Field Crops Production & Management

UNIT 2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF FIELD CROPS

DURATION: 2 Weeks

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. create a time-lapse video on the process of seed germination;
2. discuss the growth patterns of field crops;
3. illustrate the phases of growth either vegetative or reproductive growth; and
4. discuss the importance of harvest index

TOPICS
1. Seed germination
2. Growth pattern
3. Phases of growth
4. Vegetative growth
5. Reproductive growth
6. Vegetative-reproductive balance
7. Expressions and components of yield

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

WORD Define the following terms according to your own understanding. Write your answer on a clean
sheet of paper.
BANK
Growth Development Germination Vegetative growth Reproductive growth Harvest index

INTRODUCTION

 All cells of a plant develops from the zygote.

 Zygote produces a number of cells which organize into tissues and organs.
 Development is the sum of two processes: growth and differentiation
 During the process of development, a complex body organization is formed that produces roots,
leaves, branches, flowers, fruits and seeds, and eventually die.

 Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in the number and size of a cell, organ or whole
organism, related to change in size and mass.

 Development is the sum of all changes that an organism undergo through its life cycle from seed
germination and through growth, maturation, flowering and senescence.
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Growth
 Growth may be defined as an irreversible permanent increase in size, volume or mass of a cell or
organ or whole organism.
 Growth is one of the fundamental characteristics of a living being.
 It is accompanied by metabolic processes (anabolic and catabolic process), that occur at the expense
of energy.
Example: expansion of a leaf, elongation of a stem

Characteristics of Growth
The main characteristics of growth are:
a. Cellular growth
b. Cell division
c. Cell expansion
d. Cellular differentiation

Types of Growth
 Classified by Developmental Stages
1. Primary growth
a. Apical meristems – extend roots and shoots by giving rise to
the primary plant body
2. Secondary growth
a. Lateral meristems – add girth by producing secondary
vascular tissue and periderm

Figure 1. Types of growth of plant.

Measurement of Growth
 It can be measured in terms of:
1. Increase in length or growth – in case of stem and root
2. Increase in are or volume – in case of leaves and fruits
3. Increase in the number of cells – in algae, yeast and bacteria

Types of Growth and Development

1. Vegetative Phase – carbohydrate utilization
2. Reproductive Phase – accumulation or storage of carbohydrates

SEED GERMINATION

 Most vegetables are started from seed. The seed contains the sleeping plant called the embryo and
its food reserves, the endosperm.
 These are protected by a seed coat or testa.
 The part of the embryo that points upward becomes the initial shoot or plumule and the part that
points downward becomes the initial root or radicle.
 The part between the two becomes the initial stem called hypocotyl.

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Figure 2. Parts of a seed: (a) corn, (b) soybean

Steps in Germination

1. The seed absorbs water which softens the

seed coat and activates the enzymes of
respiration
2. The stored food of the seed is broken down
into energy, carbon dioxide and water.
3. Using the released energy from respiration,
the cells divide and enlarge
4. The seed coat then bursts and the radicle
pushes downwards to become the root.
5. The young root can now absorb water and
nutrients from the soil.
6. The plumule forces its way upward to become
the shoot. Figure 3. Steps in the germination of rice

 As the embryo grows, the food reserves are continually used up until the shoot comes out. Then, the
seedling is ready for photosynthesis. The seed has been transformed into a seedling.

Requirements for germination

1. The embryo must be viable and the endosperm or cotyledon must be intact.
The embryo is viable if the seed comes from a mature fruit that is newly harvested or has been
stored properly. An immature fruit may yield an undeveloped embryo which may not survive.
A seed from a newly harvested, mature fruit is viable. However, it eventually loses its viability
in storage, especially if the conditions favor continued and rapid metabolic activity of the seed
that will deplete it of its food reserves. The seed also loses its viability when attacked by insects
and/or diseases. This is the basis for proper storage and seed treatment.
2. Water may be available to the seed.
3. Optimum temperature is necessary energy for germination.
Too high a temperature, such as that during heat treatment of seeds, will hasten the respiration
process; and deplete the food reserves before the seed is planted or before it can germinate.
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Too low a temperature during germination will result in very slow respiration; so energy
released may be too little for the seed to be able to germinate.

