Welcome

to

GENERAL
PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 1
 Ground Rules
• 1 hour lecture followed by student
questions and answers
• 15 minute break (get a snack!)
• Another 1 hour lecture followed by student
questions and answers
• Then the end of class for today

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 2

UNIT ONE
Essence of
Psychology

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 3

 Overview
• Definition of Basic Concepts
• Goals of Psychology
• Historical Background of Psychology
• Major Perspective in Psychology
• Branches of Psychology
• Research Methods in Psychology

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 4

Meaning and Definition of Psychology
• The word “Psychology "comes from the two Greek
words. These are:
 psyche, which translates as “soul” or “sprit”, ”mind”
and
 logos, which means the study, knowledge or
discourse.
“ the study of the mind/soul/sprit”
represented by the Greek letter ᴪ (psi) which is read
as("sy")
psychology is a scientific study of behavior and its
underlying mental process of human beings and animals.5
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
 Key words in the definition
Science
 Follow scientific procedures and use
empirical data to study behavior and
mental processes.
 Psychology does not rely on common
sense or speculation
Behavior
 All of our out ward or overt actions and
reactions ,such as talking, facial
expressions, movement ,etc.
 There is also covert behavior which is
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 6
 Cont…
Mental processes
Refer to all the internal, covert activities of our
minds, such as thinking, feeling, remembering, etc.

Psychologists strive to understand the mysteries of

human nature—why people think, feel, and act as
they do

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 7

Psychologists also study animal behavior;
It purposes:
It is ethically forbidden to conduct experiment on
human beings.
 Conclusions obtained from experiments on animal
behavior are usually applicable to human behavior
 To formulate theories, laws & principles that
govern human behavior
To determine laws of behavior that apply to all
organisms

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 8

 Review
• “Scientific study of behaviour and
its causes.”
– Overt (directly observable) and
covert behaviours
• Psychologists study:
– How you act (behaviour/overt)
– How you think (mental/covert)
– How you feel (covert & overt)
– How your brain and body respond
(physiological/covert)
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 9
 Goals of Psychology

Description: what is happening?

Explanation: why it is happening?
Prediction: When will it happen again?
 Controlling: How can it be changed?

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 10

 Description
it involves observing the behavior and
noticing everything about it.
Every behaviour has its own way of
occurring
In describing behaviour, a psychologist
focuses on how behaviour occurs.
It is a search for answers for questions like
What is happening? Where does it happen?
To whom does it happen?‘ And under what
circumstances does it seem to happen?.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 11
 Explanation
In explanation of behaviour, a psychologist
becomes concerned about why
behaviour occurs as it does
Every behaviour has its own causes. No
behaviour occurs without a cause.
It is about trying to find reasons for the
observed behavior.
This helps in the process of forming
theories of behavior (A theory is a general
explanation of a set of observations or
facts). Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 12
 Prediction
Prediction is about determining what
will happen in the future
involves forecasting the likelihood of a
behaviour under certain circumstances.

Prediction of behaviours is possible

through the use of theories or
principles

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 13

 Control ( Modification)
 How can it be changed? Control or modify or change
the behavior from undesirable one to a desirable one).
 involves changing a behaviour which is anti
social or unacceptable.
 For healthy functioning of society and the
individual, these kind of negative
(maladaptive ) behaviours should be
avoided
 In psychology, there are psychological
techniques to help an individual avoid a
maladaptive behaviour.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 14
 Historical Roots of Psychology
• Psychology has its roots in philosophy and physiology
• Philosophers had asked questions about human emotions,
thoughts and behavior. They had tried to deduce answers
to their questions by applying logic and common sense
reasoning philosophers did not always make deduction
successfully.
• who contributed to the Development of Psychology
Hippocrates (460-377 B.C)- emotion(body humor)
Plato (428-348 B.C)_intelligence (inborn/inherited)
Aristotle (382-322 B.C)_thinking (heart)
Rene Descartes (1556-1650 A.D)_mind/body
John Locke (English
Gashaw TesfaPhilosopher)_tabula
(Assit. Prof.) rasa 15
 Empiricists (a group of philosophers who believed a
pursuit of truth through observation and experience)
Nativism (group of philosophers who believed a
knowledge is inborn or inherited)
• Physiologists were especially influential in
providing a new understanding of the brain and
the nervous system, and the way in which these
structures affect behavior.

It was the union between the questions asked by the

philosophers and the careful scientific
experimentation of the physiologists that led to the
field of study we call psychology.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 16
 Major Perspective in Psychology
Early Schools of Psychology
Structuralism
• developed by Edward Bradford Titchener.
• Wilhelm Wundt, who established the first scientific
laboratory of psychology in Leipzig in 1879, and
believed that human mind could be scientifically
studied.
• Task of Psychology
– is to identify the basic elements of
consciousness (image, feelings & sensation)
– to find out the units or elements,which make up the
mind
• Methods: Introspection (looking in ward into our
consciousness) Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 17
Functionalism
• founded by William James (1848-1910)
which proposed that, the function of the
mind, not the structure.
Task of Psychology
is to investigate the function, or purpose,
of consciousness rather than its structure
psychological processes are adaptive.
They allow humans to survive and to adapt
successfully to their surroundings.
Method
questionnaires, mental tests and objective
descriptions of behavior
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 18
 Gestalt psychology
- Founders of this schools of thought are
 Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
Task of Psychology
mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole
pattern
Psychology as a study of the whole mind
Argued that the mind is not made up of combinations
of elements.
The mind should be thought of as a result of the whole
pattern of sensory activity and the relationships and
organizations within their pattern
Methods
are Naïve Introspection
Gashaw Tesfaand experimentation 19
(Assit. Prof.)
 Behaviorism
- Founder-John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Task of psychology
Behaviorists view psychology as a study of
observable and measurable behaviors.
Three important characteristics; conditioned
response, learned rather than unlearned behaviors,
and focus on animal behavior
Methods
- are Observation and Experimentation
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 20
 Psychoanalysis
• founded by a Viennese physician Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939).
Task of Psychology
 psychology studies about the components of the
unconscious part of the human mind.
The unconscious which is the subject matter of
psychoanalys is contains hidden wishes, passions, guilty
secrets, unspeakable yearnings, and conflict between
desire and duty.
Methods
- free association, dream interpretation, analysis of
slip of tongue, jokes, and Transference

The mind is like an iceberg in that only a small

part of itsGashaw
substance
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
is visible 21
 Modern Perspectives in Psychology
Psychodynamic perspective

 It has its origins in Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, but

many other psychodynamic theories exist.
 This perspective emphasizes the unconscious dynamics
within the individual such as inner forces, conflicts or
instinctual energy.
 The psychodynamic approach emphasizes:
 The influence of unconscious mental behavior on every day
behavior
 The role of childhood experiences in shaping adult
personality
 The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining human
behavior
• Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig below the surface of a
person's behavior to get into unconscious motives
• Psychodynamists think ofGashaw
themselves
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
as archaeologists of 22
 Behavioral Perspective
• It emphasizes the role learning experiences play in
shaping the behavior of an organism.
• It is concerned with how the environment affects
the person‘s actions.
• Behaviorists focus on environmental conditions(e.g.
rewards, and punishments) that maintain or
discourage specific behaviors.
• Also called the "black box“ approach in psychology
because it treats the mind as less useful in
understanding human behavior and focus on what
goes into and out of the box, but not on the
processes that take place inside
• This means, behaviorists are only interested in the
effects of the environment (input) on behavior
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 23
(output) but not in the process inside the box.
 Humanistic Perspective

 Human behavior is not determined either by

unconscious dynamics or the environment.
 Rather it emphasizes the uniqueness of human beings
and focuses on human values and subjective
experiences.
 This perspective places greater importance on the
individual‘s free will.
 The goal of humanistic psychology was helping
people to express themselves creatively and achieve
their full potential or self- actualization (developing
the human potentialGashaw
to its fullest).
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 24
 Cognitive Perspective
• It emphasizes what goes on in people's heads; how
people reason, remember, understand language, solve
problems, explain experiences and form beliefs.
• This perspective is concerned about the mental
processes.
• The most important contribution of this perspective has
been to show how people's thoughts and explanations
affect their actions, feelings, and choices.
• Techniques used to explore behavior from a cognitive
perspective include electrical recording of brain activity,
electrical stimulation and radioactive tracing of metabolic
activity in the nervous system.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 25
 Biological Perspective
• It focuses on studying how bodily events or functioning of
the body affects behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
• It holds that the brain and the various brain chemicals
affect psychological processes such as learning,
performance, perception of reality, the experience of
emotions, etc.
• This perspective underscores that biology and behavior
interact in a complex way; biology affecting behavior and
behavior in turn affecting biology.
• It also emphasizes the idea that we are physical beings who
evolved over along time and that genetic heritage can
predispose us to behaving in (Assit.
Gashaw Tesfa a certain
Prof.) way. 26
Socio-cultural Perspective
• It focuses on the social and cultural factors that
affects human behavior.
• Cultural psychologists also examine how cultural
rules and values (both explicit and unspoken)
affect people's development, behavior, and
feelings.
• This perspective holds that humans are both the
products and the producers of culture, and our
behavior always occurs in some cultural contexts.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 27
 Branches of Psychology

Psychology is a broad field, there are many specialization

under its umbrella

Developmental Psychology
 Studies how people develop overtime thorough the
process of maturation and learning.
 studies age related changes through the life span
 Aspects of Development( Physical, Cognitive, Social, etc)
 Stages of Development (Infancy, Babyhood, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, old age)
 It attempts to examine the major developmental
milestones that occur at different stages of development.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 28

 Cont…
Educational Psychology
• Concerned with the application of psychological
principles and theories in improving the
educational process including curriculum,
teaching, and administration of academic
programs.

