2022 AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

CROP DRYING

by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

Volume 6 –AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PROCESS ENGNEERING

 Introduction

¾ Drying is the process of removing excess moisture from the product

that is above its equilibrium moisture content by applying heat from
combustible fuel to minimize deterioration or spoilage. It also
causes the grains to germinate which is not suitable for human
consumption.
 Methods of Drying

• Sundrying – This is by direct exposure of materials to be dried to

the heat of the sun. The speed of drying is highly dependent on the
intensity of the sun during drying.

• Mechanical Drying – This is with the use of a device to heat the air
either with the use of the sun, of fossil fuel, or of biomass and forces
the heated air into the bin or cabinet to dry the product.
 Definition of Terms

• Dryer – A device for removing excess moisture generally by forced

ventilation, with or without addition of heat, to prevent the
development of favorable environment for the growth of molds,
insects, and others that normally cause spoilage.

• Heated-Air Mechanical Dryer – A mechanical dryer used to

remove moisture from a product by blowing artificially-heated air
until the required moisture content is attained.

• Unheated-Air Mechanical Dryer – A mechanical dryer used to

remove moisture from a product by blowing ambient air until the
required moisture content is attained.
• Flat-Bed Dryer – A batch-type dryer with horizontal holding bin for
granular product and is used for drying at a maximum drying layer
thickness of 45 cm.

• Vertical-Bin Dryer – A batch-type dryer with vertical holding bin

and is used for drying at the same layer with the flat-bed dryer.

• Deep-Bed Dryer – A batch-type dryer normally used for drying

granular products at a depth more than 45 cm. Drying time in this
type of dryer is normally longer.

• Re-circulating-Type Dryer – A batch dryer equipped with

conveyors to circulate or mix granular product during drying.
• Continuous Flow Dryer – A type of mechanical dryer wherein
the granular product is passed continuously through a drying
chamber utilizing agitator until the product reaches the specified
moisture content reduction per pass and subsequent cooling is
effected through the tempering bins before subjecting it for
another pass.
 Advantages of Mechanical Drying

• Drying can be done in a shorter period compared with the natural

method by sundrying.
• Drying can be done regardless of the weather condition.
• Programming of farm activities can be more convenient and more
profitable.
• Procurement program can be better managed and can provide more
opportunities to procure more stocks especially during rainy season
when farmers are willing to sell their products at a lower price.
• More product can be dried per unit space.
• Good quality product can be produced due to controlled drying
procedure.
• Low labor requirement.
 Factors Affecting the Selection of
the Type of Equipment for
Specific Installation
• Weather conditions
• Quantity of product to be dried
• Drying rate required
• Economics
 Types of Crop Dryer

• Batch or Bin Dryer – In this type, the materials to be dried are

placed in a bin or container, and air is forced through the mass
until the materials are dried. This system is simple, moderately
inexpensive, and serves as storage unit after drying is
accomplished.

• Continuous-Gravity Flow Dryer – In this type of dryer, the

material is allowed to flow from a vertical column where heated air
is forced across the column bed. This type of dryer is moderately
expensive due to the need for material handling devices to cause
the movement of the product.
• Rotary Dryer – In this type of dryer, the materials are not free
flowing. This is applicable for chopped forage, fruits and
vegetables, livestock feed, and fertilizer components. It has high
initial cost and requires more floor space per unit of capacity than
the batch of column dryer.

• Tray Dryer – In this type of dryer, materials that cannot be dried

in the previous types are suitable for this type of dryer. Fruits
and vegetables are the best examples of product that is suitable
for this type of dryer. In this type, the materials are placed in
shallow trays which are stacked inside the drying chamber of the
dryer.
• Spray Dryer - In this type of dryer, water is removed from
solutions or suspensions and dry the resulting powder to a
moisture content that approaches the equilibrium with the
exhaust drying air. This type of dryer is usually expensive and
is commonly used for food, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.

• Fluidized-Bed Dryer – This is a type of dryer suitable for

drying powdered or granular products where products
undergo drying as they move along with the heated air inside
a duct or a drying chamber at a known terminal velocity.
 Fuels for Crop Dryers

• Electricity
• LPG
• Kerosene
• Biomass (rice husks, corn cobs, sugar baggasse,
wood, etc.)
 Parts of a Mechanical Dryer

¡ Burner – It is a device that supplies the needed heat for drying.

Methods:

• Direct method – the flame heats directly the drying air and is
forced through the drying chamber by means of a fan or blower.
• Indirect method – the drying air is heated through a heat
exchanger in order that the product of combustion will not mix
with the drying air and the product being dried.
¡ Heat Exchanger – It is used to convert heat from the flue gas
into clean air. It is used for the dryer that is heated by indirect
method especially those that employ biomass burner.

