion perception

The vertical–horizontal illusion where the vertical line is thought

to be longer than the horizontal

Kanizsa triangle

In addition, Gestalt theory can be used to explain the

illusory contours in the Kanizsa Triangle. A floating
white triangle, which does not exist, is seen. The brain has
a need to see familiar simple objects and has a tendency
to create a “whole” image from individual elements.[8]
Gestalt means “form” or “shape” in German. However,
another explanation of the Kanizsa Triangle is based in
evolutionary psychology and the fact that in order to sur-
Ponzo illusion
vive it was important to see form and edges. The use of
perceptual organization to create meaning out of stimuli Illusions can be based on an individual’s ability to see
is the principle behind other well-known illusions includ-
in three dimensions even though the image hitting the
ing impossible objects. Our brain makes sense of shapes retina is only two dimensional. The Ponzo illusion is
and symbols putting them together like a jigsaw puzzle,
an example of an illusion which uses monocular cues
formulating that which isn't there to that which is believ- of depth perception to fool the eye. But even with two
able.
dimensional images, the brain exaggerates vertical dis-
The Gestalt principles of perception govern the way we tances when compared with horizontal distances, as in the
group different objects. Good form is where the percep- vertical-horizontal illusion where the two lines are exactly
tual system tries to fill in the blanks in order to see sim- the same length.
ple objects rather than complex objects. Continuity is In the Ponzo illusion the converging parallel lines tell the
where the perceptual system tries to disambiguate which brain that the image higher in the visual field is farther
segments fit together into continuous lines. Proximity is away therefore the brain perceives the image to be larger,
where objects that are close together are associated. Sim- although the two images hitting the retina are the same
ilarity is where objects that are similar are seen as asso- size. The optical illusion seen in a diorama/false perspec-
ciated. Some of these elements have been successfully tive also exploits assumptions based on monocular cues
incorporated into quantitative models involving optimal of depth perception. The M.C. Escher painting Waterfall
estimation or Bayesian inference. [9][10] exploits rules of depth and proximity and our understand-
The double-anchoring theory, a popular but recent theory ing of the physical world to create an illusion. Like depth
of cognitive illusions, states that any region belongs to a perception, motion perception is responsible for a num-
framework of Gestalt principles and within each frame- ber of sensory illusions. Film animation is based on the
work, is independently anchored a highest surrounding illusion that the brain perceives a series of slightly varied
brightness and highest brightness. A spot’s lightness is images produced in rapid succession as a moving picture.
4 4 EXPLANATION OF COGNITIVE ILLUSIONS

Likewise, when we are moving, as we would be while rid-

ing in a vehicle, stable surrounding objects may appear to
move. We may also perceive a large object, like an air-
plane, to move more slowly than smaller objects, like a
car, although the larger object is actually moving faster.
The phi phenomenon is yet another example of how the
brain perceives motion, which is most often created by
blinking lights in close succession.
The ambiguity of direction of motion due to lack of vi-
sual references for depth is shown in the spinning dancer
illusion. The spinning dancer appears to be moving clock-
wise or counterclockwise depending on spontaneous ac-
tivity in the brain where perception is subjective. Re-
cent studies show on the fMRI that there are spontaneous
fluctuations in cortical activity while watching this illu- In this illusion, the coloured regions appear rather different,
sion, particularly the parietal lobe, because it is involved roughly orange and brown. In fact they are the same colour,
in perceiving movement.[12] and in identical immediate surrounds, but the brain changes its
assumption about color due to the global interpretation of the sur-
rounding image. Also, the white tiles that are shadowed are the
4.3 Color and brightness constancies same color as the grey tiles outside the shadow.