Counselling Psychology
• Helps individuals with less severe problems
than those treated by clinical psychologists.
 assists people on issues of personal adjustment,
vocational and career planning, family life and
may work in schools, hospitals, clinics or offices
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 29
 Cont…
Personality Psychology

It focuses on the relatively enduring traits and
characteristics of individuals.

Study topics such as self-concept, aggression, moral
development, etc.

studies individual differences in personality and their
effects on behaviour

Industrial( Organizational) Psychology

 Studies human behaviour in the workplace and how
behaviour affects production
 Applies psychological principles in industries and
organizations to increase the productivity of that
organization. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 30
 Cont…
Social Psychology
It studies the role of social forces in
governing individual behaviour.
Examines the ways in which the
pattern of a person’s feeling, thinking
and acting is affected by others
Deals with people‘s social interactions,
relationships, social perception, and
attitudes.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 31
 Cont…
Cross-cultural Psychology
Examines the role of culture in understanding
behavior, thought, and emotion.
It compares the nature of psychological
processes in different cultures, with a special
interest in whether or not psychological
phenomena are universal or culture-specific.
Forensic psychology
Applies psychological principles to improve the
legal system (police, testimony,etc..).
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 32
 Cont…
Health Psychology
Applies psychological principles to the
prevention and treatment of physical
illness and diseases.
Clinical Psychology
Is a field that applies psychological
principles to the prevention,
diagnosis, and treatment of
psychological disorders.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 33
 Research Methods in Psychology

Definition of Terms
• Research: Is a scientific method of gathering and
testifying data by applying different methods and
making conclusion and prediction of the
phenomenon.
• Theory- is a statement which is generalized from
scientific study and which explains the
relationship among variables.
• It is an integrated set of principles helpful to
organize, explain and predict events.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 34
• Hypothesis : is any statement or assumption that
serves as a possible but tentative explanation of
certain observation.
- It is an educated guess that can be tested.
- It is a statement of cause and effect relationship.
- It is useful to guide a study.
Variables : are constructs(concepts) that vary or
change. There are two events or constructs. The
variation of one construct may be followed by the
variation of another construct.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 35

• Population is a group of subjects (universe) under
study.
For example, children under 5 year of age; primary
school children in Sidama Zone.

• Sample is a small portion of a population that is

expected to be representative of the population
(universe). Sample is better required than
population for different reasons

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 36

 Cont…
Scientific method- a process of testing
ideas through systematic observations,
experimentations, and statistical analysis.
Theory-is an integrated set of principles
about observed facts that is intended to
describe and explain some aspects of
experience.
Hypotheses-is a tentative proposition about
the relationship between two or more
variables or phenomena.
E.g. Males have high self-confidence in
making decisionsGashaw
thanTesfa (Assit.females.
Prof.) 37
 Major types of research methods
Descriptive research methods
 In this type of research, the researcher simply records
what she/he has systematically observed.
 Include naturalistic observation, case studies, and
surveys.
Correlational research methods
 Is are search method that measures the relationship
between two or more variables
Experimental Research
 It is are search method that allows researchers to study
the cause and effect relationship
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
between variables 38
1. Naturalistic Observation
• A researcher engages in careful observation of behavior
without intervening directly with the subjects.
• A research method in which various aspects of behavior
carefully observed in the setting where such behavior
naturally occurs.
• it allows researchers to study behavior under conditions
that are less artificial than in experiments.
2. Case Study
• is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
• is an intensive study of a person or group. Most case
studies combine long-term observations with diaries,
tests, and interviews.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 39
3. Survey
• use questionnaires or interviews to gather information
about specific aspects of participants’ background and
behavior.
• One of the most practical ways to gather data on the
attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of large numbers of
people is through surveys.
4. Longitudinal Studies
• It studies the same group of people at regular intervals
over a period of years to determine whether their behavior
and/or feelings have changed and if so, how.
5. Cross-Sectional Studies
• People studied from different age groups at same
time point.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 40
 6. Correlations
• studying the relationship between two variables such as
between weight and height, chewing chat and score, and
age and academic achievement.
• The correlation coefficient is a numerical index of the
degree of relationship between two variables. A correlation
coefficient indicates
(1) the direction (positive or negative) of the RXnship
(2) how strongly the two variables are related.
(1)
• A positive correlation indicates that two variables co-vary
in the same direction.
• A negative correlation indicates that two variables co-vary
in the opposite direction.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 41
(2)
• the size of the coefficient indicates the strength
of an association between two variables. The
coefficient can vary between 0 and 1.00 (if
positive) or between 0 and 1.00 (if negative).
• A coefficient near 0 indicates no relationship
between the variables.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 42

 7. Experimental Method
• allows researchers to detect cause-and-effect relationships.
• the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully
controlled conditions and observes whether any changes
occur in a second variable as a result.
• There are two types of variables: independent and
dependent.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 43

• The independent variable : is a condition or event that an
experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another
variable.
• The dependent variable: is the variable that is thought to
be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.
Example
1) the number of hours you study affects your performance
on an exam.
2) the effect of watching violence TV program on children
behavior.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 44

• In an experiment the investigator typically assembles two
groups of subjects who are treated differently with regard
to the independent variable. These two groups are
referred to as the experimental group and the control
group.
a) The experimental group consists of the subjects who
receive some special treatment in regard to the
independent variable.
b) The control group consists of similar subjects who do
not receive the special treatment given to the
experimental group.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 45

 Steps of scientific research
Step one- Defining the Problem
Noticing something attention catching in the
surrounding for which one would like to have an
explanation.
Step two-Formulating the Hypothesis
after having an observation on surroundings
(perceiving the problem),you might form an
educated guess about the explanation for your
observations, putting it into the form of a
statement that can be tested in someway.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 46
 Cont..
Step three-Testing the Hypothesis
 At this step, the researcher employs appropriate
research methods and collects ample data (information)
to accept or reject the proposed statement.
Step four- Drawing Conclusions
 This is the step in which the researcher attempts to
make generalizations or draw implications from tested
relationship
Step five-Reporting Results
 At this point, the researcher would want to write up
exactly whats he/he did, why she/he did, and what
she/he found. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 47
 Reading Assignment
• What were the chief tenets of structuralism and
functionalism?
• What did Freud have to say about the
unconscious and sexuality, and why were his
ideas so controversial?
• What was the main idea underlying behaviorism?
• How do clinical psychology and psychiatry differ?
• Why study psychology? Why is psychology
important for medicine?
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 48
See you next week…

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 49

 CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 50

 Appetizer
• Once upon a time, there were couples in a village. They had a horse. One
day they started a journey both of them sitting on the horse. When people
see that, they get upset and criticized the couples as unkind to animals.
Then, the husband sat on the horse leaving his wife walking on foot.
Looking at this, people started to criticize the husband as selfish and
disrespectful of his wife. Following the critics, the husband left the horse
for his wife and walked on foot. People started laughing at the husband
and labelled him as foolish. Finally, both the husband and his wife started
walking on foot leaving the horse free. As usual, people started joking at
the couples and considered them as stupid guys because they left the
horse free. 
• what do you understand from this short story? 
• Do people have same perception about what is right and wrong?
• In which scenario of the above story people‘s critics is right? How?