GROWTH PATTERNS

 Annual crops
They complete their life cycle (seed to seed) in one growing season.

 Biennial crops
They complete their life cycle in two growing season. They grow vegetatively and accumulate
food reserves in storage organs for one season; then flower and fruit the next season.

 Perennial crops
They continue to grow from year to year. These are usually woody plants.

PHASES OF GROWTH

1. Vegetative Stage
The period of growth that occurs as soon as the seed germinates up to the stage when the plant is
ready to flower. It is the juvenile phase when the plant is too young to produce flowers and fruits. Thus, the
plant cannot be readily made to flower.

2. Reproductive Stage
The period from flowering to fruit harvest. It is the maturation period or the adult phase when the plant
is capable of reproducing itself.

3. Senescence
The final stage of the life of a plant. It is the process of aging when the changes are irreversible and
lead to death of the plant or plant part.

VEGETATIVE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Vegetative growth of rice

Vegetative growth begins with seed

germination and lasts through the tillering
stage. It can be subdivided into seedling
growth and tillering. The best opportunity
for management practices to influence yield
is in the vegetative stage. In the seedling
stage, good seedling emergence, stand
establishment and seedling growth can be
enhanced by the use of high quality seed,
proper seed soaking, land leveling and
seedbed grooving (rolling).
Up to about the 2 or 3-leaf stage the
seedling is largely dependent on the stored
seed reserves for growth (Figure 5). At the
Figure 4. Vegetative stages of rice 3 to 4-leaf stage the young rice plant
becomes self-supporting or autotrophic,
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relying on the sun’s energy and nutrients from the soil for growth. Practices to enhance rooting and allow for
emergence through the water will enhance rice stands. Generally, plant stands of 20 to 25 seedlings per ft2
will provide optimum tiller and panicle densities. The seedling develops into the main stem.

At tillering, the second stage of vegetative

growth, the primary tillers develop in the axils (base)
of each leaf beginning with the second leaf. Tillers
typically begin to appear at about the fifth leaf stage
(Figure 5). When the sixth leaf appears, the second
tiller emerges from the third leaf and so on. Each tiller
is also capable of developing sub-tillers or secondary
tillers. The total number of tillers developed from a
single seedling depends on stand density, nitrogen
(as well as status of other nutrients), weed
competition and damage from pests. The tillering
stage is even more important to final panicle density
and yield than the number of seedlings established.
It is also one of the critical stages that can be most
influenced by management practices. The period of
tillering does not vary much among varieties,
although some of the very late varieties such as M-
401, have a slightly longer vegetative stage,
Figure 5. The stages of seedling development meaning that tiller initiation may extend over a longer
period. The management factors affecting tiller
formation include good nutrition, especially N
management, water management (deep water reduces
tillering, but usually not below critical levels when other
factors are well managed), weed competition, insects
and diseases. Generally, panicle densities should be in
the range of 60 to 70 fertile tillers per ft2 to maximize
yields. Under good conditions, the number of tillers
formed on the plant at maximum tillering may be twice
what is necessary for high yields. In this case, many of
the tillers die before flowering. Figure 6 shows how tillers
develop over the season at different seeding rates. Note
that at very low seeding rates, all the tillers survive (and
are needed for high yield) whereas at high seeding rates
the number of tillers is very high at maximum tillering but
about half die off from shading. Final tiller number is
Figure 6. Tiller initiation at the 5th leaf stage from the
about constant across these seeding rates.
axil of the 2nd leaf

Vegetative Stage of Soybean

 First trifoliate
This stage is achieved when the 1st trifoliate is fully emerged and unfolded. The e vegetative
growth stages after cotyledon are defined and numbered by the upper, fully developed trifoliate leaves
on the main stem. Trifoliate leaves on branches are not counted when determining vegetative growth
stages.

