THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

The Biological Level of Analysis (BLOA)

1. Principles and research methods of the BLOA

A. Principles of the BLOA

B. Research methods at the BLOA
C. Ethics and research methods at the BLOA
2. Physiology and behaviour
A. Localization of brain function and brain plasticity (neuroplasticity)
B. Neurotransmission
C. Hormones and human behaviour
D. Environment and physiological processes
E. Cognition, physiology and behaviour
F. Biology and behaviour – the use of technology
3. Genetics and behaviour

A. How influential is inheritance?

B. Evolutionary explanations of behaviour
C. Ethics and genetic research

1
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

1. Principles and research methods of the BLOA

A. Principles of the BLOA

Researchers at the biological level of analysis (BLOA) believe that all human behaviour has a
biological basis. This is not to say they believe that it is only biological, but that there is a relationship
between the human body and especially the brain (the structure and processes of the human nervous
system) and human behaviour. Moreover, because the nervous systems of many animals are similar
in their structure and processes to that of humans, BLOA researchers use animals in research to gain
understanding about human behaviour. This level of analysis puts forward physiological and
evolutionary explanations for behaviour. In other words, behaviour is inherited and is related to
physical processes.

Learning outcome:

• Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis

The main principles of the BLOA are:

• Patterns of behaviour can be inherited.

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.
• Non-human animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour.

Patterns of behaviour can be inherited

Evolution is the process by which plants and animals developed by
descent, with modification, from earlier existing forms. These changes
happen at the genetic level as organisms’ genes change and combine in
different ways through reproduction and are passed down the generations.
Darwin’s evolutionary theory is based on the principle of natural selection.
This means that the variations possessed by members of the same
species have different values when it comes to survival. Those variations
that are ‘adaptive’ will be the ones that allow those possessing them to live
and therefore will be passed on to future generations. (The most well-known example is the long
necks of giraffes which evolved to allow them to feed from the tops of trees, and thus avoid starvation
when other animals were feeding lower down. Giraffes without this adaptation died out). These useful
adaptations are inherited and eventually, over a very long period of time, give rise to new species.
Psychologists working at the biological level of analysis believe that many different human behaviours
can be explained as being useful adaptations. W e discuss the evolutionary explanations for behaviour
further on in this section.
Not all psychologists who believe in heritability (that our personality and behaviour are at least partly
inherited from our parents) are evolutionary psychologists. Many twin and adoption studies have been
carried out, exploring the relationship between heritability and intelligence, for example, but not all of
these psychologists claim that intelligence is an adaptation that has proved useful through natural
selection.

2
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Study demonstrating the principle that patterns of behaviour can be inherited

Olson et al (2001). After surveying 195 pairs of identical (monozygotic [MZ]) twins and 141 pairs
of same-sex non-identical (dizygotic [DZ]) twins on their attitudes, the researchers concluded that
there was a .35 (35%) correlation on average over 30 attitude factors with the twins. They
argue for a combination of inherited and environmentally-affected attitudes.

There are biological correlates to behaviour

This principle is based on the argument that everything we do has
physical parallels. This means that if we feel an emotion, then that
‘feeling’ can be seen on a scan as activity in our brain and nervous
system. For example if we are feeling angry then, using technology,
psychologists can observe activity in our brain’s hippocampus and
amygdala areas, and also sometimes in other areas of the brain.
BLOA psychologists believe that behaviour and mental processes
can be better understood by studying the nervous system, especially
the brain.

Study demonstrating the principle that there are biological correlates to behaviour

Brefczynski-Lewis et al. (2007) investigated the brain regions that are involved in meditation,
and were especially interested in which brain regions might show the effects of training. They
compared the brain activity of highly-experienced Tibetan monks during meditation with the
activity of novice meditators, using fMRI scans. In addition to just looking at the meditation vs.
a normal resting state, they presented sounds in order to test how distractible participants were
during the meditation.
They found that meditation activated attention-related brain regions in both expert meditators
and novices. Meditators with more practice initially showed more activity in attention regions,
but those with the most practice (over 40,000 hours) had activity drop after less than half a
minute, when their concentration may have settled into a tranquil but alert awareness, as is the
goal of the meditation practice. Furthermore, the most practised meditators showed the least
reaction to distracting sounds presented during meditation. The results from this study give
promising evidence that concentration meditation may be an effective way to train attention,
with results that one can see in brain scans.

3
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Non-human animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour

Because psychologists studying at the BLOA view the human as
just another type of animal, sharing a similar, and similarly
inherited, biological makeup, human behaviour can be
understood by conducting studies on non-human animals, and
generalising the reults to humans. For example, monkeys’ brain
activity can give insight into human brain activity and behaviour.

The different areas of animals’ brains are presumed to have the

same function as human brains. Neurotransmitters in animals’ brains are presumed to have the same
action in human brains. Rat behaviour is particularly complex, and rats are strikingly similar to
humans in their anatomy, physiology and genetics. In fact, over 95% of the mouse genome—the
hereditary information found in the mouse DNA—is similar to our human genome. In addition, they
have a short generation time, and an accelerated lifespan. One mouse year, for example, equals
about thirty human years. This is one reason why rats and mice are used in much animal research.

Study demonstrating the principle that non- human animal research may inform our
understanding of human behaviour.

Pedersen and Boccia (2003) investigated the role of the hormone oxytocin (that acts as
a neurotransmitter in the brain) in mothering behaviour. They divided rat mothers and
their offspring into three groups: one group of rat mothers received an infusion of
oxytocin; one group received an infusion of an oxytocin-antagonist, that reduced
oxytocin in the brain; and the control group received a saline infusion.

Compared to the control group, the group with the reduced oxytocin decreased the
amount of time spent grooming their babies and instead spent more time grooming
themselves, often lying on top of the baby rats, but not feeding them. The mothers with
increased oxytocin, conversely, spent more time grooming and feeding the babies,
compared to the control group. Oxytocin has also been identified as important in
human mother-infant bonding, as it is released during labour and also during
breastfeeding.

B. Research Methods at the BLOA

Research at the biological level of analysis is based on the principles already described. The most
common BLOA research methods are:

• Correlational studies
• Case studies
• Laboratory experiments

4
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Learning outcomes:

• Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in
research (through theories and/or studies)

• Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis

Correlational studies
Correlational studies at the BLOA focus on finding a relationship
between a behaviour and inherited traits. This relationship is called the
amount of heritability that a behaviour has. Correlational studies will
usually be twin studies and adoption studies, which are important
sources of information about the link between genetics and behaviour.
Correlational studies do not usually involve manipulation of an
independent variable; instead they take scores on two or more
measures and work out the relationship between them.
Many correlational studies measure the concordance rate of a
personality characteristic or a behaviour between individuals. This
means that they look at to what extent the pairs of individuals (usually
twins) share a behaviour. A concordance rate of 1 for behaviour is
100% concordance, which in real life is impossible to achieve. It would
mean that one twin behaved exactly the same as or had exactly the same intelligence or attitude as
the other. Concordance rates of 0.7 (70%) are considered extremely high. A zero concordance rate
means that there is no correlation at all between two people’s behaviour.

The strengths of correlational studies are that they can show relationships between variables, and
because they can look at a large sample in a short time, they are time and cost efficient. However,
they cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect. We may identify that there is a correlation between two
variables, but we cannot show that one causes the other.
Why are correlational studies used?

They are used because they can suggest how much different behaviours are the result of genes and
how much is down to environmental influences. They are also used to show a correlation between
activity in a certain area of the brain and behaviour, but they cannot prove that one causes the other.
How are correlational studies used?

Twin studies often focus on twins who have been separated and raised in different environments.
Therefore, if there is a concordance rate for certain behaviours between the twins that is higher than
the rate in siblings (brothers and sisters) who are not twins, this suggests a genetic influence, as they
are being raised in different environments.

Adoption studies conduct their research on children who have been adopted into families that are
often environmentally different from their birth families. Correlations for behaviours and cognition are
usually tested at regular intervals, and findings that the adopted children’s IQ, or spatial reasoning or
other behaviours are becoming nearer to those of their adoptive siblings or adoptive parents suggest
an environmental influence. Both types of studies are usually longitudinal, involving extended
research over many years, such as the Minnesota Twin Study into twins as they aged, which lasted
over twenty years.

5
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a correlational study

Santtila et al (2008) researched same-sex attraction and homosexuality, with a huge study in
Finland of 6001 female and 3152 male twins, and found a concordance rate

of over 50% for the measure of “potential for homosexual response” amongst identical
(monozygotic) twins of either sex and a concordance rate of 38% for male identical twins and 59%
for female identical twins for overt homosexual behaviour, compared with very much lower rates
for non-identical (dizygotic) twins. They therefore argued for a genetic role in determining
behaviour, though this still a fairly weak concordance rate and suggests an equally strong role for
environmental factors.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• Patterns of behaviour can be inheirited.