Coloration consists of an assimilation of color radiating

from a thin-colored edge lining a darker chromatic con-
tour. The water-color illusion describes how the human
mind perceives the wholeness of an object such as top-
down processing. Thus, contextual factors play into per-
ceiving the brightness of an object.[13]

4.4 Object

Just as it perceives colour and brightness constancies, the

brain has the ability to understand familiar objects as hav-
ing a consistent shape or size. For example, a door is
Simultaneous Contrast Illusion. The background is a color gra-
perceived as rectangle regardless of how the image may
dient and progresses from dark grey to light grey. The horizontal change on the retina as the door is opened and closed. Un-
bar appears to progress from light grey to dark grey, but is in fact familiar objects, however, do not always follow the rules
just one colour. of shape constancy and may change when the perspective
is changed. The Shepard illusion of the changing table[14]
Perceptual constancies are sources of illusions. Color is an example of an illusion based on distortions in shape
constancy and brightness constancy are responsible for constancy.
the fact that a familiar object will appear the same color
regardless of the amount of light or color of light reflect-
ing from it. An illusion of color or contrast difference can 4.5 Future perception
be created when the luminosity or color of the area sur-
rounding an unfamiliar object is changed. The contrast Researcher Mark Changizi of Rensselaer Polytechnic In-
of the object will appear darker against a black field that stitute in New York has a more imaginative take on opti-
reflects less light compared to a white field even though cal illusions, saying that they are due to a neural lag which
the object itself did not change in color. Similarly, the most humans experience while awake. When light hits
eye will compensate for color contrast depending on the the retina, about one-tenth of a second goes by before the
color cast of the surrounding area. brain translates the signal into a visual perception of the
In addition to the Gestalt principles of perception, water- world. Scientists have known of the lag, yet they have
color illusions contribute to the formation of optical illu- debated how humans compensate, with some proposing
sions. Water-color illusions consist of object-hole effects that our motor system somehow modifies our movements
and coloration. Object-hole effects occur when bound- to offset the delay.
aries are prominent where there is a figure and back- Changizi asserts that the human visual system has evolved
ground with a hole that is 3D volumetric in appearance. to compensate for neural delays by generating images of
 5

what will occur one-tenth of a second into the future.

This foresight enables humans to react to events in the
present, enabling humans to perform reflexive acts like
catching a fly ball and to maneuver smoothly through a
crowd.[15] Illusions occur when our brains attempt to per-
ceive the future, and those perceptions don't match re-
ality. For example, an illusion called the Hering illusion
looks like bicycle spokes around a central point, with ver-
tical lines on either side of this central, so-called vanish-
ing point. The illusion tricks us into thinking we are mov-
ing forward, and thus, switches on our future-seeing abil-
ities. Since we aren't actually moving and the figure is
static, we misperceive the straight lines as curved ones.
Changizi said:

Evolution has seen to it that geometric

drawings like this elicit in us premonitions of
the near future. The converging lines toward
a vanishing point (the spokes) are cues that
trick our brains into thinking we are moving
forward—as we would in the real world, where
the door frame (a pair of vertical lines) seems
to bow out as we move through it—and we try
to perceive what that world will look like in the
The Spinning Dancer appears to move both clockwise and
next instant.[15]
counter-clockwise

5 Illusions Artists who have worked with optical illusions include

M. C. Escher, Bridget Riley, Salvador Dalí, Giuseppe
Main article: List of optical illusions Arcimboldo, Patrick Bokanowski, Marcel Duchamp,
Jasper Johns, Oscar Reutersvärd, Victor Vasarely and
Charles Allan Gilbert. Contemporary artists who
have experimented with illusions include Jonty Hurwitz,
Sandro del Prete, Octavio Ocampo, Dick Termes, Shigeo
6 In art Fukuda, Patrick Hughes, István Orosz, Rob Gonsalves,
Gianni A. Sarcone, Ben Heine and Akiyoshi Kitaoka.
Optical illusion is also used in film by the technique of
forced perspective.
Op art is a style of art that uses optical illusions to create
an impression of movement, or hidden images and pat-
terns. Trompe-l'œil uses realistic imagery to create the
optical illusion that depicted objects exist in three dimen-
sions.