 Second node
Soybean plants are 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 cm) tall and have two fully developed trifoliate leaf
nodes. Most of nitrogen required by the soybean plant can be supplied through a process called N-
fixation. Through N-fixation, nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots convert atmospheric N2 to usable
forms of nitrogen for the plant. The bacteria enter the plant through the root hairs. Nodules become
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visible shortly after the seed emergence stage. Thereafter, the number of nodules formed and the
amount of N2 fixed increases with time until about reproductive stage. Nodules that are pink or red
inside are healthy and actively fixing nitrogen whereas brown, white, or green nodules are not
efficiently fixing nitrogen. Bacteria in the nodule are able to supply most of the plant’s N requirements.
Inherent nitrate in the soil, whether from N fertilizer or carryover from the previous crop, reduces
nodule formation.

 Third to fifth node

Soybean plants are 7 to 9 inches tall (18 to 23 cm) and have three fully developed trifoliate
leaf nodes.
At the 4th node growth stage, plants are 8 to 11 inches (20 to 27 cm) tall with four fully
developed trifoliate leaf nodes whereas at V5, plants are 10 to 12 inches (25 to 30 cm) tall with five
fully developed trifoliate leaf nodes. For most varieties, the number of branches increases at wider
row widths and lower plant densities. Typically, up to six branches develop under field conditions.
At the fifth node stage, the soybean plant normally has axillary buds in the top stem that will
develop into flower clusters called racemes. The total number of nodes that the plant will potentially
produce is set.

 Sixth node
At this stage, soybean plants are 12 to 14 inches (30 to 36 cm) tall with six fully developed
trifoliate leaf nodes. The cotyledons and the uni-foliate may have senesced and fallen from the plant.
New vegetative growth stages are appearing every two to five days. At this stage, lateral roots have
grown completely across inter-row spaces of 30 inches or less.

REPRODUCTIVE GROWTH

Reproductive stage of rice

 Panicle initiation to flowering

The reproductive stage begins at panicle initiation (PI) and extends through flowering. The
duration of the reproductive stage varies quite a bit among varieties of different duration with longer
duration varieties having a longer reproductive period. Furthermore, some varieties (e.g. M-401) are
sensitive to day length and PI must be induced by shorter days. These varieties tend to be much longer
duration than many varieties which are not photo-period sensitive. The panicle develops within each tiller
at the base of the plant just above the soil surface. The start of PI can be seen by the formation of a green
ring just above the top node when the stem is cut longitudinally (thus referred to as “greenring”). The
green band is only visible for a couple of days so it is easy to miss it.
At about one week following PI the young panicle is large enough to see when the stem is sliced
longitudinally through the base (panicle differentiation). At this time jointing or stem elongation of the
upper internodes begins. The young panicle is about 1-2 inches above the soil surface and differentiating
into spikelet; the number of spikelet per panicle are determined at this time.
In the final stages of differentiation, pollen is formed within each immature spikelet and this is the
most sensitive period to cold temperatures.
Flowering, the second part of the reproductive stage, occurs over two to three weeks.

 Ripening Stage
Ripening begins at the completion of flowering and lasts through physiological maturity. The
developing kernel is filled from materials stored in the leaves and stem and from new carbohydrate
produced from photosynthesis in the uppermost leaves and developing kernel. The kernel reaches
physiological maturity at about 28% moisture. For translocation of stored materials and photosynthesis
to remain active, the maturing plant must have adequate soil moisture for a long enough period to ripen
late maturing kernels. While it is not possible to increase kernel weight above the genetic potential of the
variety, it is possible to lower kernel weight by soil drying too soon. Thus, decisions about when to drain
the field are critical. Early draining facilitates harvest but may allow the field to dry too soon to complete
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grain filling, thus reducing both kernel weight and milling quality. This decision is often a tradeoff between
a smooth harvest and lower head rice or “mucking” out the harvest to achieve higher head rice.

Reproductive stage of soybean

 Beginning bloom
At this stage, there is at least one open flower at any node on the main stem. Soybean plants
at this stage are 15 to 18 inches (38 to 46 cm) tall. Flowering initiates on the third to sixth nodes of
the main stem, depending on the vegetative stage at the time of flowering, and progresses up and
down the plant. Flowers at branch nodes appear a few days later. Within each raceme, flowering
occurs from the base to the tip, meaning that basal pods are always more mature. At this stage,
vertical roots grow at a fast rate. Secondary roots and root hairs proliferate near the soil surface.