Case Studies
The case study is a method that involves the in-depth and detailed study of
an individual or a particular group in order to obtain a deep understanding
of behaviour. In the BLOA, the case study method is often associated with
research focusing on correlations between brain structure and/or activity
and behaviour. Some of the most famous research was conducted by
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga in the 1960s and 1970s on patients
who had undergone a surgical procedure to split the communication
between the two halves of their brain, by severing the corpus callosum
bundle of nerve fibres that connects these two hemispheres (Sperry, 1968). See here for details
regarding the many studies that have been conducted on their co-operative patients.
Why are case studies used?

Case studies are often used at the BLOA to find a relationship between the brain and a specific
behaviour.
How are case studies used?

This relationship can be observed using techniques such as positive emission tomography (PET) and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. (See the section on the use of technology for further
details of brain-scanning technology). Individuals who have naturally-occurring structural or
information-processing problems in their brains, as well as those who have undergone surgery, provide
material for further discoveries in this area. Because psychologists at the BLOA see biological
processes as the basis for behaviour, then the relationship between observed brain activity and
behaviour can provide explanations for human mental disorders, emotions and cognitive processes.

6
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Case Study

Mitchell et al. (2012) researched the link between alcohol consumption and users’ subjective
experience of pleasure. The researchers used PET scans to monitor certain brain activities in
human subjects following their consumption of alcohol. PET scan images of the brains of problem
drinkers were then compared to those of social drinkers. In the problem drinkers, a positive
correlation was found between the subjective perception of drunkenness and the degree of
endorphin release and binding in the brain. Endorphins are chemicals that are associated with
feelings of pleasure, and with the suppression of pain.

In part, these findings suggest that problem drinkers might experience a subjectively greater “high”
compared to social drinkers as the result of increased endorphin activity in critical regions of their
brains. See here for a discussion of the study.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

to demonstrate
Laboratory experiments
Experiments involve identifying a cause and effect relationship between
two variables. In order to control other variables, which would not be
possible if conducting a field experiment under natural conditions, most
experiments at the BLOA are conducted in the controlled environment of
a laboratory.

Why are laboratory experiments used?

Laboratory experiments are used because researchers are trying to identify a cause and effect
relationship between physiological processes and human behaviour. Researchers from the BLOA
believe that human behaviour has its basis in biology and studying these biological processes can
inform us about such behaviour. It is the nature of much of the research at the BLOA that the findings
have implications for human health and therefore it is important that the results are replicable (able to
be repeated in later studies). Controlling the extraneous variables in a laboratory setting means that
an experiment should be able to be easily replicated, which increases its reliability.

These laboratory experiments often involve non-human animals, which are extremely difficult to study
in their natural habitat. As, unlike humans, animals do not guess the purpose of the experiment, results
using them are free of the placebo effect or experimenter effect. The placebo effect occurs when a
participant shows an effect after experiencing the control condition, when they were not subjected to
any experimentation. It gets its name from placebos (sugar pills with no chemical content and no
curative properties) that were given out by doctors to prevent patients from worrying. Such placebos
are now used in medical research, when in order to test the effectiveness of a drug it is

7
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

necessary to have a control group who received something that looks like the drug, but is a placebo.
The experimenter effect is when the presence of the experimenter affects the participants.

How are laboratory experiments used?

Advances in technology have meant that laboratory experiments on humans often use modern brain-
scanning techniques, such as MRI scans, functional MRI scans and PET scans, to measure the
effects of manipulating variables, which will be discussed in more detail later. The results from such
scans may inform us about the onset of such diseases as Alzheimer’s disease, explain the brain
processes associated with drug or alcohol dependency or allow us to investigate the brain’s recovery
processes after a stroke, for example.

As well as using controlled experiments on humans (sometimes as part of the case study method), as
mentioned before, much research is conducted on animals, as ethically it is unacceptable to inject
humans with possibly dangerous substances, to subject them to a range of treatments for a disease
in order to see which is most effective, or to withhold a treatment to observe the effect. Many people
would argue that experimenting on animals is also unethical, which will be discussed later.

Example of a laboratory experiment (human)

Van Dongen et al. (2003) conducted research into sleep deprivation, including total sleep
deprivation and severe sleep reduction. They measured waking and sleeping brain activity using
an electroencephalogram (EEG). Forty-eight adults were randomly split into 4 groups: three
groups each received either 4, 6 or 8 hours of sleep per night for fourteen nights, and one group
received no sleep at all for 3 nights. The results showed that those receiving only 4 or 6 hours of
sleep demonstrated a significant decrease in ability to perform cognitive tasks that worsened over
the period. The subjects were largely unaware of their decreasing performance and reported low
rates of sleepiness. 6 hours or fewer of sleep per night for fourteen nights had the same cognitive
effect as 2 nights with no sleep, yet the subjects were not aware of this. The researchers
concluded that this lack of self-awareness of cognitive impairment and sleepiness amongst the
chronically sleep-deprived explains why the impact of chronic lack of sleep on waking functions is
often assumed to be slight. See here for the original study.

8
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a laboratory experiment (animal)

Berger et al. (2011) trained rats to learn a task, pressing one lever after another to receive water.
In a series of tests, the rats pressed one lever and were then distracted. They had to remember
which one they’d already pressed and therefore which lever to press next in order to receive the
water. Then the researchers attached electrodes to the rats’ brains, connected to two areas in the
hippocampus, called CA1 and CA3. The team recorded the signals between these regions as the
rats performed their tasks, and then they drugged the rats so that the hippocampus regions could
not communicate. The rats forgot which lever to press next.

Finally, the researchers made an artificial hippocampus which worked like the real one, and
implanted it in the rats’ brains. Even when drugged, so that their own hippocampus was not
working, the rats could remember using the connections of the artificial hippocampus. Although
this is a long way from being tested in humans, the research shows that if there is enough
information about the neural coding of memories, the signal patterns can be recorded and
duplicated, and restored later through a neural implant. This could be useful for people with mild
dementia, helping them with simple functional memories and keeping them independent for longer

See here for more details of the research.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.
• Non-human animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour.

C. Ethics and Research Methods at the BLOA

Learning outcomes:

• Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis

The ethical concerns raised by the methodology and application of

psychological research are key considerations in IB Diploma
psychology. The guidelines that psychologists follow are drawn up
and revised regularly by groups controlling psychological research
worldwide. Two sets of these guidelines are those published by the
American Psychological Association (APA, 2003, updated 2010)
and the British Psychological Society (BPS, 2009). They are long
documents that you do not need to read in detail, but the main
point is that they have been considerably strengthened since some
of the classic studies that you will be reading about later in this
course were carried out.

9
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Among the first human subject research experiments to be documented were vaccination trials in the
1700's. In these early trials physicians used themselves or their family members as test subjects. For
example, Edward Jenner (1749-1823) first tested smallpox vaccines on his son and children in his
neighbourhood. That would not be the way to conduct trials now!
The guidelines ensure that animal researchers avoid or minimise stress and suffering for all living
animals; always consider the possibility of other options than animal research and are as economical
as possible in the numbers of animals tested. In the UK, for example, a government licence is
needed before any animal research is carried out.

In human research, the participants must have given informed consent; they should not be deceived;
confidentiality has to be maintained; they should be debriefed after the experiment, and allowed to
withdraw themselves or their data at any time.
There are also ethical issues with brain imaging. Not only must care be taken with the contrast
material (dye) used in many imaging techniques, but the results of scans can often be sensitive data
which needs to be handled carefully. Farah et al (2009) point out that brain imaging can be used in lie
detection, and fMRI scans have been marketed commercially on this basis. It can also be used to
measure correlates of people’s desire for certain products, an application that has been called
‘neuromarketing.’ To the extent that neuroimaging can measure unconscious motivation to buy, it
provides a valuable new kind of information for marketers.

As Farah et al. argue, the most obvious concern involves privacy. For example, employers,
marketers, and the government all have a strong interest in knowing the abilities, personality,
truthfulness and other mental contents of certain people. This raises the question of whether, when,
and how to ensure the privacy of our own minds.

Example of an experiment at the BLOA that would not be allowed now

Deneau (1969). In this experiment, a large group of monkeys and rats were trained to inject
themselves with an assortment of drugs, including morphine, alcohol, codeine, cocaine, and
amphetamines. The point of the experiment was simply to understand the effects of addiction and
drug use. Once the animals were capable of self-injecting, they were left to their own devices with a
large supply of each drug.

The animals were very disturbed and some tried so hard to escape that they broke their arms in the
process. The monkeys taking cocaine suffered convulsions and in some cases tore off their own
fingers (possible as a consequence of hallucinations). One monkey taking amphetamines tore all of
the fur from his arm and abdomen, and in the case of cocaine and morphine combined, death of the
animal would occur within two weeks.