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 51

 Meanings of Sensation and Perception
Brainstorming questions
Have you heard of sayings like„
you watch but you don’t see;
you hear but you don’t listen;
you touch but you don’t grasp…

Which one do you think refers to

sensation and which one refers to
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 52
 Basic Terms
• Stimulus
• Response
• Sensation
• Transduction
• Perception
• Psychophysics

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 53

Sensation and perception

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 54

 Transduction
Communication between the brain & the rest of
the body (& between different regions of the
brain) occurs via neuron. We recently learned
how communication between neurons occurs
electrochemically (within neurons: electrical;
between neurons: chemical). So the brain’s
“language” is electrochemical!

All senses involve something called receptor cells.

Their job is to transduce (transform or even
“translate”) physical stimulation/physical energy
from the environment into electrochemical
messages that can be understood by the brain.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 55
 Sensation
• Process where by stimulation of receptor cells in
the sensory systems sends nerve impulses
(sudden desire, instinctive motive, or urge) to
the brain.
e.g. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a bitter
taste
• The starting of point of sensations is a stimulus.
A form of energy (such as light waves or sound
waves) that can affect sensory organs (such as
the eye or the ear).
Therefore,
it is the process that detects the stimulus from
one‘s body or from Gashaw
theTesfaenvironment.
(Assit. Prof.) 56
 Perception
• Process that organizes sensations into
meaningful patterns.
• Process by which the brain selects,
organizes, and interprets these sensations
• a meaning making process
• Or process where by the brain interprets
sensations, giving them order and meaning.
• Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is
largely a sensory process, but forming a
melody and detecting patterns and shapes
is largely a perceptual process.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 57
 The sensory laws

Sensory threshold
Is the minimum point of intensity(energy
or volume) a sound can be detected.
There are two laws of sensory threshold:
law of absolute threshold

law of difference threshold

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 58

 The absolute threshold
• The minimum a mount of stimulation a
person can detect
• As the minimum level of stimulation that can
be detected 50 percent of the time when a
stimulus is presented over and over again.
• Thus, if you were presented with a low
intensity sound 30 times and detected it 15
times, that level of intensity would be your
absolute threshold for that stimulus.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 59
 Sensation- Thresholds

100
Percentage
 Subliminal
of correct
75
 When stimuli are
detections
below one’s
50 absolute threshold
Subliminal for conscious
25 stimuli awareness

0
Low Absolute Medium
threshold

Intensity of stimulus
 Absolute thresholds

Vision
A single candle flame from 30 miles /48 km on a clear night

Hearing
The tick of a watch from 20 feet/6 meter in total quiet place

Smell
One drop of perfume in a 6-room apartment

Touch
The wing of a bee on the cheek, dropped from 1 cm

Taste
One teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons /7.7 liters of water

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 61

 Difference Threshold
 The minimum amount of change that can
be detected
 Or minimum change in stimulation that can
be detected 50 percent of the time by a
given person.
 Also, called Just Noticeable Difference( jnd)
 Smallest difference that can be detected when 2
stimuli are compared.
e.g., you would have to increase the intensity
of the sound from your tape recorder a
certain amount before you could detect a
change in its volume.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 62
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 63
 Sensory Adaptation
• if a stimulus remains constant in
intensity, you will gradually stop
noticing it
• tendency of our sensory receptors to
have decreasing responsiveness to
unchanging stimulus
• But, potentially important change in
your environment while ignoring
unchanging aspects of it.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 64
 Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of
constant stimulation.

Put a band aid on your arm and after awhile

you don’t sense it.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 65
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 66
 Attributes(characteristics ) of Sensation
Sensory Deprivation- is the absence of normal level of
sensory stimulation.

- Human brain requires a minimum amount of sensory stimulation

in order to function normally. If it is too low it is bad for the brain
to function properly.
- Eg. Low vision capacity. Relate to age,
- smell problem. In connection to accident etc.

Sensory Overload- is experiencing too much amount of

stimulus from the environment. This is also bad for the brain to
function properly.

- Generally too little stimulation ( sensory deprivation) and

too much stimulation ( sensory overload) can lead to
fatigue and mental confusion.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 67
 perception

• perception defined as the process of receiving,

selecting, organizing ,interpreting, and
reacting to sensory stimuli or data.
• perception mean perceiving i.e.(in other
words), giving meaning to the environment
around us.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 68

 Perception
Major characteristics of the
perceptual process:
 selectivity of perception
 form perception,
 depth perception,
 perceptual constancy, and
 perceptual illusion.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 69
 Selectivity of Perception:
Attention
• Sense organ is bombarded by many
stimuli….. perceive a few of them…..
ignoring the other unnecessary
stimuli…..ATTENTION
• Attention
– It is perceptual process that selects
certain inputs for inclusion in your
conscious experience, or awareness,
at any given time, ignoring others.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 70
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 71
 What Affects Attention
Intensity- the more intense( Possessing or displaying
a distinctive feature to a heightened degree)the stimulus
the more it’ll be attended. E.g. the brighter light is more
attended than the dull one.

Size- the larger the size of the stimulus the more we

give attention and the smaller the size we give less
attention.

 Contrast- what contrasts with the surrounding

environment attracts attention easily. E.g. if one stranger
and teacher are enter in the class, the students give more
attention to the stranger and
Gashaw less
Tesfa (Assit. attention for the teacher.
Prof.) 72
• Movement- something, which moves, is more likely to
attract attention than something stationary.
• Eg. Election campaign using moving car than in exhibition hall

• Motivation- largely our current level of satisfaction or

deprivation (neediness or wants)determines what we choose to
hear or watch. Eg. FM radio show or tv shows

• Personality and interest- individuals select the

stimulus and give attention if they are interested.
E.g. in the football game, a person may give attention to the
game his wife may give attention to the music in the stadium.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 73

 Internal( Psychological ) Factors
that affect Attention
1. Set or Expectancy
 refers to mental readiness to receive certain
kinds of sensory input
EX: A husband expecting an important phone
call is more likely to hear phone calls than a
wife who is concerned about her baby crying.
2. Motives or Needs
 People are more likely to be attracted to
environmental experiences ( events) in
which they are interested
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 74
 Form Perception
• The meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas
that are made perhaps out of meaningless
and discrete or pieces and bites of sensations
• Visual sensations, provide the raw materials that are to
be organized into meaningful patterns, shapes, forms,
and concepts or ideas or form perception.

• To perceive forms (meaningful shapes or patterns), you

need to distinguish a figure (an object) from its ground
(or its surrounding).
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 75
 Perception has organization and
structure

Everything we perceive has its own

structure and form. To make sense out
of what we perceive, we must know
where one thing begins and another
ends
This process of dividing up the world
occurs effortlessly (naturally) and
makes our perception more
meaningful Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 76
 Principles (laws) of perceptual
organization
The brain uses structures in order to give
pattern, shape and form to our visual
perception.
 It is based on these principles that perceptual
organization becomes possible.
The gestalt laws of organization are principles
that describe how we organize and construct
pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Gestalt psychologist said -the whole is more

than the sum of its parts.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 77
 Cont…

Figure-Ground Perception
• the perception of objects and forms of
everyday experience as standing out
from a background.
• This is a principle by which we organize
the perceptual field in to stimuli that
stand out (the figure) and those that
are left over ( the ground).

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 78

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 79
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 80
 Cont…
The principle of Closure
 This is a principle that states the brain tends
to fill in gaps in order to perceive complete
forms.
 People need to decipher(decode) less than
perfect images to make perceptions. To help us
do so, the brain tends to finish what is
unfinished, complete what is incomplete.
The principle of Proximity
 This principle states that things that are near
each other tend to be grouped together.
The closer objects or events are to one
another, the more likely they are to be
perceived as belonging together.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 81
 chapter 6

Form Perception:
Gestalt principles

Proximity
Things close to one another are grouped together

Closure
The brain tends to fill in gaps to perceive complete forms

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 82

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 83
 Cont…
The principle of Similarity
The principle of similarity states that
things that are alike in some way (for
example, in colour, shape or size) tend
to be perceived as belonging together.
Things that are alike are perceived
together

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 84

 Perception is Constant under
Changing
Sensory Information

perception does not change when

sensory information about stimuli changes.
Our perceptual hypothesis remains the
same when information we receive
about stimuli through the visual sense
organ change in colour, size or shape.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 85
 Categories of Perceptual
Constancy

1. Size Constancy
refers to the perception that the size
of objects remains constant even
though visual information change
with variations in distance.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 86

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 87
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 88
 Cont…

2. Shape Constancy
 states that we continue to perceive
objects as having a constant shape
even though the shape of the retinal
image changes when our point of
view changes.
Viewing angle or position
superficially changes the shape of an
object
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 89
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 90
 Cont...
3. Colour (Brightness) Constancy
Sometimes objects may take different
colour or brightness because of
variations in light reflected on them.
This principle states that the colour or
brightness of an object remains the
same even though the amount of light
reflected on the objects change.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 91
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 92
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 93
 Cont...