7 Cognitive processes hypothesis

The hypothesis claims that visual illusions occur because
the neural circuitry in our visual system evolves, by neu-
ral learning, to a system that makes very efficient inter-
pretations of usual 3D scenes based in the emergence of
simplified models in our brain that speed up the inter-
pretation process but give rise to optical illusions in un-
An optical illusion. The two circles seem to move when the usual situations. In this sense, the cognitive processes
viewer’s head is moving forwards and backwards while looking hypothesis can be considered a framework for an under-
at the black dot.[16] standing of optical illusions as the signature of the empir-
6 9 SEE ALSO

ical statistical way vision has evolved to solve the inverse • Subjective cyan filter, left: subjectively constructed
problem.[17] cyan square filter above blue circles, right: small
Research indicates that 3D vision capabilities emerge and cyan circles inhibit filter construction[2][3]
are learned jointly with the planning of movements. Af- • Pinna’s illusory intertwining effect[4] and Pinna il-
ter a long process of learning, an internal representation lusion (scholarpedia).[5] (The picture shows squares
of the world emerges that is well-adjusted to the perceived spiralling in, although they are arranged in concen-
data coming from closer objects. The representation of tric circles.)
distant objects near the horizon is less “adequate”. In fact,
it is not only the Moon that seems larger when we per- • Optical illusion disc which is spun displaying the il-
ceive it near the horizon. In a photo of a distant scene, lusion of motion of a man bowing and a woman curt-
all distant objects are perceived as smaller than when we sying to each other in a circle at the outer edge of the
observe them directly using our vision. disc, 1833
The retinal image is the main source driving vision but • A hybrid image constructed from low-frequency
what we see is a “virtual” 3D representation of the scene components of a photograph of Marilyn Monroe
in front of us. We don't see a physical image of the world; (left inset) and high-frequency components of a pho-
we see objects, and the physical world is not itself sepa- tograph of Albert Einstein (right inset). The Ein-
rated into objects. We see it according to the way our stein image is clearer in the full image.
brain organizes it. The names, colours, usual shapes and
other information about the things we see pop up instanta- • An ancient roman geometric mosaic. The cubic tex-
neously from our neural circuitry and influence the repre- ture induces a Necker-cube-like optical illusion.
sentation of the scene. We “see” the most relevant infor-
mation about the elements of the best 3D image that our 1. ^ Bangio Pinna, Gavin Brelstaff, Lothar Spill-
neural networks can produce. The illusions arise when the man (2001). “Surface color from boundaries: a
“judgments” implied in the unconscious analysis of the new watercolor illusion”. Vision Research 41 (20):
scene are in conflict with reasoned considerations about 2669–2676. doi:10.1016/s0042-6989(01)00105-5.
it. PMID 11520512.
2. ^ Hoffmann, Donald D. (1998). Visual Intelligence.
How we create what we see. Norton., p.174
8 Gallery
3. ^ Stephen Grossberg, Baingio Pinna (2012).
Some images need to be viewed in full resolution to see “Neural Dynamics of Gestalt Principles of Percep-
their effect. tual Organization: From Grouping to Shape and
Meaning” (PDF). Gestalt Theory 34 (3+4): 399–
482.
• Play media
4. ^ Pinna, B., Gregory, R.L. (2002). “Shifts of
Edges and Deformations of Patterns”. Perception
Motion aftereffect: this video produces a distortion
31 (12): 1503–1508. doi:10.1068/p3112pp. PMID
illusion when the viewer looks away after watching
12916675.
it.
• Ebbinghaus illusion: the orange circle on the left ap- 5. ^ “Pinna illusion”. scholarpedia.org.
pears smaller than that on the right, but they are in
fact the same size.
9 See also
• Café wall illusion: the parallel horizontal lines in this
image appear sloped.
• Auditory illusion
• Checker version: the diagonal checker squares at the
larger grid points make the grid appear distorted. • Barberpole illusion (Barber’s pole)