(The public protests that greeted experiments like these were instrumental in changing the
guidelines for experimenting on animals).

10
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

2. Physiology and behaviour

This section looks at BLOA research into the brain and nervous system and how they function in
relation to human behaviour.

A. Localization of brain function and brain plasticity (neuroplasticity)

Learning outcome:

• Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain.

Localization of function refers to the theory that the mechanisms for

thought, behaviour and emotions are located in different areas of the brain.
To what extent certain functions are located in their own areas, and activity
in this area can therefore be seen as evidence of a behaviour, thought or
feeling, is the subject of localization of brain function. (To what extent areas
of the brain can be trained if necessary to take over the functions of
damaged areas is the subject of brain plasticity, which we will look at later
in this section).

There is a long history to the theory of localization of function in the brain.

The concept is directly traceable to the ideas of a German physician, Franz
Josef Gall (1758-1828), who introduced phrenology – the science (now seen as a pseudo-science)
of inferring a person’s behaviour from the shape of their skull. While this has been discredited, the
assumption that certain parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviours is still valid.

The French neurologist Paul Broca located the ability for speech in the third convolution of the left
frontal lobe - a region that came to be known as Broca's area, as early as 1861. This was the case
that established the whole area of research into the functions of the different areas of the brain.

Methods for identifying brain localization include case studies. Historically, case studies relied on
observation of behaviour after naturally-occurring brain damage (see Damasio [1994] regarding the
case study of Phineas Gage, from 1848). Other historical case studies relied on post-mortem
dissection of the sufferer’s brain, such as those of Paul Broca in 1861 and Carl Wernicke in 1874.
(See Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia).

More recently, case studies into localization of brain function use modern technological methods to
investigate how the brain works. These case studies are conducted into people with brain injury. The
study of HM (Ogden, 2005) and that of Clive Wearing (Sacks, 2007), both of whom suffered severe
amnesia, was conducted by observation and MRI scans. MRI scans of Wearing’s brain after his viral
encephalitis in 1985 made clear just how bad the damage was. Several regions of his brain
were severely damaged, and the hippocampus -- which plays an important role in memory formation
-- was totally destroyed. He is now in residential care, at the age of 78, and according to his wife has
been slowly improving over the years, though he still has virtually no memory. His musical ability,
including his piano-playing and his ability to read music, however, remained intact. HM, later
identified as Henry Molaison, died in 2008 and left his brain to science. Here is a fascinating short
film, of the neuroscientist Vilayanur Ramachandran using a machine to slice HM’s brain, post-
mortem.

11
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Dr. Ramachandran has also identified, through case studies and modern scanning technology, that
a small structure inside the brain, called the fusiform gyrus, is responsible for face recognition.
Damage to the fusiform gyrus leaves all other cognitive functions intact, except the ability to
recognise faces, even one’s own. This inability to recognise faces is called prosopagnosia.
(Incidentally, the famous psychologist Oliver Sacks suffers from this condition). This is clear
evidence for the localization of brain function.

Another approach to studying the localization of brain function is the experimental approach. As
mentioned earlier, Sperry and Gazzaniga conducted numerous experiments in the 1960s and 1970s
into the localization of function in the different hemispheres of the brain. Remember, that
experiments can also be conducted as part of case studies; they are not just two ‘stand-alone’
methods.

Example of a study demonstrating localization of brain function.

Jenni Ogden (2005) describes the case of Janet, a woman who died of a brain tumour that invaded
one side of her brain and caused damage that resulted in something called ‘hemineglect’. This is
when, because of damage to one hemisphere, a person cannot pay attention to the side controlled
by that hemisphere. For example, Janet’s tumour was detected by computed tomography (CT) scan
in the parietal lobe of her right hemisphere. This meant that when reading she omitted words from
the left side of the page and when writing she only wrote on the right side of the paper. She would
also ignore her left arm, claiming it belonged to somebody else! Clearly the right parietal lobe was
responsible for recognition of the left side of her body and the left side of her visual attention.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

Brain plasticity (Neuroplasticity)

Learning outcome:

• Discuss two effects of the environment on physical processes

The examples above all demonstrate that many brain functions are
localized in their own specific parts of the brain. However, other studies
have shown that the human brain has enormous recovery powers, and if
one part of the brain is damaged, depending on the extent of the
damage, the area of the brain and (often) the age of the person affected,
other parts of the brain can to a greater or lesser extent take over the
function of the damaged part. Kolb et al. (2000) generalized the results
of their own rat studies to humans, and argued that for children, the worst
time for cortical (frontal lobe) injury is likely the first month or so of life, whereas the most favourable
time is around 1 to 2 years of age, because this is the age of maximum growth of neurons. The

12
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

newly-growing neurons are able to replace the damaged ones, a process that can be supported by
both drug and behaviour therapy.

This is an example of neuroplasticity. It does not only happen in cases of brain damage: the brain
connections (neural pathways) can also be changed according to the environment. The studies that
show this can be used to meet the above learning outcome. The best way to explain this is through
examples.

Example of a study demonstrating neuroplasticity according to environment

Jednoróg et al. (2012) explored the association between poverty (socio-economic status [SES])
and brain anatomy, using MRI scans on a group of 23 healthy 10-year-old children with a wide
range of parental SES. Their study confirmed that language is one of the cognitive domains most
affected by SES. However, they also observed widespread modifications in children’s brain
structure. They found that a lower SES is associated with smaller volumes of grey matter in the
hippocampus, and gyrus fusiform area of the brain, and also with a slower development in the
frontal brain region.

These findings point to a correlation between unfavourable environmental conditions, brain

development and cognitive skills.

See here for a link to Shalev et al’s (2012) related study into the effect of exposure to violence
during childhood on the DNA of children.

Example of a study demonstrating neuroplasticity after brain damage

Tierney et al. (2001). Their patient, known as MA, had a lesion in the left part of his brain, probably
because of the encephalitis he suffered as a small child. The researchers aimed to find out if
another part of his brain had taken over spoken language, which is normally localized in Broca’s
area in the left frontal lobe. They were interested to find out as well if his use of sign language to
communicate with his parents from a very young age might have affected which part of his brain
was responsible for his speech.

They used PET scans to compare MA’s brain and the brains of other fluent sign language users
while they performed various language and movement tasks. Unlike most sign language users,
MA’s right hemisphere was highly active, suggesting that his right hemisphere had probably taken
over speech production when the left hemisphere was damaged. This type of change is evidence of
neuroplasticity – the idea that the structure of the brain is able to change; for example, some neural
connections become stronger when a particular skill is practised.

In MA’s case, the researchers concluded that his brain structure was changed in the right
hemisphere, with more connections than normal in his right frontal lobe to allow him to produce
language, possibly at the expense of other skills normally localized in the right hemisphere.
See here for an astonishing interview with a little girl and her parents, demonstrating her amazing
recovery from the removal of half of her brain (a hemispherectomy).

13
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

B. Neurotransmission

Learning outcome:

• Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour

Neurotransmission is the process of communication between
nerves. There are as many as 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) in
the human brain. Neurons carry information as electrical impulses,
and neurotransmitters are chemicals that are sent out by a neuron
across a gap between them, called the synapse, to be picked up by
the receptors of another neuron. See this short video regarding
how neurons work.

Neurotransmission has a relationship to human behaviour. Neurons are specific in which

neurotransmitters they release and receive, and their action can be affected by drugs before their
release, in the synapse and also during their uptake by the receiving neuron or reuptake by the
releasing neuron.

Researchers have investigated the effects of neurotransmitters on behaviour, and of drugs on

neurotransmitters. While some of the findings are at the level of correlation, others have
demonstrated a cause and effect relationship.
Some important neurotransmitters and their effects are:

Neurotransmitter Description Effect

Aceltylcholine Discovered and isolated in 1921 by Responsible for stimulation of muscles,

the German biologist Otto Loewi. for some memory functions, and has a
role in sleep.

There is a link between acetylcholine

and Alzheimer's disease: There can be
an up to 90% loss of acetylcholine in
the brains of people suffering from
Alzheimer's, which is a major cause of
senility.

Dopamine Discovered to be a neurotransmitter Strongly associated with reward

in the 1950s by Arvid Carlsson. mechanisms in the brain. Drugs like
cocaine, opium, heroin, and alcohol
increase the levels of dopamine, as
does nicotine. If it feels good,
dopamine neurons are probably

14
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

involved!

Low dopamine levels are associated

with Parkinson’s disease, and too-high
levels have been argued to be
correlated with schizophrenia, and
social anxiety.

Endorphins There are at least twenty different They are the body’s ‘natural opiates’,
kinds of endorphins. Endorphins produced as a response to certain
flood the space between nerve cells stimuli, such as stress, fear or pain.
and usually inhibit neurons from firing They result in a mood elevation,
to create an analgesic (pain- especially during exercise, known
reducing) effect. commonly as ‘runners’ high’.