 Full bloom
At this stage, the soybean plant has one open flower at the two top nodes on the main stem
and a least one of the two upper nodes shows a fully developed leaf. Plants are 17 to 22 inches (43
to 56 cm) tall. The soybean plant has accumulated 25% of its total dry weight, about 50% of its mature
height, and has about 50% of its total mature node number. The full bloom stage also marks the
beginning of the very rapid nutrient and dry matter accumulation that continues until the full seed
growth stage. The rate of N2 fixation by root nodules is also increasing rapidly at this stage.
The roots can reach across a 40-inch inter-row space. The major lateral roots have turned
downward in the soil and these, along with the taproot, continue to elongate deeply into the soil profile
until late into the full seed stage. Fifty y percent defoliation at this stage reduces yield by about six
percent.

 Beginning pod
Soybean plants are about 23 to 32 inches (58 to 81 cm) tall. One of the uppermost nodes has
a pod 3⁄16 inch (0.5 cm) long. At this stage, a plant has developing pods, open flowers, withering
flowers, and flower buds. Developing pods are located on lower nodes where flowering began.

 Full pod
At this stage the soybean plant has a pod ¾ inch long (2 cm) at one of the four top nodes on
the main stem. Plants are 28 to 39 inches (71 to 100 cm) tall. This stage is characterized by rapid pod
growth and the beginning of seed development. Pods show rapid growth and dry weight accumulation
between full pod and beginning seed stages. Pods on the lower nodes of the main stem are full size
or close to full size, but most pods will be full size by beginning stage.
The soybean plant is very susceptible to stress (moisture, light, temperature, nutrient
deficiencies, etc). Any major stress occurring anytime from full pod to full seed will reduce yield more
than the same stress at any other period of development. This is because flowering is complete and
no new flowers can be produced to compensate for aborted young pods and seeds under stressful
conditions.

 Beginning seed
At this stage plants are 30 to 43 inches (76 to 109 cm) tall. The plant has seeds at least ⅛
inch (3 mm) long in a pod at one of the four top nodes on the main stem. This characterized by rapid
seed growth and redistribution of dry weight and nutrients within the plant. Root growth slows down
when seed development begins.
At about halfway through this stage, the soybean plant:
Attains its maximum height, node number, and leaf area. Nitrogen fixation rates peak and
begin to drop rapidly. Seeds gain weight rapidly.
Midway between beginning seed and full seed stages, dry weight and nutrient accumulation
in the leaves, stems, and petiole peaks and the process to redistributing to the seed begins. The
process of seed dry weight accumulation continues until the middle of R6. Stress may influence both
the rate and length of time that dry weight accumulates in seeds. During this rapid seed filling period,
demand for water and nutrients is high. Soil moisture stress may reduce nutrient availability by

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inhibiting root growth in dry soil. One hundred percent leaf loss at this stage can reduce yields by
75%.

 Full seed
The soybean plant is 31 to 47 inches (79 to 120 cm) tall. This stage is initiated when plants
have a pod containing a green seed that fills the pod cavity on at least one of the four top nodes on
the main stem. Total pod weight maximizes at this stage. Growth rates of the seeds and the whole
plant are still very rapid, but will begin to slow down in the whole plant shortly after this stage. Leaf
yellowing begins shortly and continues rapidly to about R8. Root growth is complete midway between
full seed and beginning maturity stages.

 Beginning maturity
At this stage, the soybean plant has one normal pod on the main stem that has reached mature
color (tan or brown). Dry matter accumulation for individual seeds peaks at this stage. The soybean
plant is visually yellow as all green color is lost from seeds and pods. Soybean seeds contain about
60% moisture at maturity. At this stage and later, the possibility of yield reduction due to stress is
much lower.