• Lilac chaser: if the viewer focuses on the black cross • Camouflage

in the center, the location of the disappearing dot
• Chronostasis (stopped-clock illusion)
appears green.
• Closed-eye hallucination/visualization
• Motion illusion: contrasting colors create the illu-
sion of motion. • Contingent perceptual aftereffect
• Watercolor illusion: this shape’s yellow and blue • Contour rivalry
border create the illusion of the object being pale
yellow rather than white[1] • Emmert’s law
 7

• Entoptic phenomenon [9] Yoon Mo Jung and Jackie (Jianhong) Shen (2008), J. Vi-
sual Comm. Image Representation, 19(1):42-55, First-
• Flashed Face Distortion Effect order modeling and stability analysis of illusory contours.

• Gravity hill [10] Yoon Mo Jung and Jackie (Jianhong) Shen (2014), arXiv:
1406.1265, Illusory shapes via phase transition.
• Human reactions to infrasound
[11] Bressan, P (2006). “The Place of White in a World
• Hidden faces of Grays: A Double-Anchoring Theory of Lightness
Perception”. Psychological Review 113 (3): 526–553.
• Hybrid image doi:10.1037/0033-295x.113.3.526.

• Illusion [12] Bernal, B., Guillen, M., & Marquez, J. (2014). The spin-
ning dancer illusion and spontaneous brain fluctuations:
• Infinity edge pool An fMRI study. Neurocase (Psychology Press), 20(6),
627-639.
• Kinetic depth effect
[13] Tanca, M.; Grossberg, S.; Pinna, B. (2010). “Prob-
• Mirage ing Perceptual Antinomies with the Watercolor
Illusion and Explaining How the Brain Resolves
• Multistable Perception Them”. Seeing & Perceiving 23 (4): 295–333.
doi:10.1163/187847510x532685.
• Necker cube
[14] Bach, Michael (16 August 2004 (last update 2010-01-
• Silencing 04)). “Shepard’s “Turning the Tables"". http://www.
michaelbach.de/ot/index.html 86 Optical Illusions & Vi-
• Troxler’s fading sual Phenomena. Michael Bach. Archived from the orig-
inal on 27 January 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
• Visual space Check date values in: |date= (help); External link in
|work= (help)
• The dress
[15] Key to All Optical Illusions Discovered, Jeanna Bryner,
• Watercolour illusion Senior Writer, LiveScience.com 6/2/08. His research on
this topic is detailed in the May/June 2008 issue of the jour-
nal Cognitive Science.

10 Notes [16] Baingio Pinna, Gavin J. Brelstaff (2000). “A new visual

illusion of relative motion” (PDF). Vision Research 40
(16): 2091–2096. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00072-
[1] Pisters, Patricia (2012). The Neuro-Image: A Deleuzian
9. PMID 10878270.
Film-Philosophy of Digital Screen Culture, p.80. Stanford.
ISBN 9780804782845. [17] Gregory, Richard L. “Knowledge in perception and illu-
sion” (PDF).
[2] “After Images”. worqx.com.

[3] Pinel, J. (2005) Biopsychology (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn

& Bacon. ISBN 0-205-42651-4 11 Further reading
[4] Howe, Catherine Q.; Yang, Zhiyong; Purves, Dale
(2005). “The Poggendorff illusion explained by nat- • Visual illusions:An Empirical Explanation Dale
ural scene geometry”. PNAS 102 (21): 7707–7712. Purves et al. Scholarpedia 3(6):3706. doi:10.4249/
doi:10.1073/pnas.0502893102. scholarpedia.3706