Noradrenaline Discovered in 1946 by Swedish Increases heart rate and blood

(Norepinephrine) biologist Ulf von Euler, it is also pressure. Plays a role in wakefulness
known as noradrenaline. and arousal, eating, depression and
mania.

Serotonin Found in blood serum in 1948 by Intimately involved in emotion and

Irvine Page, who named it serotonin mood. Too little has been shown to
(from “serum-tonic”). It is a derivative lead to depression, problems with
of tryptophan, which is found in milk. anger control, obsessive-compulsive
disorder, and suicide. Too little also
leads to an increased appetite for
carbohydrates (starchy foods) and
trouble sleeping, which are also
associated with depression and other
emotional disorders.

The effects of certain drugs on these neurotransmitters:

Neurotransmitter Drug Use/Effect

Acetylcholine Botulin, Botox The well-known poison botulin works by preventing the
neuron from releasing acetylcholine, causing
paralysis. Botox is made from botulin and is used by
many people to temporarily eliminate wrinkles.

Dopamine Chlorpromazine, Both of these antipsychotic drugs were developed in the

Haloperidol 1950s for the treatment of schizophrenia. They block
dopamine receptors to limit the uptake of dopamine.
Opiate drugs:
Endorphins heroin The active ingredient in all these opiates has a chemical
(diacetylmorphine), structure similar to endorphins and they bind to the
opium, codeine and neurons in the same way to heighten pleasure and
morphine. decrease pain.

Noradrenaline Amphetamines They work by causing the release of norepinephrine, as

(Norephinephrine) (”speed”) well dopamine and serotonin.

15
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Serotonin Prozac (and other Prozac and similar drugs work by preventing the neurons
selective serotonin from "vacuuming" up excess serotonin, so that there is
reuptake inhibitors more left floating around in the synapses.
[SSRIs])

These exert their critical action by attaching to a specific

Hallucinogens such serotonin receptor subtype, 5-HT2. The effect varies with
as LSD, mescaline the structure of the particular hallucinogen, but includes
and ecstasy. blocking of normal dreaming and involves ‘waking
dreams’ (especially with LSD).

Example of a study demonstrating the effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour

Walderhaug et al. (2007) conducted a study on healthy participants, using a technique called acute
tryptophan depletion, which decreases serotonin levels in the brain. They found that men became
more impulsive, but did not experience any mood changes in response to the induced chemical
changes. However, women in this study reported a worsening of their mood and they became more
cautious, a response commonly associated with depression. This means that women and men
appear to respond differently to neurochemical changes. It is already known that reduced serotonin
transmission contributes to the functional changes in the brain associated with MDD and most of
today’s most popular antidepressants block the serotonin ‘uptake site’, also known as the transporter,
on the 5-HTT gene in the brain. It is also known that people with MDD are frequently found to have
less impulse control. However, this is the first study to identify sex differences in the way that men
and women react to reductions in serotonin function, specifically in terms of their
mood and impulsivity.

(Note how this study also brings together neurochemicals and genetics: the neurochemical is
transported by a gene. See also research by Caspi et al. [2003], and the research by Suomi, below).

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

16
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

C. Hormones and human behaviour

Learning outcome:

• Using one or more examples, explain functions of two

hormones in human behaviour.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted (given
out) by glands. The difference between a hormone and a
neurotransmitter is that, while both are secreted inside our
bodies, hormones are produced by endocrine glands and
neurotransmitters are produced by neurons when triggered by
an electrical impulse. Hormones enter directly into the
bloodstream, while neurotransmitters are secreted at nerve
synapses. Just to confuse things slightly, some chemical
messengers can act both as hormones and neurotransmitters. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is an
example: it is secreted as a hormone in the body by the adrenal medulla (at the centre of each
adrenal gland, just above the kidneys), and as a neurotransmitter by the nerve endings in the nervous
system.
Unlike neurotransmitters, which act in a split-second, a hormone may take several seconds to be
stimulated, released and reach its destination. If an immediate behavioural reaction is required,
neurotransmitters and the nervous system play the major role. For a slow, steady response over a
period of time, we have hormones.

Testosterone
Testosterone is primarily secreted in the gonads (in the testes of males and the ovaries of females),
although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. It is the main male sex hormone and
plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testes and prostate as
well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass and
hair growth. On average, an adult human male produces about ten times more testosterone than an
adult human female, although there is a wide range in the amounts, and there may be overlaps
between high testosterone-producing females and low testosterone- producing males.
Studies have connected testosterone with aggression in both males and females, but Archer (1995)
reviewed the research, and concluded that there was a low positive correlation between testosterone
levels and aggression in males, but a much higher positive correlation between testosterone levels
and measures of dominance. W hile hormones may influence our responses, the social and cognitive
contexts must not be ignored.

17
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a study explaining the effects of testosterone

Carrier and Kabbaj (2012) discovered that a specific pathway in the hippocampus, a brain region
involved in memory formation and control of stress responses, plays a major role in how
testosterone, the main male sex hormone, affects men. Compared to men, women are twice as
likely to suffer from an affective disorder like depression. Men with hypogonadism, a condition
where the body produces no or little testosterone, also suffer increased levels of depression and
anxiety. Testosterone replacement therapy has been shown to effectively improve mood in these
men.
To investigate further the process involved in this, the researchers performed many experiments on
neutered adult male rats. The rats developed depressive-like behaviours that were then reversed
with testosterone replacement. During this research, they identified a molecular pathway in the
hippocampus, whose correct functioning was necessary for the anti-depressant effects of
testosterone to occur. They argue that this pathway may be an area of the brain to target with
antidepressant drug treatment.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
Adrenaline is secreted in the adrenal medulla of each adrenal gland (located above each kidney). It
is active in the sympathetic nervous system. At times when a person is highly stimulated, as by fear,
anger, or some challenging situation, extra amounts of adrenaline are released into the bloodstream,
preparing the body for energetic action. Adrenaline increases blood pressure and increases the heart
rate and cardiac output. It also increases the release of glucose from the liver, so that a person has a
suddenly increased feeling of muscular strength and powerfulness. It has been identified by
researchers such as Selye (1936) as vital in the initial stages of ‘fight or flight’ when the body needs
extra resources. Persistently raised levels of adrenaline can result in damage to the blood vessels of
the heart and brain – a risk factor in heart attack and stroke. Adrenaline levels and the levels of
cortisol (another hormone secreted by the adrenal glands) usually rise together when a person is
under stress, to the extent that they have become known as the ‘stress hormones’. Remember that
stress is not only negative: there is ‘good stress’ such as that associated with an exciting date, or
getting married. The bodily response is just the same.

18
© Pamoja Education 2013
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a study explaining the effects of adrenaline

The classic study into adrenaline and emotion was conducted by Schachter and Singer (1962). This
was a controlled experiment that would be ethically unacceptable now. It is relevant to both the
biological and the cognitive LOAs.

Schachter and Singer developed the two-factor theory of emotion. The two-factor theory suggests
that emotion comes from a combination of a state of arousal and a cognition that makes best sense
of the situation the person is in. For example, the two-factor theory of emotion argues that when
people become aroused they look for cues as to why they feel the way they do. The aim of the
experiment was to test the two-factor theory of emotion.

184 participants were given an injection (by a doctor) of either adrenaline (epinephrine) or a
placebo, which was actually a saline solution, which has no side effects at all. They were all told
that the injection was a vitamin injection to test the effect of vitamins on vision. The effects of the
adrenaline are an increase in blood pressure, heart rate, blood sugar level, respiration rate, and
blood flow to the muscles and brain, with an accompanying decrease in blood flow to the skin. This
is often experienced as palpitations, tremors, flushing and faster breathing. The effects begin after
three minutes and last from ten minutes to an hour.

The participants were then put in one of four experimental conditions:

1. Group A (Adrenaline ignorant) - participants were given an adrenalin injection and not told of the
effects of the drug.

2. Group B (Adrenaline informed) - participants were given an adrenalin injection and warned of the
‘side effects’ of the drug (hand shake, heart pounding, dry mouth etc.). The participants were
therefore prepared for the effects of the adrenaline, even though they thought these were cause dby
the ‘vitamin injection’.

3. Group C (Adrenaline misinformed) - participants were given an adrenalin injection and told to
expect side effects but were told these would be numb feet and headache. These participants
would, therefore, not be expecting the effects of the adrenalin.
4. Group D (Control group – placebo) - participants were given an injection that would have no
effect and were given no instructions of what to expect.

Participants were then allocated to either the euphoria condition or the anger condition.

In the euphoria situation a stooge in a waiting room carried out a number of silly tasks designed to
entertain and amuse the participant. In the anger situation a stooge in a waiting room carried out
tasks and made comments designed to annoy the participant.