 Full maturity
At this stage, 95% of pods have reached their mature color (tan or brown). Five to 10 days of
dry weather are required after this stage before soybean seeds have less than 15% moisture.
Timeliness of harvest is very important for soybean. Ideally, seed moisture content at harvest and for
storage should be 13%. Harvesting at higher moisture will increase drying costs. Delaying harvest to
moisture contents of less than 13% may reduce yield due to pre-harvest shatter, sickle-bar shatter
loss during harvest, and split seeds.

VEGETATIVE-REPRODUCTIVE BALANCE

The vegetative and reproductive

phases of plant development may be
likened to a balance (Fig. 7). On one
side is the vegetative phase, and on
the other is the reproductive phase.
This concept presents three
possibilities:

 The vegetative phase may be

dominant over the reproductive phase;
in which case, the plant continues to
produce more shoots than flowers and
fruits, so the balance is tipped on the
Figure 7. Vegetative and reproductive balance vegetative phase.
 The reproductive phase may be
dominant over the vegetative; in which case, the plant produces more flowers and fruits than leaves,
so the balance is tipped on the reproductive side.
 Neither the vegetative nor the reproductive phase may be dominant, with the plant producing as much
shoots as flowers, so both sides of the balance are practically equal.

When the vegetative phase of plant development is dominant over the reproductive, more assimilates
are used than stored. When the reproductive phase is dominant over the vegetative, more assimilates are
stored than used. When the vegetative and reproductive phases are balanced, practically equal amounts of
assimilates are used and stored.
In field crops grown for their vegetative storage organs such as tubers, or fleshy roots, the reproductive
phase becomes important only in breeding and seed production. Since these storage organs are the places

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where assimilates accumulate, their yield is determined by assimilates accumulated. Before storage organ
formation can take place, the stem, leaf, and absorbing root systems must not only be formed but already
functioning vigorously. This means that the utilization of assimilates is dominant over accumulation. However,
when the plants are still developing their storage organs, the accumulation of stored food is dominant over
utilization for growth and development of shoots and absorbing roots.
With the indeterminate varieties, two distinct phases of growth and development can be recognized: pre-
fruiting (vegetative) and fruiting (reproductive). During the pre-fruiting stage the plants develop their stems,
leaves, arid absorbing roots; consequently, utilization of assimilates is dominant. However, because
vegetative growth very often continues after fruiting has begun, these two phases overlap for some time. A
balance between utilization of food for shoot and root growth and accumulation in the fruits is necessary
during the fruiting stage.

EXPRESSIONS AND COMPONENTS OF YIELD

Expression of Yield

Yield can be expressed in several ways. Biological yield is the total weight of all the plant parts,
regardless of edibility; hence, it is not of interest to a farmer. He is more interested in economic yield, which
is the weight of that particular part of the plant for which the plant is being grown and utilized.
Yield, whether biological or economic, could be expressed as fresh weight, dry weight, or digestible
dry organic matter. The farmer is interested only in fresh weight, but the processor producing dehydrated
onions would be interested in the dry weight. Digestible dry organic matter, on the other hand, is of interest
to researchers. In some cases, the yield of other components of a plant, such as the oil yield of soybean,
becomes of particular interest. If the harvest is to be sold in fresh from, quality becomes an important
consideration; and only those meeting the quality requirements of the consumer is included in the economic
yield.
To determine what proportion of the entire plant (biological yield) that is useful (economic yield), the
harvest index, is computed. It can be expressed as follows:

Where: HI = harvest index (%)

EY = economic yield (kg)
BY = biological yield (kg)

When that same crop is grown for seed, the yield is a very small fraction of the biological yield. Ideally,
a desirable crop is one in which the economic yield is a large fraction of the biological yield. A crop with an
economic yield that is merely a small fraction of the biological yield will be worth growing only if the product
can sell for a very high price.
The HI is, therefore, a measure of how the net photosynthesis has been utilized in producing the
desired plant. Its value can vary from as little as 20% to as much as 70%. Since, a high HI is preferable, it is
one of the objectives of crop improvement.
The HI of different crops vary greatly. In soybean, it ranges from 29-40% while in dry bean, from 53-
67%.