4. Location Constancy
The location or position of stationary
objects is always the same even when
our eyes tell us it is moving.
We perceive stationary objects as
remaining in the same place even
though the retinal image moves about as
we move our eyes, heads, and bodies.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 94
Location constancy refers to the relationship
between the viewer and the object. A
stationary object is perceived as remaining
stationary despite the retina sensing the
object changing as Gashaw
theTesfaviewer
(Assit. Prof.)
moves (due to 95
 Perception illusion
(An erroneous mental representation)
• Illusions are special perceptual experiences in
which information arising from “real” external
stimuli leads to an incorrect perception, or
false impression, of the object or event from
which the stimulation comes.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 96

 Auditory illusions
• Are false perceptions of a real sound or
outside stimulus.
• The listener hears either sounds which
are not present in the stimulus, or
sounds that should not be possible
given the circumstance on how they
were created

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 97

 Optical Illusions

• can use color, light and patterns to

create images that can be deceptive or
misleading to our brains.
• The information gathered by the eye is
processed by the brain, creating a
perception that in reality, does not
match the true image.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 98

 Reading Assignment
• Explain the implications of sensation and
perception in medical practice.
• Find an example of a perceptual illusion, it can
be related to optical, auditory, or any sensory
illusion. After sharing the illusion, you need to
explain the process of how our brains perceive
the stimuli.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 99

See you next week…

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 100

Chapter Three
Learning

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 101

 Brainstorming Questions
• What is the meaning of learning
to you?
• What are the elements of
learning?
• How do we learn?

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 102

 Discuss in Pair
• Almost all human behavior is learned.
Imagine if you suddenly lost all you had
ever learned. You would be unable to
read, write, or speak. You couldn’t feed
yourself, find your way home, and drive
a car, play a game, or “party.”

•What could you

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 103
 Discussion Points

• What are the characteristics of

learning?
• What does it take for learning to
take place effectively?
• What do you think are the factors
the affect your learning?
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 104
 “Learning is the eye of the mind”
“universal and distinctive characteristics of human beings is
their capacity to learn”
Learning
is a relatively permanent change in behavior which is a function of prior
experience or practice;
a relatively permanent change
change in behavior
depend on experience or practice

The learning is not directly observable but

manifests(understood or recognized) in the activities
of the individual. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 105
 Characteristics of learning
Learning is
- continuous modification of behavior throughout
life
- Pervasive(existing in or spreading through), it
reaches into all aspects of human life.
- involves the whole person, socially, emotionally &
intellectually.
- often a change in the organization of experiences.
- responsive to incentives
- an active process and purposeful
- depends on maturation, motivation and practice.
- multifaceted
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 106
 Principles of Learning
• Individuals learn best when they are physically,
mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
• Students learn best and retain information longer
when they have meaningful practice and exercise
• Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is
weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.
• Things learned first create a strong impression in the
mind that is difficult to erase.
• Things most recentlyGashaw
learned are best remembered.
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 107
 Cont…
• The principle of intensity implies that a
student will learn more from the real
thing than from a substitute.
• Individuals must have some abilities
and skills that may help them to learn.
• Things freely learned are best learned
- the greater the freedom enjoyed by
individuals, the higher the intellectual
and moral advancement.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 108
 Factors Influencing Learning
• Motivation
• Maturation
• Health condition of the learner
• Psychological wellbeing of the
learner
• Good working conditions
• Background experiences
• Length of the working period
• Massed and distributed learning
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 109
1. Motivation: The learner‘s motivation matters the
effectiveness of learning. The stronger and clearer the
motives for learning, the greater are the effort to learn.
When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes
enthusiastic
.

2. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for

learning a given task. Example, The child has to be mature
before she/he is able to learn.

3. Health condition of the learner: The learner should be in a

good health status to learn. Example- Sensory defects,
malnutrition, toxic(unpleasant, damaging, offensive) conditions
of the body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 110
4. Psychological wellbeing of the learner:
individual‘s psychological states like worries,
fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority
hinders learning. Whereas self-respect, self-
reliance(Personal independence) , and self-
confidence are necessary for effective learning.

5. Good working conditions – absence or

presence of fresh air, light, comfortable
surroundings, moderate temperature, absence
of distractions like noise and learning aids
determine learning effectiveness.
6. Background experiences: having background
experiences affect effectiveness of learning. All
related facts and understandings from a
previously learned course should be brought to
new learning. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 111
7. Length of the working period: Learning periods
should neither be too short nor too long. Long
learning time sets fatigue( loss of strength and
energy) and reduces effectiveness in learning.
Short learning time doesn‘t allow adequate
.
practice needed to master a learning task.

8. Massed and distributed learning: Learning that

spreads across time with reasonable time gaps
brings better results compared with crammed
learning that occurs at once or within short span
of time

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 112

 Theories of Learning
• Theories of learning attempt to explain the mechanism
of behavior involved in the learning process. Generally,
learning theories can be categorized as:

1. Behavioral Learning Theories

2. Cognitive Learning Theories
3. Social Learning Theory

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 113

 Behavioural Theory of Learning
(Behaviorist Learning Theories )

Behavioural theory of learning believes that learning occurs

as a result of stimulus-response associations.

Assumption
 learning as the product of the association between
stimulus conditions (S) and the responses (R).
 The learner has to do some thing (respond to a stimulus)
for learning to occur.
 Repetition of the stimulus-response ( S-R) connection
promotes learning
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 114
Behavioral theories emphasize
observable behaviors, seek laws to govern
all organisms, and provide explanations
which focus on consequences.
The consequences that follow the
response of the learner to a stimulus can
hinder or encourage learning
Learning is verified through observation

There are two major behavioural

theories of learning. They are known as
classical and operant Conditioning.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 115

Classical Conditioning Theory of Learning
founded by a Russian physiologist, Ivan
Pavlov((1849-1936).).
He studied the process of salivary secretion in
dog.
learning of involuntary emotional or physiological
responses
stimulus conditions and the associations formed
in the learning process.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 116

Definition
Classical conditioning refers a learning situation in
which a neutral/ conditioned stimulus gradually
gain the ability to elicit a response because of its
former paring with a natural/ unconditioned
stimulus
In the experiment, Pavlov identified three steps in
the process of salivary conditioning which can be
summarized as follows.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 117

 Classical conditioning focuses on the
learning of making involuntary emotional or
physiological responses to stimuli that
normally elicit(arouse) no response;
 Classical conditioning is a type of learning in
which a neutral stimulus comes to bring
about a response after it is paired with a
stimulus that naturally brings about that
response.
for example, fear, increased heartbeat,
salivation or sweating at the sight of a hyena.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 118
 Through the process of classical
conditioning, humans and animals can be
trained to act involuntarily to a stimulus
that previously had no effect - or a very
different effect - on them.
 The stimulus comes to elicit(appear),
modify the behaviour of the learners in
such a way as the responses originally
connected with a particular stimulus comes
to be aroused by a different stimulus.
 Three steps in the process of salivary
conditioning

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 119

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 120
 Cont…

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 121

 Elements of classical conditioning

• As we can see from the above procedure, classical conditioning as a paradigm involves four elements

Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Unconditioned stimulus is any event that elicits a natural response prior to conditioning. In the above
case meat is the unconditioned stimulus because it caused salivation, automatically before
conditioning took place.
Unconditioned response (UR)
Unconditioned response is the response to the natural unconditioned stimulus. The dog’s salivation
after receiving meat is the unconditioned response. Thus, unconditioned response is an
automatic, involuntary and unlearned response to a particular stimulus is called unconditioned
response
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned stimulus is the previously neutral stimulus that acquired the power to elicit a response
when it is associated with unconditioned stimulus. In the earlier experiment, the bell is a
conditioned stimulus since, it latter became capable to make the dog to salivate
Conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned response is the learned response that is evoked by the conditioned stimulus. The dog’s
salivation in response to sound of the bell (in the absence of meat) is a conditioned response thus
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 122
conditioning is said to be complete when the conditioned stimulus causes a conditioned response
 Example
Before Conditioning
Offensive odor in the hospital unwanted feeling by a
visitor

During Conditioning
Hospital + Offensive odors unwanted feeling
Several pairings of hospitals
+
Offensive odors in hospitals unwanted feeling

After Conditioning
Hospital unwanted feeling
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 123
 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition: is a process in which a conditioned stimulus

graduallyacquires(develop/get/produce/gain)the capacity
to elicit a conditioned response as the result of repeated
pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. It also refers to
initial learning of the CS gain power over the UCS to
produce conditioning.