The researchers then made observational measures of emotional response through a one-way
mirror, and also took self-report measures from the participants.
In the euphoria condition, the misinformed participants were feeling happier than all the others. The
second happiest group was the ignorant group. This demonstrates that these participants were more
susceptible to the stooge because they had no explanation of why their bodies felt as they did. The
informed group felt the least happy because they understood why they felt as they did.

In the anger condition, the ignorant group felt the angriest. The second angriest group was the
placebo group. The least angry group was those who were informed. Again this shows that
participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no explanation of why their body
felt as it did.

19
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

In the anger condition, the ignorant group felt the angriest. The second angriest group was the
placebo group. The least angry group was those who were informed. Again this shows that
participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no explanation of why their body
felt as it did.
Schachter and Singer argue that their findings support their two-factor theory of emotion, which
states that the physiological arousal in different emotion is entirely the same and we label our
arousal according to the cognitions we have available.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

D. Environment and physiological processes

Learning outcome:
• Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

The study into the environment and physiological processes was mentioned earlier when we looked
at neuroplasticity (brain plasticity) in response to brain damage and to environmental factors like
meditation training, poverty and violence.

We do not live in a vacuum, and we interact with our environment continually. But only recently has it
become apparent that our brain can change in response to our environment. This is also true of non-
human animals, where levels of serotonin in rhesus monkeys have been found to be correlated with
the manner in which they were raised. (See the study below).

Example of a non-human animal study demonstrating an effect of the environment on a

physiological process
Suomi (2005) studied wild rhesus monkeys, and found that approximately 5-10% of rhesus
monkeys growing up in the wild consistently exhibited impulsive and/or inappropriately aggressive
responses to mildly stressful situations throughout development; those same individuals also
showed a low level of metabolism of serotonin. Their mechanism for uptake of serotonin did not
seem to function properly. Two groups of baby monkeys were studied: one was reared in a
nurturing environment, and one was reared in a less supportive environment. The monkeys in the
second group had low levels of serotonin and high levels of aggression. Genetic testing revealed a
short allele (a form of a gene) at the location of the 5-HTT serotonin transporter.

In a second study Suomi found clear links between rearing style and adult behaviour, with about
20% of the monkeys, being “depressed or neurotic” and scared to leave their mothers’ side, even
when adult. Another 10% were “bullies”, whose extremely violent behaviour led to them being
isolated, and often dying before even reaching adulthood. Suomi et al argued that the bullies had a
genetic predisposition (the short allele on the 5-HTTL serotonin transporter) and this combined with
a harsh parenting technique produced offspring with extreme behaviour problems that lasted into
adulthood. Suomi concluded that the “long” allele of the 5-HTT gene gave the monkeys resilience –
the ability to overcome poor social rearing, and those with the short allele who were reared well did
not suffer, but the combination of a short allele (genetic predisposition) and poor rearing resulted in
poor serotonin levels and violent behaviour. This shows a connection between environment,
neurotransmitter transportation and uptake and genetics. 20
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• Patterns of behaviour can be inheirited.
• There are biological correlates to behaviour.
• Non-human animal research may inform our understanding of human behaviour.

We saw before that links have been made between deprivation in childhood and brain development,
and that changes in the brain may be observed during meditation (see Brefczynski-Lewis et al.,
above). Sleep, or the lack of it, has also been documented as affecting the brain.

Example of a human study demonstrating an effect of the environment on a physiological process

Altena and van der W erf (2010) used a type of MRI scanning called voxel-based morphetry for their
study. This quite new technique allows the comparison of ‘grey brain matter’ between two groups of
participants. It was already known that deprivation and long-term stress cause a reduction in brain
matter. W hat these researchers found was that long-term insomnia (lack of sleep) also has the
same effect on the brain. They evaluated the brain volumes of people with chronic insomnia who
were otherwise psychiatrically healthy, and compared them to healthy persons without sleep
problems. They found that insomnia patients had a smaller volume of grey matter in the left
orbitofrontal cortex (behind the left eye), which was strongly correlated with their severity of
insomnia.

Insomnia is a common symptom of psychiatric disorders or high levels of life stress, generally. This
study suggests that there are additional risks of not treating insomnia, such as detrimental effects on
the structure of the brain. However, note that this is a correlation, not a cause and effect
relationship, and the level of insomnia relied on self-reports.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

21
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

E. Cognition, physiology and behaviour

Learning outcome:
• Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour.
Evaluate two relevant studies.
The interaction between cognition, physiology and
behaviour is another way of saying that there is a
relationship between how and what we think, what our
brain is doing and what we do. For this learning
outcome, it is necessary to look in detail at this, taking
specific behaviours, like memory, face recognition or
empathy. As mentioned above, this is the field of
research of the neuroscientist Dr.Vilayanur
Ramachandran, and his studies have added a lot to
our understanding of how our thoughts, actions and brain activity are related.
An example of this interaction between cognition, physiology and behaviour is the action of mirror
neurons. Mirror neurons are neurons that fire when a person (or animal) observes someone else
doing an action. It is a sub-set of the neurons that would fire if the person or animal were themselves
doing the action. So if I see you reach for a piece of chocolate and eat it, a sub-set of my ‘reaching for
something pleasurable and eating it’ neurons are firing.

Mirror neurons are so called because they ‘mirror’ the behaviour of another. They were first
discovered (by accident) by Gallese et al. (1996) at the university of Parma in Italy. The researchers
were studying motor neurons in macaque monkeys. Because neural messages are electrical in
nature, they were able to hear the crackle of the electrical signal when the neuron was activated. They
soon noticed that neurons in a certain region of the brain became active both when the monkey
reached out for a nut and when the monkey observed the researcher doing the same action.
Evaluation of these studies should of course include the fact that they are animal studies, and we are
trying to generalize from these to humans.

However, later research by Iacoboni (2004) has found that mirror neurons are also activated in
humans, not only when observing goal-directed action, as was the case with the monkeys, but also
when watching human faces portraying different emotions. The researcher asked participants to look
at human faces while undergoing an fMRI scan. The aim of the study was to see if simply looking at
the emotion expressed in someone’s face would cause the brain of the observer to be
stimulated. First the participants had to imitate the faces they were shown, and then they had to
simply watch as they were shown the faces again. In this case the physiology is the firing of the mirror
neurons in the brain; the cognition is the feeling of empathy while watching the facial expression and
the behaviour is the expression of that empathy.

22
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a study demonstrating interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of

behaviour (1)

Iacoboni et al. (2005) used fMRI scans to investigate the brain mechanisms responsible for
understanding the intentions of others while watching their actions. Twenty-three subjects watched
three kinds of stimuli: grasping hand actions without a context, context only (scenes containing
objects), and grasping hand actions performed in two different contexts. In the latter condition the
context suggested the intention associated with the grasping action (either drinking or cleaning).

Actions embedded in contexts, compared with the other two conditions, yielded a significant signal
increase in premotor mirror neuron areas—areas active during the execution and the observation of
an action—previously thought to be involved only in action recognition are actually also involved in
understanding the intentions of others. To ascribe an intention is to infer a forthcoming new goal,
and this is an operation that the motor system does automatically. The researchers concluded that
mirror neurons are involved in understanding future actions of another as well as identifying with
their current actions.

Example of a study demonstrating interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of

behaviour (2)
Oberman et al. (2005) studied the possible relationship between mirror neurons and childhood
autism. They hypothesised that if the mirror neuron system is involved in the interpretation of
intentions, then a breakdown of this neural circuitry could explain the lack of social skills in people
with autism. The other signs of the disorder - absence of empathy, language deficits and poor
imitation - are also the kinds of things you would expect to see if mirror neurons were dysfunctional.

They studied ten children with autism and compared them with a control group of ten non-autistic
children, using an electroencephalogram (EEG) measurement of the children’s brain waves. The
results were that mirror neurons in the non-autistic children’s brains were active when watching
videos of a moving hand, but were not active in the brains of children with autism.
In an interview in 2102, Ramachandran, a lead member of the research team, said this: “I think my
own theory about autism hasn’t been proven. It’s a plausible theory—it’s better than any other
theories that are out there—but it still has not been proven. But the popular person latches onto it
and says that autism’s caused by mirror neuron deficiency” (Marsh, 2012). Clearly more research is
needed.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

23
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Another example of interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour is one already
mentioned - prosopagnosia, the failure to recognise faces. One of the most common causes of
prosopagnosia is a stroke, usually causing damage to the right side of the brain. It is also a symptom in
later stages of Alzheimer’s disease. Studies into this cognitive malfunction have been conducted
extensively and have concluded that patients with prosopagnosia are generally able to make fine
visual discriminations. For example, they are able to read. They can also categorize a visual stimulus
as a face. But prevented from using the voice, clothes, gait or specific attributes such as glasses, ear-
rings or moustaches, they cannot identify a familiar person.