Yield Components
Yield, whether it be a root or leafy head, shoot, flower, fruit or seed is expressed on a unit area basis
(per hectare) rather than on a plant basis. It is a product of factors that contribute to the yield and it varies for
different types of vegetables.
Seed yield or weight per unit of land area reflects the interplay of the number of plants per unit area,
the number of pods per plant, the number of seeds per pod, and the weight per seed. The seed yield is
expressed as:

Ys = P x F x S x Ws
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Where: Ys = is the seed yield in grams per hectare

P = number of plants per hectare
F = number of pods or fruits per plant
S = number of seeds per pod
Ws = mean seed weight (g)

The number of pods per plant can be estimated from the number of flowers per plant if the percentage
of fruit setting is known.

Where: I = number of flowers

A = pod setting

The components of yield affect each other. In general, the number of flowers or fruits per plant
decreases as the number of plants per unit area (planting density) increases within certain limits. In like
manner, the more fruits there are per plant, the smaller the fruit side is.
In general, yield per unit area increases with population until a certain point beyond which, further
population increase causes yield reduction or shows very little decreases in yield.
As plant population increases, per unit area, a point is reached at which each plant begins to complete
for certain essential growth factors: nutrients, sunlight and water. The effect of increasing competition is
similar to decreasing the availability of a growth factor. The optimum population, therefore, is the one which
produces the greatest net return, to the grower. In this case, yield must be interpreted in both quantitative
and qualitative terms. The value of the total yield should be based not only on quantity, but also on quality
(size, color, appearance, etc.) in relation to the desires of the consumer.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Seed Germination

1. Choose a field crop seed that will easy to germinate (bean seeds, corn or rice seeds). Sow at least 5
seeds in any available transparent potting bags such as bread wrapper and many more. Observe its
growth and development. Fill-in the table below.

Name of No. of Root Height No. of No. of Color of No. of Texture of

the crop days from length (cm) leaves roots the tillers the leaves
sowing (cm) leaves (rice ,
corn)
1 1
2
3
4
5
Date of 2
Sowing
3
4
5
6
7

2. Create a time-lapse video on seed germination from seed emergence to seedlings.

3. Give the growth pattern of the chosen field crop.
4. In continuation to Number 3, illustrate its phases of growth either vegetative or reproductive.
5. How important does harvest index (HI) in field crop production?
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Take note: After the observation, please do not uproot or throw away your seedlings. This will be used
for the next topic of the course.

“There are no gardening mistakes, only experiments”

-Janet Kilburn Phillips-

REFERENCES:

Bautista, O. K.1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture.2nd Edition. University of the Philippines Los Bańos,
Laguna, Philippines.

California Rice Production Wokshop, 2018. Rice growth and development.

Nleya, T., Sexton, P., Gustafson, K., and Miller, J.M. 2019. Soybean growth stages.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331683847

Pava, H. and Allan L. Abellanosa. 1995. Introduction to Crop Science. CMU, Musuan, Bukidnon.

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WANT TO NAME : ___________________________ DATE: _________________

LEARN
MORE? YEAR & SECTION: ______________ SCORE: ________________

Instruction: Determine the phases and stages of growth on the different field crops.

6
5

4
3
2

Rice

8
7
6

3
2
1

Corn

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Document Code: CPSC-ACA-F007 Rev. No.: 01 Effective Date: August 26, 2020 Page 12 of 13

“CPSC commits to provide quality higher professional, technical instruction, research, extension and production services, advanced studies
in progressive leadership in Agriculture, Teacher Education, Engineering and Computer Studies, Industrial Technology, Arts and Sciences, Certificate No.
Tourism, Business and Public Administration.” SCP000538Q
 Field Crops Production & Management

6 7 8 9

5
10
4 11
3
2
12
1

Taro/Gabi

Document Title: INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Document Code: CPSC-ACA-F007 Rev. No.: 01 Effective Date: August 26, 2020 Page 13 of 13

“CPSC commits to provide quality higher professional, technical instruction, research, extension and production services, advanced studies
in progressive leadership in Agriculture, Teacher Education, Engineering and Computer Studies, Industrial Technology, Arts and Sciences, Certificate No.
Tourism, Business and Public Administration.” SCP000538Q