¡ Fan or Blower - It is used to supply the required amount of air

and pressure needed by the system. A fan may either be an
axial, vane-axial, or tube-axial. On the other hand, a blower
could be either radial, backward, forward-curved, or mixed-flow
type.

¡ Drying Chamber – It is where the product undergoes drying

process during operation. It may be inside a bin, a cylinder, a
tray, or a cyclone. The product inside the chamber is allowed
to be stationary, mixed, float, or fluidized during the process to
enhance drying.
¡ Plenum Chamber – It is a component of the dryer where the
velocity pressure of the air is converted into static pressure to
obtain a much uniform air distribution within the chamber.

¡ Safety Control Network – This includes accessories such as

thermometer, thermostat, manometer, gas valve, switches and
others to monitor and control the conditions during drying.

¡ Accessories – These include the conveying equipment,

receiving bin, cleaning device, tempering bins, bagging or
packaging, auto weigher, and others.
 Drying Principle

• Drying is the process of removal of moisture from a product at an

equilibrium level to prevent spoilage or deterioration.

• Drying occurs once the vapor pressure of the moisture in the

product is higher than the vapor pressure of the ambient air. When
the vapor pressure of the moisture in the ambient air is higher than
the product, adsorption of moisture takes place. Moreover, no
transfer takes place when both the moisture vapor pressure that of
the product and that of the ambient air is the same.

• Drying takes place as a result of heat and mass transfer.

 Drying Rates

• Constant Rate – Moisture removal is at a uniform level during the

drying process. Usually moisture removal of free moisture is
taking place during the process.
• Falling Rate – Moisture removal is in declining behavior until the
equilibrium level is reached. During the process, the removal of
bound moisture is taking place.
 Drying Parameters

• Air Flow Rate – It is the volume of air, in cubic meters, delivered

to the product per unit time, in minutes.
• Drying Air Temperature – It is the temperature of the air entering
the product to be dried.
• Drying Rate – It is the amount of moisture content removed from
the product for a certain period of time the product is exposed into
the drying chamber.
• Burner Efficiency – It is the ratio of the heat supplied to the heat
available, expressed in percent.
• Heat Utilization Efficiency – It is the ratio of the total heat
requirement to the heat supplied by the burner.
 Maximum Recommended Drying
Temperature
Crop Moisture Content Temperature
(%wb) (°C)

Seed Corn Over 25% 32-43

Under 25% 43-50
Commercial Corn For wet milling 55-57
Small grain seed 50
Commercial 82
Soybean commercial 82
Hay feeding 66
Paddy For seeds 45
Fruits Sliced 60-70
Fish Split and whole 60-70
 Moisture Removed

Wi ( 1 – MCi ) = Wf ( 1- MCf )
MR = Wi - Wf

where:
Wi - initial weight of sample, kg
Wf - final weight of sample, kg
MCi - initial moisture content, % wb
MCf - final moisture content, % wb
MR - moisture removed, kg
Determine the amount of moisture that can be removed from 9 tons of
paddy initially from 24% and dried to 14%.

Given: Wi - 9 tons
MCi - 24%
MCf - 14%

Required: Weight final

Solution: Wi (1 – Mci ) = Wf (1- MCf)

Wf = Wi (1-MCi) / (1-MCf)
= 9 tons (1-0.24) / (1-0.14)
= 7.9 tons

MR = Wi – Wf
MR = 9 tons – 7.9 tons
= 1.05 tons
A solar dryer is used to reduce the moisture content of four tons of
paddy rice from 25% to 14% wet basis. What is the amount of moisture
that can be removed from paddy?

Given: MC initial - 25%

MC final - 14%
Initial weight - 4 tons
Required: Weight of moisture removed

Solution: Wt. of Moisture removed = Wi - Wf

Wt. final = Wi (1 – MCi) / (1 – MCf)
= 4 tons (1- 0. 25) / (1 -0.14)
= 4(0.75) / (0.86)
= 3.53 tons
Wt. of moisture removed = 4 tons – 3.53 tons
= 0.47 ton
 Bin Capacity

Cb = ( L x W x H ) x δg/1000

where:
Cb - bin capacity, ton
L - length of bin, m
W - width of bin, m
T - thickness of bin, m
δg - bulk density of the grain, kg/m3
What is the required dimension for a rectangular bin flat-bed dryer with
1ton- capacity paddy if the dryer is required to have a grain thickness of
0.45 m. Assume a grain density of 576 kg/m3. The width to length ratio
of the dryer bin is 2W = L.