Example of a study demonstrating interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of

behaviour (3)

Schiltz et al. (2006) used fMRI scans, and five different categories of stimuli (black and white
pictures of faces, cars, chairs, boats and birds) with 24 objects in each category. The participants
had to perform a matching task with the items. The researchers found that patients with
prosopagnosia were unable to match faces accurately, and perceived different faces as identical,
when compared to a control group. They recognised that there were faces, but perceived all as
identical. They found that patients who develop prosopagnosia following lesions to either of these
regions in the right hemisphere cannot identify faces, but can still detect faces.

This research built on earlier studies showing that two brain structures (the middle fusiform gyrus
and the inferior occipital gyrus) are activated by both seeing a face and identifying whose face it is.
Their results suggest that individual recognition of faces critically depends on both areas being
intact, and on interaction between them.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

F. Biology and behaviour – the use of technology

Learning outcome:
• Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between
biological factors and behaviour.
Modern technology has allowed researchers to build a more
accurate understanding of how our brains work. These
technological methods include the encephalogram (EEG),
computer tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and
positron emission tomography (PET). Each of these has
slightly different functions and is used to investigate difference
types of brain activity. The CT and MRI scans can only show
structure, while the other three types also show brain activity, with the fMRI showing both structure
and activity.
24
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Electroencephalogram (EEG)
This measures and records the electrical activity in the brain. Special sensors (electrodes) are
attached to a person’s head and hooked by wires to a computer. The computer records the brain's
electrical activity on the screen or on paper as wavy lines (‘brain waves’). There are several types of
brain waves: alpha waves, which are present when you are awake and mentally alert, but with your
eyes closed; beta waves have a frequency of 13 to 30 cycles per second. These waves are normally
found when you are alert or have taken high doses of certain medicines, such as benzodiazepines;
delta waves and theta waves, which are normally found only when you are asleep or in young
children. In adults who are awake, the brain shows a mixture of alpha and beta waves, with the two
sides of the brain showing similar activity.

Abnormal brain scans, which indicate problems, are those with different patterns of electrical activity
in each side of the brain. This may mean a problem in one area or side of the brain. If the EEG
shows sudden bursts of electrical activity (spikes) or sudden slowing of brain waves in the brain,
these changes may be caused by a brain tumour, infection, injury, stroke, or epilepsy. Each test
usually takes at least 1-2 hours.
This technology is also used extensively in sleep research, showing that brain activity changes in
specific ways during sleep. For example, there is a pattern of activity during rapid eye movement
(REM) sleep when a person is dreaming.
However, for many tests, the EEG is not sufficiently accurate, especially for research into localization
of function, because the electrodes are outside the skull and not sensitive enough to identify the exact
location of activity.
Computer tomography (CT)
CT scans combine computer and X-Ray technology to produce static images that look like slices of
the brain. They are often recommended by doctors when a person is suffering from a head injury,
severe headaches or other symptoms of a problem, such as dizziness. They can detect changes in
the structure of the brain due to a brain tumour or brain damage.

Useful as it is, a CT scan cannot be used to investigate brain activity. It also has the disadvantage
that it exposes the individual to X-ray radiation.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Unlike CT scans MRI scans produce 3-D images of the brain. They still only produce static images,
but instead of using computer and X-ray technology MRIs use a magnetic field and pulses of radio
wave energy to make pictures of organs and structures inside the body, including the brain. It is used
to find problems such as tumours, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases, or infection. Physicians
also use the MRI examination to detect brain abnormalities in patients with dementia, a disorder that
can cause confusion or memory loss. It has a higher sensitivity than CT scans for detecting the
presence of, or changes within, a tumour.

Contrast material (dye) may be injected before the MRI scan to show abnormal tissue more clearly.
People with heart pacemakers, metal plates or screws in their bodies may not be scanned.

25
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a relatively new procedure that uses magnetic
resonance imaging to measure the tiny metabolic changes that take place in an active part of the
brain. W hen neurons in a particular region are active, more blood is sent to that region. The fMRI
machine maps changes in the brain’s metabolism (chemical changes within the cells) to show
precisely which parts of the brain are active during a wide range of human behaviours. As well as
investigating the correlation between behaviour and brain activity in certain areas (think of localization
of brain function), fMRI scans are also used to help assess the effects of stroke, trauma or
degenerative disease (such as Alzheimer's) on brain function.

It is more precise than the other methods, and is still improving. Apart from possible allergic reactions
to any contrast material that may be used, and the necessary precautions with metal implants, there
are few disadvantages.

Positron emission tomography (PET).

A PET scan is a type of nuclear medicine imaging. Nuclear medicine is a branch of medical imaging
that uses small amounts of radioactive material to diagnose and determine the severity of a variety of
brain diseases, including cancers and neurological disorders. A radioactive substance is injected into
the patient. This is usually a form of sugar that produces measurable gamma rays as it is metabolised
in the brain. A PET scan detects these rays and turns them into computer images of brain activity.
These scans are used to examine functions, such as blood flow, oxygen use, and sugar (glucose)
metabolism, to help doctors evaluate how well the brain is functioning.

Because PET scans are able to pinpoint molecular activity within the body, they offer the potential to
identify a disease in its earliest stages. They are useful for showing abnormalities in brain activity
levels in diseases that do not show structural changes until much later, like Alzheimer’s disease.
Though less precise than fMRI scans, they are a useful tool in early diagnosis of brain disease.

A combined approach
In order to get as complete a picture as possible of the brain structures and functions, images from
PET scans can be superimposed with CT or MRI images in a practice known as image fusion. This
can lead to more precise information and accurate diagnoses. There are also combined PET/CT
machines and PET/MRI machines that can combine both types of images. These provide images that
can pinpoint the location of abnormal metabolic activity within the brain very accurately.

The use of brain-imaging technologies has presented a great advance in diagnosing and treating
many brain abnormalities and diseases. However, individually they have their limitations, they are not
suitable for everybody, and the results need to be interpreted sensitively

26
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a study demonstrating use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship
between biological factors and behaviour

Draganski et al (2004) investigated whether after learning a new motor skill, there would be both
structural and functional changes in the brain. The researchers used MRI scans to determine if
changes occurred in the brains of people learning to juggle over a span of three months. The
participants were divided into two groups, jugglers and non-jugglers and had their brains scanned
three times: before learning to juggle, after three months of learning to juggle, and three months
after they had ceased juggling.

While there was not difference in brain structure between the two groups after the first scan, the
second scan, at three months, showed that the group of jugglers had two areas of the brain that
were significantly different in size to the control group. This difference became smaller after three
months of no juggling, at the third scan.

The conclusion was that the action of watching balls in the air and learning to move in response to
them strengthened the neuronal connections in the parts of the brain responsible for this activity.
However, the differences were temporary and relied on continuing the activity.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

3. Genetics and behaviour

Learning outcome:

• With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance
influence behaviour?

A. How influential is inheritance?

Genetic information is contained in chromosomes and each human has

23 pairs of chromosomes (tightly-wound strands of DNA) in each of
his/her cells and one of each of these pairs is from each parent.
Therefore we are the product of the genetic information from our
parents. But we are not solely the result of our genetic inheritance: we
are affected by our environment as well as our genes.

Research attempting to identify what proportion of a certain behaviour is

inherited and what proportion is environmentally-related has usually
involved twin studies and adoption studies. (See the section on Research Methods) The stronger the
concordance rate between two behaviours in MZ twins raised apart, the higher the heritability (inherited
factor) and the lower the environmental influence. The lower the concordance rate between

27
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

adopted children and their siblings or parents for a certain behaviour, the lower the environmental
influence, as the differences are presumed to be a result of their having different biological parents.

There are problems with these types of studies that make it difficult to answer the question of how
influential inheritance is when looking at human behaviour. Just because an adoptive child’s
behaviour is only weakly correlated with that of the adoptive family members is not reason enough to
be sure that these differences are genetic. The fact of being an adopted child in a family is a variable
that needs to be taken into account. Adoptive parents may treat their adopted children differently than
they treat their biological children.

Similarly with studies into twins raised apart, yet having a strong concordance rate for factors such as
schizophrenia or intelligence. Joseph (2002) argues that the main problem with studies of raised-apart
identical twins is that the investigators mistakenly compare reared-apart identical twins with raised-
together identical twins - forgetting that both sets share several important environmental similarities,
which include common age, common sex, similar appearance, similar socioeconomic and cultural
environment, and a common prenatal environment. Therefore, they are bound to have many
similarities in behaviour. While this might not be able to be argued for schizophrenia and intelligence,
he certainly has a point when it comes to things like beliefs, attitudes and memory. He points out that
the better comparison group would be with pairs of unrelated people of the same generation.