2. Principle of Association/Contiguity: states that a stimulus

and response become connected if they occur close together
in time and space.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 124

A. Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a
stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular
response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus
begin to produce the same responses.
For example,
a dog conditioned to salivate to a dinner bell (CS) might also
salivate to a door bell, a telephone bell.
Stimulus discrimination is the process of distinguishing two
similar stimuli; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.
Example,
the dog salivates only in response to the dinner bell instead
of the doorbell or the telephone bell.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 125
B. Extinction and spontaneous recovery
In Pavlov ‘s procedure, if a CS is repeatedly
presented without presenting the UCS (meat),
the CR will diminish and eventually stop
occurring. This process is called extinction.
A dog that has learned to salivate to a dinner
bell (CS) will eventually stop doing so unless
presentations of the dinner bell are periodically
followed by presentations of the UCS (meat). But
extinction only inhibits(protect) the CR, it does
not eliminate it.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 126
Spontaneous recovery is the re-emergence
(reappearance) of an extinguished conditioned
response after a period of rest and with no
further conditioning.
For example,
suppose you produce extinction of the CR of
salivation by no longer presenting the dog with
meat after ringing the dinner bell. If you rang
the dinner bell a few days later, the dog would
again respond by salivating. In spontaneous
recovery, however, the CR is weaker and
extinguishes faster than it did originally.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 127
 Example
1. Visitors who feel discomfort in one hospital
subsequently go to other hospitals to see
relatives or friends without smelling offensive
odors, and then their discomfort and anxiety
about hospitals may be lessened after several
such pairings.
2. It is so difficult to give up unhealthy habits, and
addictive behaviors such as smoking,
alcoholism or drug abuse. A cured addict of
khat or alcohol may suddenly relapse to
chewing or consuming if he/she is continuously
exposed to khat or alcohol.
3. When listening to friends and relatives tell
about a hospital experience, it becomes
apparent that highly positive or negative
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 128
 Reflection

• Suppose a one-year old child is playing with a toy

near an electrical out-let. He sticks part of the toy
into the outlet. He gets shocked, becomes
frightened, and begins to cry. For several days after
that experience, he shows fear when his mother
gives him the toy and he refuses to play with it.
What are the UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Show in diagram
there association into three stages of processes?
a) UCS___________________________________
b) UCR___________________________________
c) CS____________________________________
d) CR___________________________________
Could you please explain of something you learned
through classical conditioning?
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 129
 Operant Conditioning Theory of Learning
developed by an American psychologist, B. F. Skinner.
Assumptions
• learning in which a voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened, depending on its
favorable or unfavorable consequences
• Environmental consequences is at the heart
of Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental
Conditioning)
• Operation or actions which an organism has to
carry out
• Behavior can be explained by external causes of
an action and the action‘s consequences.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 130
- Operant conditioning theory of learning is
concerned with voluntary and higher learning
rather than reflexive or involuntary behavior.
- The term operant conditioning refers to the fact
that the learner must operate, or perform a certain
behavior, before receiving a reward or punishment.
- Thus, by definition, operant conditioning is a
type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement, or
diminished if followed by punishment.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 131
 Examples
• Example - 1. Working industriously can bring about a raise
in salary or bonus.

• Example - 2. Studying hard in college results in good

academic grades.

• Example - 3. A patient moans and groans as he attempts

to get up and walk for the first time after an operation.
Praise and encouragement for his/her efforts will improve
the chances that he/she will continue struggling toward
independence.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 132
Skinner’s Experiment

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 133

- Skinner designed the Skinner box (Operant
Chamber). An operant chamber is a simple
box with a devise at one end that can be
worked by the animal (rat, pigeon) in the
box. According to the experiment, for the rats
the devise is a lever. The lever is a switch
that activates, when positive reinforcement is
being used, a food delivery or water delivery
mechanism. Thus, positive reinforcement is
contingent(dependent) upon pressing a lever.
Since this response is positively reinforced, it
increases the frequency of pressing the lever.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 134

 Basic steps followed by Skinner in operant
conditioning
1. A hungry animal (a cat, a rat, a pigeon) is placed in a
laboratory setting (example - Skinner box)
2. The animal will wander in the box, exploring its environment
in a random way.
3. The animal will press a lever by chance, which enables it to
receive food from the food container.
4. The first time the response occurred, the animal will not learn
the connection between lever pressing and the stimulus
(food)
5. As the frequency of lever pressing increases, the animal
learns that the receipt of food is dependent on lever pressing
behavior.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 135
 In Skinner‘s Analysis,
• A response (operant) can lead to three
types of consequences: such as
A. A neutral consequence
B. A reinforcement or
C. Punishment
A. A neutral Consequence that does not alter the
response.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 136

 Reinforcement
• A reinforcement that strengthens the response or makes it
more likely to recur.
• A reinforce is any event that increases the probability that the
behavior that precedes it will be repeated.
• There are two basic types of reinforces or reinforcing stimuli:
• Primary reinforces (naturally reinforcing because they
satisfy biological needs & strengthen a behavior without
prior learning)
• Secondary reinforces (reinforce behavior because of
their prior association with primary reinforcing stimuli).
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 137
 Cont…
• Both primary and secondary reinforcers can be
positive or negative.
Positive reinforcement
- is the process whereby presentation of a stimulus
makes behavior more likely to occur again.
Negative reinforcement
- is the process whereby termination of an aversive
stimulus makes behavior more likely to occur.
- The basic principle of negative reinforcement is
that eliminating something aversive can itself be a
reinforcer or a reward.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 138
 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
- When a response is first acquired(gained), learning is usually
most rapid if the response is reinforced each time it occurs.
Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement
- which involves reinforcing only some responses, not all of
them.
- response has become reliable, it will be more resistant to
extinction if it is rewarded partially
- There are four types of intermittent schedules.
1. Fixed-ratio schedules
2. Variable-Ratio Schedule
3. Fixed Interval Schedule
4. Variable Interval Schedule
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 139
 Ratio Schedules
Fixed-Ratio Schedules Variable-Ratio Schedule
• occurs after a fixed number • occurs after some average
of responses number of responses
• produce high rate of • produces extremely high
responding steady rates of responding
• performance sometimes • responses are more
drops off just after resistant to extinction
reinforcement
• It is effective for motivating
a great amount of work
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 140
 Interval Schedule
Fixed Interval Schedule Variable Interval Schedule
• reinforcement occurs • reinforcement occurs
only if a fixed amount of only if a variable
time has passed since amount of time has
the previous reinforcer. passed since the
previous reinforcer.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 141

 Examples
1. A man is paid after completing a certain
amount of work.
2. Gambling games.
3. Payment of salary on 1st of every month.
4. Administration of quiz/test on every Monday of
the class.
5. Fishing & Dialing a phone
6. Lowering the volume of the radio when you study
prevents attention distraction.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 142
 Punishment
• is a stimulus that weakens the response or makes it less
likely to recur.
• Punishers can be any aversive (unpleasant) stimuli that
weaken responses or make them unlikely to recur.
• Immediacy, consistency and intensity matter are
important for effectiveness of punishment.
• Like reinforcers, punishers can also be
• Primary punishers (Pain and extreme heat or cold
are inherently punishing
• Secondary punishers (criticism, demerits/faults/,
catcalls, scolding,Gashaw
fines, and
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) bad grades) 143
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 144
 Shaping
- is an operant conditioning procedure in which
successive approximations of a desired response
are reinforced.
- In shaping you start by reinforcing a tendency in
the right direction. Then you gradually require
responses that are more and more similar to the
final desired response.
- The responses that you reinforce on the way to
the final one are called successive
approximations. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 145
 Social Learning Theory (Observational
Learning Theory)
• Developed by Albert Bandura
• Which is learning by watching the behavior of another person,
or model.
• Learning rely on a social phenomenon—it is often referred to as
a social cognitive approach to learning
• Emphasis on interaction of behavior, environment, and person
(cognitive) factors as determinants of learning
• Three forms of reinforcement that can encourage observational
learning
– direct reinforcement
– vicarious reinforcement
– Self-reinforcement
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 146
 Cont…
Direct Reinforcement
• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model and
receive direct reinforcement.
Vicarious Reinforcement
• When the observer may reproduce the behaviors of the model but
the reinforcement need not be direct - it may be vicarious
reinforcement as well.
• the observer may simply see others reinforced for a particular
behavior and then increase his or her production of that behavior.
Self-Reinforcement
- Or controlling your reinforcers.
- Important for improve, value and enjoy their growing competence.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 147

 Four Conditions modeling someone
behavior
Attention
- the person must first pay attention to the
model.
Retention
- the observer must be able to remember the
behavior that has been observed (rehearsal).
Motor reproduction
- the ability to replicate the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated.
Motivation
- learners must want to demonstrate what they
have learned. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 148
 Reading Assignment

- Do video houses open at every corner of the city

led teenagers to be delinquent(neglectful) in our
society?