[5] Pelak, Victoria. “Approach to the patient with visual hal-

lucinations”. www.uptodate.com. Retrieved 2014-08-25.
12 References
[6] Gersztenkorn, D; Lee, AG (Jul 2, 2014). “Palinop-
sia revamped: A systematic review of the lit- • Changizi, Mark A.; Hsieh, Andrew; Nijhawan,
erature.”. Survey of ophthalmology 60: 1–35. Romi; Kanai, Ryota; Shimojo, Shinsuke (2008).
doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2014.06.003. PMID “Perceiving the Present and a Systematization of Il-
25113609.
lusions” (PDF). Cognitive Science 32 (3): 459–503.
[7] David Eagleman (April 2012). Incogito: The Secret Lives doi:10.1080/03640210802035191.
of the Brain. Vintage Books. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-0-
• Eagleman, D. M. (2001). “Visual Illusions and
30738992-3. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
Neurobiology” (PDF). Nature Reviews Neuroscience
[8] Myers, D. (2003). Psychology in Modules, (7th ed.) New 2 (12): 920–6. doi:10.1038/35104092. PMID
York: Worth. ISBN 0-7167-5850-4 11733799.
8 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Richard, Gregory (1997). “Knowledge in percep-

tion and illusion” (PDF). Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
B 352: 1121–1128.

• Purves, D., Lotto, B. (2002) Why We See What We

Do: An Empirical Theory of Vision. Sunderland,
MA: Sinauer Associates.
• Purves, D.; Lotto, R.B.; Nundy, S. (2002). “Why
We See What We Do”. American Scientist 90 (3):
236–242.

• Purves, D.; Williams, M. S.; Nundy, S.; Lotto, R.

B. (2004). “Perceiving the intensity of light”. Psy-
chological Rev. 111: 142–158. doi:10.1037/0033-
295x.111.1.142.
• Renier, L.; Laloyaux, C.; Collignon, O.; Tranduy,
D.; Vanlierde, A.; Bruyer, R.; De Volder, A. G.
(2005). “The Ponzo illusion using auditory substi-
tution of vision in sighted and early blind subjects”.
Perception 34 (7): 857–867. doi:10.1068/p5219.
PMID 16124271.
• Renier, L.; Bruyer, R.; De Volder, A. G. (2006).
“Vertical-horizontal illusion present for sighted but
not early blind humans using auditory substitution of
vision”. Perception & Psychophysics 68: 535–542.
doi:10.3758/bf03208756.

• Yang, Z.; Purves, D. (2003). “A statistical explana-

tion of visual space”. Nature Neurosci 6: 632–640.
doi:10.1038/nn1059.
• Dixon, E.; Shapiro, A.; Lu, Z. (2014). “Scale-
Invariance in brightness illusions implicates object-
level visual processing”. Scientific Reports 4.
doi:10.1038/srep03900.

13 External links
• Optical illusions and perception paradoxes by
Archimedes Lab

• Optical Illusions Categorized by Just-Riddles.net

• Project LITE Atlas of Visual Phenomena

• Autokinetic optical illusions, on Smithsonian Mag-

azine

• Akiyoshi’s illusion pages Professor Akiyoshi KI-

TAOKA’s anomalous motion illusions

• Spiral Or Not? by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram

Demonstrations Project

• Still images that move by Op Artist Gianni A. Sar-

cone
 9

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text
• Optical illusion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_illusion?oldid=702600718 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, Derek Ross, Bryan
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Jonathanmcdougall, Korath, Naddy, Academic Challenger, Hadal, Michael2, Giftlite, Mintleaf~enwiki, MSGJ, Snowdog, Maha ts, Curps,
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Andreas Kaufmann, Gazpacho, Rfl, Monkeyman, MichaelMcGuffin, Imroy, Stepp-Wulf, JTN, Mindspillage, Discospinster, FranksValli,
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ner, Shadow demon, JRM, Bobo192, Meggar, Johnkarp, Redlentil, Foobaz, Kappa, Kaganer, Famousdog, Rje, Brainy J, Oarih, Polylerus,
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10 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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