GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Growth is defined as a permanent increase in size, mass, number of
cells and complexity of a living organism.
Growth in Plants
• Plants undergo two
types of growth
A. Primary growth -
increase in length of
shoots and roots
• It enables the roots to
penetrate the ground
and the shoots to grow
towards light.
B. Secondary growth –
increase in the
width(girth) of shoots
and roots
Stages of Growth
1. Cell division: The process by which new cells (daughter cells) are
formed from cells that are already existing (parent cells). The type of
cell division involved in growth is called mitosis. This is a type of cell
division where one parent cell produces two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell. Immediately after cell division,
all cells look alike.
Regions of active cell division are known as meristems, or
meristematic tissues. There are two types of meristematic tissues in
plants, namely apical meristems and cambial meristems (or simply
cambium).
Apical meristems occur at the tips of shoots and roots and are
responsible for primary growth.
There are two types of cambium, namely, vascular cambium and cork
cambium; both are responsible for secondary growth.
2. Cell Elongation: This is a process by which cells grow
bigger and develop their vacuoles by absorbing a lot of water.
The greatest increase in length occurs in the region of cell
elongation during growth. After being vacuolated all cells still
look identical.
3. Cell Differentiation: This is a process by which cells
become suited for specific functions by developing specific
shapes and undergoing specific chemical changes in their
cytoplasms. After specialisation, plant cells may develop into
any of the following cell types: collenchyma, parenchyma,
sclerenchyma, cambium, phloem or xylem.
Regions of Growth in the Shoots and
Root Apices/Tips
There are three regions or zones of growth. Namely
• Region cell division
• Region of cell elongation or vacuolation
• Region of cell differentiation or specialisation.
Zones of Growth in Shoot
Region of cell division
Region of cell
elongation
Region of cell
specilisation
Zone of Growth in Roots
Cells in the zone of
specialisation undergo
Zone of Cell
chemical and structural
Specialisation/ changes in order to
differentiation perform specific functions
Zone of Cell
Cells in the zone of cell elongation
elongation absorb water and become longer
Root cap protects the
Zone of Cell
apical meristem cells as
Division the continuously divide
and grow further into the
ground
Germination
• Germination is the process by which seeds develop into seedlings.
• A seedling is a young plant
• Two types of seeds in flowering plants i.e. monocotyledon and
dicotyledon seeds
Parts Of a Monocotyledon Seed: Maize
Parts of a Dicotyledon Seed :Bean
Parts and Function of a Seed
• Testa (seed coat): This is the outer-most layer of seed and is responsible for
protecting the seed against physical damage and infection. It is also responsible for
dormancy in certain seeds where it prevents imbibition (entry of water into the
seeds)
• Plumule: This is the embryonic shoot. It develops into a shoot after germination
• Radicle: This is the embryonic root. It develops into roots after germination
• The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo of the seed. The region of the
embryo next to the plumule is called the epicotyl while the region next to the radicle
is called the hypocotyl.
• Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in mainly dicot seeds. In most monocot
seeds, food is stored in another tissue known as the endosperm. Seeds, which have
the endosperm, are called endospermic seeds while those without the endosperm
are called non-endospermic seeds. The main forms of foods stored in seeds include
starch, oils and proteins.
• In some monocot seeds such as maize, the plumule is protected by a sheath called
the coleoptile while the radicle is protected by a sheath called the coleorrhiza. These
prevent damage during germination
Types of Germination
Hypogeal
Germination
Epigeal
Germination
Epigeal Germination
• This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are pushed
above the ground by elongation of the hypocotyl. The
plumule is covered by cotyledons and comes out of the
ground with a hooked shape in order to protect the delicate
shoot. The cotyledons also carry out photosynthesis during
the first few days before the leaves develop fully.
• Examples of seeds that carry out this type of germination are
beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), sunflower, castor oil and
groundnut seeds. This type of germination is commonly
associated with dicotyledonous seeds but there are
exceptions such as the broad bean
Hypogeal Germination
•This is a type of germination where the
cotyledons remain underground, due to
elongation of the epicotyl. The plumule is
covered with a sheath called the coleoptile to
protect it from abrasion as it pushes out of the
soil.