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 149

 Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive processes are thus the mental
processes involved in knowing about the world:-
as such they are important in perception,
attention, thinking, problem solving, and memory.
• Cognitive learning may take two forms:

• Latent learning

• Insight learning (gestalt learning or

perceptual learning)
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 150
 Latent Learning

• Latent‘ means hidden

• Is learning that occurs but is not evident in
behavior until later, when conditions for its
appearance are favorable.
• It occur without reinforcement of particular
responses and seems to involve changes in the way
information is processed.
• learning that is not immediately expressed.
• A great deal of human learning also remains latent
until circumstances allow or require it to be
expressed. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 151
• Latent learning is the process of
subconsciously retaining
information without motivation or
reinforcements.

• You aren’t consciously thinking

about the consequences of what
you are learning while you are
learning it.
 E.g. observe your parents time and
time again as they tended to their
garden.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 152
 Insight Learning
• It is a cognitive process whereby we
reorganize our perception of a problem.
• In a typical insight situation where a problem
is posed, a period follows during which no
apparent progress is made, and then the
solution comes suddenly.
• Human beings who solve a problem
insightfully usually experience a good feeling
called an 'aha' experience.
• Sometimes, for example, people even wake up
from sleep with a solution to a problem that
they had not been able to solve during the
day. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 153
 Insight learning is a process that leads
to a sudden realization regarding a
problem. Often, the learner has tried
to understand the problem, but steps
away before the change in perception
occurs.

 Learners aim to understand the

relationships between the pieces of
the puzzle. They use patterns,
organization, and past knowledge to
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 154
 CHAPTER FOUR

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Brain storming Question
• What is the meaning of memory?
• What is the function of memory?
• What are the stage of memory model
proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
• Why do we call STM as a working memory?
• What is forgetting?
• How forgetting occur or what causes
forgetting? Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 155
 Meaning and Processes of Memory
• It is the retention of information/what is
learned earlier over time.
• It is the way in which we record the past for
later use in the present.
• Memory is a blanket label for a large
number of processes that form the bridges
between our past and our present.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 156

 Processes of Memory
• It is the mental activities we perform to put information
into memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later.
• This involves three basic steps:
a) Encoding
b) Storage
c) Retrieval
a) Encoding
- the term encoding refers to the form (i.e. the code) in
which an item of information is to be placed in
memory.
- the process by which information is initially recorded
in a form usable to memory.
- In encoding we transform a sensory input into a
form or a memory code that can be further
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 157
processed.
 Cont…

b) Storage
• To be remembered the encoded experience must leave
some record in the nervous system (the memory
trace); it must be squirreled away and held in some
more or less enduring form for later use.
• Storage is the persistence of information in memory.
c) Retrieval
- is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up
a particular memory trace from among all the others we
have stored.
- In retrieval, material in memory storage is located,
brought into awareness and used.

Memory is the process by which information is encoded (phase

1), stored (phase 2) and Gashaw
laterTesfaretrieved
(Assit. Prof.) (phase 3). 158
 Stages/Structure of Memory
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), memory has
three structures:
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
2. Short-Term Memory
3. Long Term Memory
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
• It is the entry way to memory (first information
storage area).
• It acts as a holding bin, retaining information until
we can select items for attention.
• It gives us a brief time to decide whether
information is extraneous or important.
• It can hold virtually all the information reaching
our senses for a brief time.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 159
 Cont…
• For instance,
– Visual images (Iconic memory) remain in
the visual system for a maximum of one
second.
– Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain
in the auditory system for a slightly longer
time, by most estimates up to two second
or so.

• Information is accurate representation of the

environmental information but unprocessed.
• However, some of the information that has
got attention and Gashaw
recognition
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
pass on short-
160
 Short-Term Memory
• It holds the contents of our attention.
• It consist memories of the by-products or end results
of perceptual analysis.
• Also called working memory, immediate memory, active
memory, and primary memory.
• It has four characteristics:
– It is active (workspace to process new information )there
is consciously processing, examining, or manipulating
information
– Rapid accessibility: Information is readily available for
use
– Preserves the temporal sequence of information:
maintain the information in sequential manner for a
temporary period of time
– Limited capacity: the magic number seven plus or
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 161
minus
 Cont…
Chunking
- grouping or packing of information into higher
order units that can be remembered as single units.
- It expands working memory by making large
amounts of information more manageable.
- The real capacity of short-term memory, therefore,
is not a few bits of information but a few chunks.

• STM memory holds information received from SM

for up to about 30 seconds by most estimates.
• It is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by
rehearsal- the conscious repetition of information.
• Material in STM is easily displaced unless we do
something to keep itGashaw
there.
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 162
 Long Term Memory

• It is a memory system used for the relatively

permanent storage of meaningful
information.
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical
limits.
• The vast amount of information stored in LTM
enables us to learn, get around in the
environment, and build a sense of identity and
personal history.
• LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It
may last for days, months, years, or even a
lifetime. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 163
 Sub Systems of LTM
• Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of
information such as specific facts or events that can be verbally
communicated. Divided into two:
– Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words,
concepts and our ability to do math. They are internal
representations of the world, independent of any particular context.
– Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from
personal experience. They are internal representations of personally
experienced events.
• Non-declarative/ implicit memory- behavior is affected by prior
experience without that experience being consciously recollected.
One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural
memory. It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills: Knowing
how to comb your hair, use a pencil, or swim.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 164

 Serial Position Effect
• The three-box model of memory is often
invoked to explain interesting phenomenon
called the serial position effect.
• If you are shown a list of items and are then
asked immediately to recall them, your
retention of any particular item will depend on
its position in the list.
• That is, recall will be best for items at the
beginning of the list (the primacy effect) and
at the end of the list (the recency effect).
• When retention of all the items is plotted, the
result will be a U-shaped curve.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 165
 Factors Affecting Memory
- Ability to retain: good memory traces left in the brain
by past experiences.
- Good health: good health can retain the learnt material
better
- Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better
than the aged.
- Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember
complex material.
- Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for
better retention
- Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better
memory
- Interest: will learn and retain better.
- Over learning: over learning will lead to better memory.
- Speed of learning: Gashaw
Quicker learning leads to better 166
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
 Forgetting

• The apparent loss of information already

encoded and stored in the long-term memory.
• The first attempts to study forgetting were
made by German psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus (1885/1913).
• There is almost always a strong initial decline
in memory, followed by a more gradual drop
over time.
• Furthermore, relearning of previously
mastered material is almost always faster
than starting fromGashaw
a scratch
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 167
 Theories of Forgetting
• Psychologists have proposed five
mechanisms to account for forgetting:

1) The Decay Theory

2) Replacement of old memories by new
ones
3) Interference
4) Motivated forgetting
5) Cue dependent forgetting

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 168

 Cont…
The Decay Theory
• memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not
accessed now and then.
• In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left
behind, because of the passage of time.
Interference Theory
• It occurs because similar items of information interfere
with one another in either storage or retrieval.
• There are two kinds of interference :
– In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes
with recall of newer material.
– If new information interferes with the ability to remember old
information the interference is called Retroactive Interference.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 169
 Cont…
New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
- This theory holds that new information entering memory
can wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio
or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.
Motivated Forgetting
- Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they
block from consciousness those memories that are too
threatening or painful to live with, and he called this self-
protective process Repression.
Cue Dependent Forgetting
• When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have lost
the call number for an entry in the mind‘s library.
• In long-term memory, this type of memory failure may be the
most common type of all. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 170
 Improving Memory
• Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember
because we never encoded the information in the first place.
• Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate
the encoding of information, the more memorable it will be
• Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it
is to link up with information already in long-term memory.
• Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study
breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce
interference.
• Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already
know it- is one of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remember it.
• Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing
thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea
of how you are doing.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 171
 Critical Questions
• What were the main assumptions of the Atkinson-
Shiffrin model (1971)? How did they describe the
process of memory?
• According to Baddeley (2001), what the four main
components of working memory and Explain it?
• The text states that forgetting is due to both decay
and interference. Do you feel like one might play a
bigger role than the other? Why?
• According to theories of independent memory
systems, what are the various memory systems
that are distinguished primarily by the types of
information they handle and explain it?
• What do synaptic transmission and hormonal
fluctuations have toGashaw
doTesfa
with memory?
(Assit. Prof.) 172
 Chapter Five
Motivation And Emotion