Most researchers now point to a genetic predisposition for certain behaviours that nonetheless
requires an environmental trigger. (See Suomi’s research with macaque monkeys, above, for an
example of this). This is in line with the growing realisation of the strong interaction between
environment, physiology, and behaviour.

Example of a relevant research study discussing to what extent genetic inheritance influences
behaviour (1)

Rutter and Folstein (1977) conducted early research into the heritability of autism. They studied 21
same-sexed twin pairs (11 MZ and 10 DZ) in which at least one twin showed signs of infantile autism.
There was a 36% concordance rate for autism in MZ pairs compared with 0% in DZ pairs. The
concordance for cognitive abnormalities was 82 per cent in MZ pairs and 10 per cent in DZ pairs. It
was concluded that there were important hereditary influences concerning a cognitive deficit which
included but was not restricted to autism. In 12 out of the 17 children who had autism without their
twin having it, the presence of autism was associated with some brain damage. The researchers
concluded that brain injury in the infancy period may lead to autism on its own or in combination with
a genetic predisposition. Uncertainty remains regarding both the mode of inheritance and exactly
what is inherited.
The evidence for heritability of autism is supported by later studies. See Bailey et al. (1995) and,
most recently, a Swedish study by Ronald et al (2010).

28
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a relevant research study discussing to what extent genetic inheritance influences
behaviour (2)

Richardson and Norgate (2006) conducted a meta- analysis (large scale analysis) of adoption
studies and IQ. They criticised the studies for taking a simplistic view of IQ, as these adoption
studies have traditionally assumed that natural variation in human intelligence is that of a simple
quantitative character like height or weight. Moreover they point out the intelligence testing
conducted during these studies was often opportunistic and imprecise, with the testing of children
and adults of widely-varying ages on the same scale, when it is widely known that intelligence is a
measure that changes over the life span.

Adoptive families are chosen through stringent testing and tended overall to be of above-average
socio-economic status and education. Thus a stronger correlation between the adopted children
and their birth mothers, who were not selected from any particular socio-economic group and
therefore had a wider variance, is to be expected.

Their conclusion is that adoption studies may be useful in determining the heritability of brain
abnormalities carried genetically but not for determining accurately the heritability of intelligence.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• Patterns of behaviour can be inheirited.
• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

B. Evolutionary explanations of behaviour

Learning outcome:

• Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

Evolutionary psychologists believe that if behaviour
exists in society today, then it must be a useful
adaptation that has helped us survive and reproduce.
They also point out that despite the wide diversity of
human beings in different cultures scattered all over
our planet, there are some reactions that seem to be
almost universal. Examples of these are: the
response of disgust to the smell of rotten eggs; ideas
of what is attractive in a mate; fear or dislike of spiders
and snakes. This is, they argue, because such responses are adaptive. Evolutionary psychologists
are a long way from being able to prove a cause and effect relationship between our genetic
inheritance and such responses, but they have generated some interesting ideas. See this example of
Why we Laugh from the Psychology Today site, and this film clip on how we are attracted to
members of the opposite sex, originally shown by PBS.

29
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Evolutionary psychology has been accused of biological reductionism – reducing everything to a

genetic level, and ignoring human will and the complexity of human behaviour. Evolutionary
psychologists have responded to this by saying that it is the popularisation of their theory, rather than
the theory itself, that has led to these criticisms. Just because they are trying to trace human
behaviour back to its functional origins does not mean they do not acknowledge its complexity.

In TOK, you may have come across an example of a circular argument. What evolutionary
psychologists have been accused of doing is taking a modern behaviour, translating it back into
hunter-gatherer life, and assuming that it must be biologically useful, since the only force acting here
is natural selection. Therefore, the modern behaviour must be the result of natural selection. It must
be useful else it would not have survived, because only adaptive behaviours survive. This is a circular
argument.
Nonetheless, evolutionary psychology raises many interesting questions regarding our behaviour. One
behaviour that is argued to be adaptive is the choice of a suitable mate. It is important that we choose
a mate whose genes are sufficiently different from our own to avoid any problems that could be
created by ‘in-breeding’. This is why there is a strong feeling against marrying people to whom you are
too closely related and why brother-sister marriages are illegal in most countries. One way in which we
identify if a person is genetically distant from ourselves is through pheromones. They are
chemical that, despite not having a smell, are detected by organs within our nose. This ability was first
detected in rats, but in 1985, researchers at the University of Colorado found evidence that this organ
also exists in most adult humans. So humans could also respond to pheromones.

Example of a study demonstrating an evolutionary explanation for behaviour (1)

Wedekind (1995) conducted a study into pheromones. He asked a group of women to smell some
unwashed T-shirts worn by different men. What he discovered was that women consistently
preferred the smell of men whose immune systems were different from their own. This parallels
what happens with rats, which check out how resistant their partners are to disease by sniffing their
pheromones. So it seems we are also at the mercy of our lover's pheromones, just like rats!

However, an accidental discovery by W edekind adds extra interest and has been the subject of
further research: while women who were not on the contraceptive pill preferred the pheromones of
men dissimilar to themselves, women using the pill preferred odours of pheromone-similar men,
indicating that pill use might disrupt adaptive preference for dissimilarity. Wedekind et al. speculated
that this reflected a hormonally-induced shift owing to the pregnancy-mimicking effect of the pill,
leading to increased association with kin who could assist in childcare.

30
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Example of a study demonstrating an evolutionary explanation for behaviour (2)

Roberts et al. (2008) followed up on W edekind’s findings, and tested directly whether taking a
contraceptive pill altered odour preferences. They used a longitudinal design in which women were
tested before and after initiating pill use and a control group of non-users were tested with a
comparable interval between test sessions. Their findings supported Wedekind: there was significant
preference shift towards pheromone similarity associated with pill use, which was not evident in the
control group. Both Wedekind et al. and Roberts et al. concluded that this choice could perhaps lead
ultimately to partnership breakdown if odour perception plays a part in maintaining attraction to
partners.

Principle that this study could be used to demonstrate:

• Patterns of behaviour can be inheirited.
• There are biological correlates to behaviour.

C. Ethics and genetic research

Learning outcome

• Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on

behaviour.

Today we are surrounded by genetic testing. Babies are tested for

the genetic condition, called phenylketonuria (PKU). PKU is a lack
of the enzyme that metabolizes phenylalanine, which is present in
many artificial sweeteners. This is a clear example of the use of
genetic testing: the role of this particular gene is clear; a lack may
result in death; the test allows the baby to live and grow into an
adult, who just must keep away from products containing
phenylalanine.

Pregnant women have blood tests in their first and second trimesters, aimed at determining if there
are any genetic abnormalities with the foetus. If there are severe abnormalities, the woman is given
the choice of a termination. This in itself presents an ethical issue for many people who are opposed
to the abortion of a foetus for any reason.

As we discover more and more about the links between genetic influences on behaviour, ethical
issues continue to arise. When a person participates in a study into genetic influences on behaviour,
there is a chance that they will discover something about themselves that is difficult to deal with. An
alternative is to have data anonymously coded and conduct a double-blind study so that neither the
researcher nor the participants know whose DNA is whose.

It is understandable that researchers would want to help those suffering from an inherited disease, but
if we accept the argument that genes exert an influence on behaviour, does that mean we need to
conduct a search for all of them? The research into the heritability of IQ that we looked at earlier is

31
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

socially-sensitive research. The interpretation of findings that minority groups and those in poverty
scored lower on IQ tests than middle and upper-class white Americans led to assertions that these
were inherited genetic differences in intelligence. (See Herrnstein and Murray, 1994). Such an
interpretation was not only unethical, it was also inaccurate, and understandably created a storm of
protest.
Concerns continue that the results of studies into genetic influences on behaviour could be used to
justify social inequality, to select individuals for education or employment, or to withhold health
insurance.
The ethical consideration that this raises is that if we accept Plomin’s claim (based on his genetic
research) that general intelligence is mainly inherited and it is this inherited trait that can predict a
person’s social and economic status in adult life, then this supposes that intervention in the way of
social programmes to raise general intelligence, to support learning and career choices in children
who do not currently measure as having a high intelligence are a waste of time. This was the
underlying argument of Herrnstein and Murray’s controversial book, mentioned above, and carries
many ethical implications.

Example of a study demonstrating ethical considerations into genetic influences on behaviour

Plomin, R. (1999) has conducted many studies into the heritability of intelligence. In 1999 he argued
that general cognitive ability (g), often referred to as 'general intelligence', predicts social outcomes
such as educational and occupational levels far better than any other behavioural trait, and is one of
the most heritable behavioural traits, He believes that the specific gene or genes that contribute to
the heritability of g will certainly be identified.