•Examples of seeds which undergo this type of
germination are monocotyledonous seeds such
as maize, sorghum and millet seeds
1.Water:
• absorbed through micropyle until radicle is forced out of testa
• activates enzymes for converting soluble food stores in the cotyledons
down to soluble food which will be use for growth and energy production for the
plant embryo.
2.Oxygen: needed respiration to release energy for growth
3.Optimum temperature: enzymes present in the seed get activated and
work best at optimum temperature (20-40oC) which trigger growth in the
baby plant.
Experiments to Determine Requirements for
Germination
Experiment to show oxygen is necessary for germination
Experiment to Show that Water is Necessary for Germination
Suggested Materials:
Soaked maize seeds, dry maize seeds, cotton wool, three petri dishes
Method:
Label the petri dishes A, B, and C
Put five soaked seeds in petri dish A
Put another five soaked seeds on top of moist cotton wool in petri dish B
Put five dry seeds in petri dish C
Cover the seeds in dish A completely with water
Keep the cotton wool in petri dish B moist all the time by sprinkling it with water.
Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
Observation:
Seeds in petri dish A do not germinate; seeds in petri dish B germinate while those in petri dish C do not
germinate.
Conclusion
Seeds require suitable amounts of water (moisture) in order to germinate. The water is imbibed (absorbed) by the
seed and is important in the following ways:
It softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and radicle.
It activates enzymes and provides an aqueous medium for metabolic reactions to take place.
It is involved in hydrolysis of complex nutrients in a seed e.g. hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
Too much water makes the seeds rot. For this reason the seeds in dish A do not germinate. Seeds in dish C do not
germinate because no water is provided for them to soften the testa and activate enzymes.
Experiment to Show that a Suitable/Favourable Temperature is Necessary for Germination of Seeds
• Suggested Materials:
Soaked seeds, cotton wool, 3 pyrex beakers, a fridge and an oven.
• Method
Label the beakers A, B, and C
Wrap three sets of five seeds in moist cotton wool.
Place one set in beaker A, one in B and the other in beaker C
Put beaker A in a refrigerator at a temperature of 0oC, beaker B at room temperature (about 25oC) and beaker C in
an oven at a temperature of 50oC
Leave the set up for at least seven days ensuring that the cotton wool remains moist.
• Observation
The seeds put in the refrigerator at 0oC (in beaker A) and those put in the oven at 50oC (in beaker C) fail to
germinate while those left at room temperature (in beaker B) germinate.
• Conclusion
Very low and very high temperatures are not favourable for seed germination. Seeds at very low temperature fail
to germinate because the enzymes in the embryo become inactive or less active and as such they do not catalyse
the metabolic reactions necessary for germination. High temperatures (temperatures above optimum) denature
the enzymes and as such no metabolic reactions take place. Hence seeds require a favourable temperature in
order to germinate.
Seed Dormancy
• Seed dormancy is the state/condition during which a seed carries out minimum
metabolism and does not germinate.
Importance of Seed Dormancy
• It gives time for seeds to reach full maturity.
• It prevents the seed from germinating when conditions are harsh. Hence it is a survival
mechanism
Causes of Seed Dormancy
• Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and impermeable to water and oxygen,
thereby preventing germination of the seeds.
• Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have hormones, such as abscicic acid (ABA)
which keep them from germinating
• Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can only germinate if first exposed to certain
conditions of the environment such as cold temperatures, light or darkness.
Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
• Scarification: This is the physical destruction of hard testa so that a seed
becomes permeable to water and oxygen. It can be done manually or by the
action of digestive juices or gizzards of some animals.
• Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in some seeds
• Fire: The resistant testas of some seeds are only made permeable to water
and oxygen through burning them.
• Exposure to appropriate environmental conditions such as light, darkness
and cold temperatures.
• Exposure to appropriate chemical substances which reverse the effects of
chemical inhibitors of germination e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to reverse
the effects of ABA in some cereals
Seed Viability
• Seed viability is the ability of a seed to germinate into a seedling. It may be
reduced by prolonged periods of storage, high temperatures, physical
damage, parasites and pests