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 173

 Brainstorming
 Why do some people run after money and some
refuse even the most attractive job offers?
 Why do some people leave their country for
earning money and some are contented and
happy with whatever is available to them at
home?
 Why people become doctors, accountants,
engineers, social workers, pilots, army men etc?
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 174
 Definition and Types of Motivation
• It is a factor by which activities are started, directed
and continued so that physical or psychological
needs or wants are met.
• The word itself comes from the Latin word ‘Mover‘,
which means -to move.
• Motivation is what -moves people to do the things
they do.
Types of motivation.
– Intrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in
which a person acts because the act itself is
rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.
– Extrinsic motivation is a type of motivation in
which individuals act because the action leads to an
outcome that is external
Gashaw Tesfato
(Assit.a person.
Prof.) 175
 Approaches to Motivation
• The sources of motivation are different according to
the different theories of motivation.
• There are many causes of behaviour. People perform
behaviour for a number of reasons.
• Psychologists have been studying the causes of
behaviours and have developed various theories that
explain the why of these behaviours
• Some of these theories are
• Instinct approaches
• Drive-reduction approaches
• Arousal approaches
• Incentive approaches
• Cognitive approaches
• Humanistic approaches
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 176
 Instinct Approaches to
Motivation
• This theory states that motivation is the result of
an inborn, biologically determined pattern of
behavior.
• According to this approach, people and animals
are born with programmed sets of behavior
essential to their survival.
• Motivation is evolutionarily programmed through
inborn instinctual behavior patterns.
• According to this instinct theory, in humans, the
instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual
behavior, and the instinct for territorial
protection may be related to aggressive
behavior. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 177
 Drive-Reduction Approaches
• This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.
• A need is a requirement of some material (such as food
or water) that is essential for the survival of the
organism.
• When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological
tension as well as physical arousal to fulfill the need and
reduce the tension. This tension is called drive.
• It proposes just this connection between internal
psychological states and outward behavior.
• In this theory, there are two kinds of drives:
– Primary drives (biological needs)are those that involve
survival needs of the body such as hunger and thirst,
– Secondary drives (acquired drives) are those that are
learned through experience or conditioning, such as the
need for money, social approval.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 178
 Cont…

- Behavior is motivated by desires to reduce

internal tension caused by unmet biological
needs, such as hunger or thirst.
- Internal drives “push” us to behave in
certain ways.
- Robert Woodworth & Clark Hull: Drives are
triggered by internal mechanisms of
homeostasis Internal state of balance.
- Limitations: All behaviors are not always
motivated purely by physiological needs.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 179
 Arousal Approaches
• Explain behavior in which the goal is to maintain
or increase excitement.
• People take certain actions to either decrease or
increase levels of arousal.
• People are motivated to maintain an optimal level
of arousal
• Each person tries to maintain a certain level of
stimulation and activity.
• As with the drive-reduction model, this approach
suggests that if our stimulation and activity levels
become too high, we try to reduce them.
• But, in contrast to the drive-reduction perspective,
the arousal approach also suggests that if levels of
stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to180
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
 Incentive Approaches
• suggest that motivation stems from the desire to attain
external rewards.
• The desirable properties of external stimuli: account for a
person‘s motivation.
• Embedded in behavioral learning concepts as association
and reinforcement.
• Many psychologists believe that the internal drives proposed
by drive-reduction theory work in a cycle with the external
incentives of incentive theory to ‘push’ and ‘pull’ behavior,
respectively.
• Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy our
underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-reduction
theory), we are drawn to food that appears very appetizing
(the pull of incentive theory).
• Rather than contradicting each other, then, drives and
incentives may work together in motivating
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) behavior. 181
 Cognitive Approaches
• Suggest that motivation is a result of people‘s thoughts,
beliefs, expectations, and goals.
• Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference
between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity
for our enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete
reward that it will bring us.
• In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do
something for money, a grade, or some other actual,
concrete reward.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 182

 Humanistic approaches to motivation
• Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

• People have strong cognitive reasons to perform various

actions.
• Motivation to realize their highest personal potential.

• He said that needs at the lowest level of the hierarchy must be

at least partially satisfied before people can be motivated by
the ones at higher levels.
• Maslow‘s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom
to the top are as follows:Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 183
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 184
 Conflict of Motives and Frustration
• Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of
the decision, people usually face difficulty choosing among
the motives.
• These are just a few of the motives that may shape a trivial
decision.
• When the decision is more important, the number and
strength of motivational pushes and pulls are often greater,
creating far more internal conflict and indecision.
• refers to negative emotional state (depression, anger,
anxiety, etc) that develop when a person is unable to
make a choice between two or more alternatives.
• There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.
• Approach-approach conflicts
• Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• Approach-avoidance conflicts
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 185
• Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
 Cont…
Approach-approach conflicts
- exist when we must choose only one of the
two desirable activities.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
- arise when we must select one of two
undesirable alternatives.
Approach-avoidance conflicts
- happen when a particular event or activity
has both attractive and unattractive features
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
- exist when two or more alternatives each
have both positive and negative features. 186
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
 Cont…
• Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One
offers a high salary with a well-known company but
requires long working hours and relocation to a
miserable climate. The other boasts advancement
opportunities, fringe benefits, and a better climate,
but it doesn‘t pay as much and involves an
unpredictable work schedule.
• An individual may be torn between the idea of going
to a political rally or a movie which he likes to do
equally.
• Such conflicts are capsuled in the saying ‘’ caught
between the devil and the deep blue sea ‘’
• The closer you are to something appealing, the
stronger your desire to approach it, the closer you
are to something unpleasant, the stronger your
desire to flee. Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 187
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 188
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 189
 Emotions
Definition of Emotion
- Latin ”Emovere"  “To excite, stir up or agitate.”
- It refers to a strong feeling about something.
- the ‘feeling’ aspect of consciousness,
characterized by certain physical arousal, certain
behavior that reveals the feeling to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of feelings.
- Emotions are feelings such as happiness, despair,
and sorrow that generally have both physiological
and cognitive elements influencing behavior.
- While motives are internally caused, emotions are
responses to an external stimulus.

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 190

 Three Components of Emotion
The physiology of emotion
- when a person experiences an emotion, there is
physical arousal created by the sympathetic
nervous system.
- Bodily arousal: Increased heart rate, blood pressure,
outward blood flow, activity of the stomach and
gastro intestinal system, hormonal increase,
respiration, etc.
- ANS: Consists of two parts:
o Sympathetic Nervous System: Activated in response
to external threats and arouses the body for action.
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: Supports activities
that maintain the body to restore energy.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 191
• It calms down the body to maintain energy by
 Cont…
The behavior of emotion
- tells us how people behave in the grip of an
emotion.
- Characteristic overt expressions of emotions.
- There are facial expressions, tone of voice, touching,
posture, Body gestures, body movements, and
actions that indicate to others how a person feels.
Subjective experience or labeling emotion
- it involves interpreting the subjective feeling by
giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness,
sadness, shame, interest, surprise and so on.
- Subjective conscious experience and interpretation
of emotions.
- The thoughts, beliefs & expectations determining
the type and intensity of
Gashaw Tesfathe emotional response. 192
(Assit. Prof.)
 Theories of Emotions
- Major theories of emotion are grouped
into three:
oPhysiological: Bodily responses
are responsible for emotions.
oNeurological: Brain activity leads
to emotional responses.
oCognitive: Mental processes play
an essential role in formation of
emotions.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 193
 Theories of Emotion
James- Lang Theory of Emotion
- This theory of emotion is based on the work
of William James & Carl Lang (1885).
- In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for
example, the large snarling dog) produces a
physiological reaction. This reaction, which is
the arousal of the -fight-or-flight‖ sympathetic
nervous system (wanting to run), produces
bodily sensations such as increased heart
rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing.
- James and Lang believed that physical
arousal led to the labeling of the emotion
(fear). Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 194
 Cont…

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

- Developed by Physiologists Walter Cannon and (1927)
and Philip Bard (1934) .
- theorized that the emotion and the physiological
arousal occur more or less at the same time.
- Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal mechanisms,
did not feel that the physical changes aroused by
different emotions were distinct enough to allow them
to be perceived as different emotions.
• Bard expanded on this idea by stating that the sensory
information that comes into the brain is sent
simultaneously (by the thalamus) to both the cortex
and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system. The
fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore,
experienced at the same time-not
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) one after the other.195
 Cont…
Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal
Theory
• They proposed that two things have to
happen before emotion occurs: the physical
arousal and labeling of the arousal base on
cues from the surrounding environment.
Pounding
• These two things happenheart
at the same time,
Sight of Fear
resulting
oncoming in the labeling
(arousal)of the emotion.
(emotion)
car
(perception of
stimulus)