While research at the BLOA has provided great insights into the relationship between the brain and
behaviour, this relationship is one that is also affected by many environmental factors. Huge
advances have been made, but we still do not yet know through brain scans how fast a person’s
Alzheimer’s disease will progress, why some people can meditate successfully and others find this
difficult, exactly how memory and emotion operate, and many other questions for which psychology
continues to explore possible answers.

32
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

REFERENCES
Altena, E., van der W erf, O.A., van Someren, E.J.W. et al. (January 15, 2010). Reduced Orbitofrontal
and Parietal Gray Matter in Chronic Insomnia: A Voxel-Based Morphometric Study. Biological
Psychiatry, 67, 2

American Psychological Association (2003, updated 2010). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and
Code of Conduct, APA: W ashington

Archer, J. (1995). Testosterone and Aggression. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 21: 3-4.

Bailey, A., Rutter, M. et al. (1995) Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin
study. Psychological Medicine 25, 1: 63-77

Berger, T.W., Hampson, R.E., Song, D., Goonawardena, A., Marmarelis, V.Z. and Deadwyler, S.A.
(June 15, 2011). A cortical neural prosthesis for restoring and enhancing memory. Journal of Neural
Engineering, 8 (4).

Broca, Paul (1861a). Perte de la parole, ramollissement chronique et destruction partielle du lobe
antérieur gauche du cerveau. Bulletin de la Société Anthropologique, 2: 235-238. [The initial report
of Broca's famous patient, "Tan," and the localization of speech in the left frontal lobe.]

Note: there is an English translation of Broca's Loss of speech, chronic softening and partial
destruction of the anterior left lobe of the brain by C. D. Green at this location.

Broca, Paul (1861b). Remarques sur le siége de la faculté du langage articulé, suivies d'une
observation d'aphémie (perte de la parole). Bulletin de la Société Anatomique, 6: 330-357. [The
complete report on the state of "Tan's" brain, and Broca's argument for the faculty of spoken language
being localized in the left frontal lobe.]

Note: there is an English translation of Broca's Remarks on the Seat of the Faculty of Articulated
Language, Following an Observation of Aphemia (Loss of Speech) by C. D. Green at this location.

Cannon, D.M., Ichise, M., Rollis, D., Klaver, J.M., Gandhi, S.K., Charney, D.S., Manji, H.K. and
Drevets, W.C. (2007). Elevated serotonin transporter binding in major depressive disorder assessed
using positron emission tomography and [11C] DASB; comparison with bipolar disorder. Biological
Psychiatry 62:870–877.

Carrier, N. and Kabbaj, M. (April 1, 2012). Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 2 Signalling in the
Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus Mediates the Antidepressant Effects of Testosterone. Biological
Psychiatry, Volume 71, Issue 7

Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., et al. (2003). Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation
in the 5-HTT Gene. Science 301: 386-389.

Cosmides, L. and Tooby, J. (2013). Evolutionary Psychology: New Perspectives on Cognition and
Motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 64: 201-229.

33
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Damasio, H, Grabowski, T., Frank, R., Galaburda, A. M., and Damasio, A. R. (1994) The Return of
Phineas Gage: The skull of a famous patient reveals clues about the human brain, Science, 264:
1102-05

Deneau, G., Yanagita, T. and Seevers, M. H. (1969). Self-administration of psychoactive substances

by the monkey: a measure of psychological dependence. Psychopharmacologia
16:30-48

Farah, M.J., Smith, M.E., Gawuga C., Lindsell, D. and Foster, D., (2009). Brain Imaging and Brain
Privacy: A Realistic Concern? Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 1: 119-127.
Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L. and Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action recognition in the premotor
cortex.
Brain, 119: 593–609

Folstein S, Rutter M. (September 1977). Infantile autism: a genetic study of 21 twin pairs. Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 18(4):297-321

Goldsmith, Z. G. and Liu, G. T. (2001). Facial recognition and prosopagnosia: Past and present
concepts. Neuro-Ophthal., 25: 177-192.

Herrnstein, R.J. and Murray, C.M. (1994) The Bell Curve. Intelligence and Class Structure in
American Life. New York: Free Press

Iacoboni, M., Molnar-Szakacs, I., Gallese, V., Buccino, G., Mazziotta, J. C., and Rizzolatti,
G. (2005). Grasping the intentions of others with one’s own mirror neuron
system. PLoS Biology, 3: 529–535.

Iacoboni, M. (December 2005). Neural mechanisms of imitation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology,

15(6):632-7.

International Baccalaureate. (2009). Diploma Programme Psychology Guide. Cardiff: IBO.

Jednoróg, K., Altarelli, I., Monzalvo, K., Fluss, J., Dubois, J. et al. (2012). The Influence of
Socioeconomic Status on Children’s Brain Structure. PLoS ONE 7(8): e42486. doi: 10.1371/
journal.pone.0042486

Joseph, J. (March 2002). Twin Studies in Psychiatry and Psychology: Science or Pseudoscience?
Psychiatric Quarterly73, 1: 71-82

Kolb, B., Gibb, R., & Gorny, G. (2000). Cortical plasticity and the development of behaviour after early
frontal cortical injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18: 423-444.

Little, D. (1991). Varieties of Social Explanation. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

Marsh, J. (March 2012) Do Mirror Neurons Give Us Empathy? Interview with V.S.Ramachandran,
accessed online at http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/do_mirror_neurons_give_empathy

34
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Mitchell, J.M., O’Neil, J.P., Janabi, M., Marks, S.M., Jagust, W .J. and Fields, H.L. (2012). Alcohol
Consumption Induces Endogenous Opioid Release in the Human Orbitofrontal Cortex and Nucleus
Accumbens. Science Translational Medicine 4: 116.

Oberman, L.M., Hubbard, E.M., McCleery, J.P., Ramachandran, V.S. et al. (2005). EEG Evidence for
Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Cognitive Brain Research, 24: 190–198

Ogden, J. (2005). Fractured Minds: A Case-Study Approach to Clinical Neuropsychology. New York:
Oxford

Olson, J. M., Vernon, P. A., Harris, J. A., & Jang, K. L. (2001). The heritability of attitudes: A study of
twins. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80: 845-860.

Pedersen C.A. and Boccia M.L. (2003). Oxytocin antagonism alters rat dams' oral grooming and
upright posturing over pups. Physiology and Behaviour, 80, (2-3): 233-41.
Plomin, R. (1999). Genetics and general cognitive ability. Nature, 402, C25-C29.

Ramachandran, V. S. (1996). What Neurological Syndromes Can Tell Us about Human Nature: Some
Lessons from Phantom Limbs, Capgras Syndrome, and Anosognosia. Cold Spring Harbor Symosium
of Quantitative Biology. 61: 115-134

Rizzolatti, G. and Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience
27: 169–192
Ronald, A., Larsson, H., Anckarsäter, H. and Lichtenstein, P. (2010) A twin study of autism symptoms
in Sweden. Molecular Psychiatry, 16 (10): 1-9

Sacks, O. (September 24, 2007) The Abyss. The New Yorker, 83: 100-111.

Santtila, P., Sandnabba, N.K., Harlaar, N., Varjonen, M., Alanko, K., & von der Pahlen, B. (2008).
Potential for homosexual response is prevalent and genetic. Biological Psychology, 77(1): 102-105.

Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, Social, and Physiological Determinants of Emotional
State, Psychological Review, 69: 379-399.

Schiltz, C., Sorger, B., Caldara, R., Ahmed, F., Mayer, E., Goebel, R. and Rossion, B., (2006)
Impaired Face Discrimination in Acquired Prosopagnosia Is Associated with Abnormal Response to
Individual Faces in the Right Middle Fusiform Gyrus. Life Sciences and Medicine, 16,4:574-586

Sperry, R.W. (1968) Hemisphere deconnection and unity in consciousness. American Psychologist,
23: 723-33.

The British Psychological Society (2009). Code of Ethics and Conduct. BPS: Leicester

Van Dongen, H.P., Maislin, G., Mullington, J.M., Dinges, D.F. (2003). The cumulative cost of
additional wakefulness: dose-response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology
from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation. Sleep, 26: 117–26

35
 THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

Walderhaug, E., Magnusson, A., Neumeister, A., Lapaalainen, J. et al. (September 15,
2007).Interactive Effects of Sex and 5-HTTLPR on Mood and Impulsivity During Tryptophan Depletion
in Healthy People. Biological Psychiatry, 62, Issue 6.

Wedekind C, Seebeck T, Bettens F, Paepke A.J. (1995). MHC-dependent mate preferences in

humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences. 260: 245–249.

Wernicke, C. (1874). Der Aphasische Symtmenkomplex. In M. Cohn and W eigart. Eine

Psychologische Studie auf Anatomischer Basis. Breslau.

Wolman, D. (15 March 2012). The split brain: A tale of two halves. Nature, 43: 260–263, accessed
online at http://www.nature.com/news/the-split-brain-a-tale-of-two-halves-1.10213 30 Jan 2013

36