Cognitive
label

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 196

“I’m afraid”
 Sight of Pounding Fear
oncoming heart (emotion)
car (arousal)
(perception of
stimulus)

Pounding
Sight of heart
oncoming (arousal)
car
(perception of
stimulus)

Fear
(emotion)

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 197

CHAPTER SIX
PERSONALITY

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 198

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 199
 Meaning of Personality
• Derived from Latin word “PERSONA”, theatrical
masks worn by Greek actors.
• The unique pattern of enduring thoughts,
feelings, and actions that characterize a person.
• Terms:

» Character (moral or ethical behavior)

» Temperament (enduring characteristics)

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 200

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 201
 Theories of Personality
Three major theories of personality
The psychoanalytic theory of personality

The trait theory of personality

Humanistic theory of personality

- Each of these perspectives on personality

attempts to describe different patterns in
personality, including how these patterns form and
how people differ onGashaw
anTesfaindividual
(Assit. Prof.)
level. 202
 Psychoanalytic Theory
• By the Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud.
Assumption
– personality is formed within ourselves, arising from
basic inborn needs, drives, and characteristics.
– He argued that people are in constant conflict
between their biological urges (drives) and the need
to tame them.
– focuses on the unconscious intra-psychic
dynamics
– focuses in the importance and primacy of the first
five years of life (early childhood influences).
– a result of conflict between different personality
systems or structures
– an interaction between nature (innate instincts) and
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 203
nurture (parental influences).
 Personality Structures
» Id
» Ego
» Superego
Assumption
• Which serves a different function and
develops at different times
• Interaction: one another determines the
personality of an individual.
• Any actions we take or problems we have
results from the interactions or degree of
balance among these systems.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 204
 Ego: The Executive
Id: If It Feels Good, Do It Director
• First and most primitive • Second part of
part (infant/at birth) personality
• The Id is a Latin word that
means “it”
• Latin word for “I”,
• Unconscious amoral part of • Mostly conscious and
the personality is far more rational,
• Libido: instinctual energy logical and cunning
• Guided by pleasure than the id
principle (immediate
• Guided by reality
satisfaction of needs).
• Containing all of the basic
principles (balance
biological drives; hunger, between libido &
thirst, sex, aggression reality)
• It is oblivious to rules and • Serves as a referee or
regulations mediator
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 205
Superego: The Moral
Watchdog
• The third and final part of the personality
• Latin word, meaning “over the self”
• Guided by moral principles
• Includes all the moral codes (rules, customs, and
expectations) of society
•It aspires for and expects the individual to be
perfect.
• Ego-ideal is a kind of measuring device
(correct and acceptable behavior)
• Conscience -that makes people
pride/satisfaction/mental peace when they do
the right thing and guilt/shame/self-blame, or
moral anxiety when they
Gashaw Tesfa do the wrong thing.206
(Assit. Prof.)
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 207
 Defense Mechanisms
• For Freud, our personality is the outcome of the continual
battle for dominance among the id, the ego, and the
superego.
• This constant conflict between them is managed by
psychological defense mechanisms.
– unconscious tactics that either prevent threatening
material from surfacing or disguise it when it does.
– refer to methods used by the ego to prevent anxiety
or threatening thoughts .
– Are useful to reduce anxiety and make us feel normal
again.
– They only become harmful if or when they are used
excessively.
– In order to justify one’s action which is wrong in the
eyes of the superego,Gashaw the ego
Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) has to deny, distort
208or
 Cont…
Repression
– banishing threatening thoughts, feelings,
and memories into the unconscious mind.
Denial
– refusal to recognize or acknowledge a
threatening situation.
Regression
– involves reverting to immature behaviors
that have relieved anxiety in the past.
Rationalization
– giving socially acceptable reasons for
one's inappropriate behavior.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 209
 Cont…
Displacement
– involves expressing feelings toward a person
who is less threatening than the person
who is the true target of those feelings.
Projection
– involves attributing one's undesirable
feelings to other people.
Reaction formation
– involves a tendency to act in a manner
opposite to one's true feelings.
Sublimation
– involves expressing sexual or aggressive
behavior through indirect,
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) socially 210
• After cheating someone in a business
transaction, you might reduce your guilt by
rationalizing that “everyone does it.”
• If you forget a dental appointment or the
name of someone you don’t like.
• If lusting for a co-worker makes you feel guilty,
you might attribute any latent sexual tension
between the two of you to the other person’s
desire to seduce you.
• If your boss gives you a hard time at work and
you come home and slam the door, kick the
dog, and scream at your spouse, you’re
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 211
• A fired executive having difficulty finding a new job
might start making ridiculous statements about his
incomparable talents and achievements.
• A student watches TV instead of studying, saying
that “additional study behavior wouldn’t do any
good anyway.”
• After parental scolding, a young girl takes her anger
out on her little brother.
• A woman who dislikes her boss thinks she likes her
boss but feels that the boss doesn’t like her.
• A traumatized soldier has no recollection of the
details of a close brush with death.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 212
 The Trait Theory of Personality
• It is a combination of stable internal
characteristics that people display consistently
over time and across situations.
Assumptions
– Personality traits are relatively stable, across
situations, and therefore predictable, over
time.
– People differ in how much of a particular
personality trait they possess; no two people are
exactly alike on all traits.
– The result is an endless variety of unique
personalities.
– Personality is biologically based
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 213
 The Big five Theory
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa
is also known as the five factor
model
is known as OCEAN for short

Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 214

 Cont…
Openness
– a person‘s willingness to try new things and be
open to new experiences.
– curiosity , flexibility and imaginative tendency
Conscientiousness
– a person‘s organization and motivation
– are careful about being in places on time and
careful with belongings as well.
– dependability and responsibility of the individual
Extraversion
– all people could be divided into two personality
types: extraverts and introverts (Carl Jung).
– Extraverts are outgoing , sociable, fun-loving,
whereas introverts are more solitary and dislike
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 215
 Cont…
Agreeableness
– refers to the basic emotional style of a
person, who may be easygoing, friendly,
helpful, cooperative and pleasant (at the
high end of the scale) or grumpy, crabby,
hostile, self centered and hard to get along
with (at the low end).
Neuroticism
– refers to emotional instability or stability.
– People who are excessively worried,
overanxious and moody would score high on
this dimension, whereas those who are more
even-tempered and calm could score low. 216
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.)
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 217
 Humanistic theory of
personality
( Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)
 Emphasize people‘s inherent goodness
and their tendency to move toward
higher levels of functioning instead of
seeing people as controlled by the
unconscious.
 Assume people have conscious, self-
motivated ability to change and
improve, along with people‘s unique
creative impulses
 is regarded as the third force in
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 218
 Carl Rogers and Self-Concept
Assumption
– human beings are always striving to fulfill their innate
capacities and capabilities and to become everything
that their genetic potential will allow them to
become.
– This striving for fulfillment is called self-actualizing
tendency.
– An important tool in human self-actualization is the
development of an image of oneself or the self-
concept.
– The self-concept is based on what people are told by
others and how the sense of self is reflected in the
words and actions of important people in one‘s life,
such as parents, siblings, coworkers, friends, and
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 219
teachers.
 Cont…
 The self concept is an important element in this
theory
 The real self
• One‘s actual perception of characteristics,
traits, and abilities that form the basis of
the striving for self-actualization
 The ideal self
 The perception of what one should be or
would like to be
 Rogers believed that when the real self and the
ideal self are very close or similar to each other,
people feel competent and capable. Otherwise
anxiety and neurotic behavior can be the result.
Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 220
 Conditional and Unconditional
Positive Regard

• Conditional positive regard?

• Unconditional positive regard ?

• How do you explain the importance of

positive regard for personality
development?

– positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and

respect that comes from the significant others
in people‘s experience.
– Positive is vital to people‘s ability to cope with
stress and to strive
Gashawto
Tesfa achieve
(Assit. Prof.) self-actualization.
221
 Cont…

• Rogers believed that unconditioned positive regard,

or love, affection and respect with no strings
attached, is necessary for people to be able to
explore fully all that they can achieve and
become.
• Unfortunately, some parents, spouses, and friends
give conditional positive regard, which is love,
affection, respect and warmth that depend, or seem
to depend, on doing what those people want.
• For Rogers, a person who is in the process of self-
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Gashaw Tesfa (Assit. Prof.) 223