Given:
Bin - rectangular
Shape - 2W = L
Bin Capacity - 1 ton
Thickness of grain - 0.45
Grain density - 576 kg/m3

Required: Dimension of rectangular bin

Solution:
Vgrain = 1 ton x 1000 kg/ton x m3/576 kg
= 1.76 m3
Area of Bin = 1.76 m3 / 0.45 m
= 3.85 m2
WxL = 3.85 m2
W x 2W = 3.85 m2
W = [ 3.85 m2 / 2 ]½
= 1.39 m
L = 2xW
= 2 x 1.39m
= 2.78 m
Recommended Airflow for Various
Types of Grain Dryer
Type Approximate Airflow
(m3/min-ton)

Batch-In-Bin, Small 50

Batch-In-Bin, Large 23

Recirculating Bin, Small 60 – 80

Recirculating Bin, Large 70 – 100

Continuous-Flow, Small 85 – 115

Continuous-Flow, Large 60 - 80
Compute the apparent air velocity on a 1ton-capacity flat-bed dryer
having a dimension of 2.4m-x-2.4m square bin. The specific airflow rate
of the dryer is 50 m3 per minute of air per m3 of grain. Assume a density
of grain of 500 kg/m3.

Given: Total airflow - 50 m3/min

Area - 2.4 m x 2.4 m
Grain drying - 500 kg/m3

Required: Apparent air velocity

Solution: Volume = 1 ton x 1000 kg/ton x m3/500kg

= 2 m3
Q = 50 m3/min-m3 x 2 m3
= 100 m3/min
Vapp = 100 m3/min / 2.4 m x 2.4 m
= 17.36 m/min
 Pyschrometric Chart

It gives the properties of the air at different temperatures and

humidity. This is important for heated-air drying in determining the
amount of energy needed for drying and also in determining the
time required to finish the drying operation.
Determine the amount of rice husk fuel required to dry 4 tons of paddy
from 21% to 14% moisture content. The air temperature for drying is
45°C. The ambient temperature is 30°C while the relative humidity 85%.
The recommended airflow rate is 25 m3 of air per min-ton of grains.
Assume a heating value for rice husk of 3,000 kcal/kg and a heat
utilization efficiency for the dryer of 0.4.

Given: Capacity - 4 tons

MC initial - 21%
MC final - 14%
Drying Temperature - 45°C
Ambient temp - 30°C
Ambient RH - 85%
Airflow - 25 m3 air/min-ton of grain
Heating value of fuel - 3,000 kcal/kg
Heat utilization efficiency - 0.4

Required: Fuel consumption rate of rice husk per hour

Solution:
Using the psychrometric chart, the following are obtained:

h1 – 88 kJ/kgda; h2 – 104 kJ/kgda;

and Vs - 0.93 m3/kgda

h = h2 – h1
= 104 kJ/kgda – 88 kJ/kg da
= 16 kJ/kg da
HE = C x SAF x (h2-h1) / Vs
= 4 tons x 25 m3 da/min-ton x 16 kJ/kg da / 0.93 m3/kg
= 1720.43 kJ/min x (kCal/4.167 kJ)
= 412.87 kcal/min
FCR = HE / (HVF x HUE)
= (412.87 x 60 min/hr) / (3,000 kcal/kg x 0.4)
= 20.64 kg rice husk per hour
 Drying Capacity

Cd = Wi / Td

where:
Cd - drying capacity, kg/hr
Wi - initial weight, kg
Td - drying time, hr
 Moisture Reduction Per Hour

MR = (Wi - Wf ) / Td

where:
MR - moisture reduction per hour, kg/hr
Wi - initial weight of the product, kg
Wf - final weight of the product, kg
Td - drying time, hr
 Heating System Efficiency

ξhs = Qsd 100 / Qaf

where:
ξhs - heating system efficiency, %
Qsd - heat supplied to the dryer, kJ/hr
Qaf - heat available in the fuel, kJ/hr
Compute the drying efficiency of a 1ton-capacity flat-bed dryer used to
dry paddy from 21% to 14% in 8 hrs. The fuel consumption rate of the
dryer is 7lph. Assume a heat of vaporization of 600kCal/kg and
heating value of fuel of 9,000kCal/kg. The specific gravity of fuel is
0.76.

Given: Capacity - 1 ton

MC initial - 21%
MC final - 14%
Drying time - 8 hours
Fuel consumption rate - 7 lph
Heat of vaporization - 600 kcal/kg
Heating value of fuel - 9,000 kcal/kg
Specific gravity - 0.7

Required: Drying efficiency

Solution:
WMR = 1 ton – [(1 ton (1 – 0.21) / (1 – 0.14)]
= 0.081 ton x 1000 kg/ton
= 81.6 kg

Heat Energy In = 920 kg moisture x 600 kcal/kg moisture

= 48,837 kcal

Heat Energy Out = 7 lph x 8 hr x 9,000 kcal/kg x 1kg/liter x 0.7

=352,800 kcal

Drying Efficiency = (48,837 kcal/352,800 kcal) x 100

= 13%
What is the rate of rice husk consumption of a 2ton grain dryer required
to dry paddy from 22 to 14% in 8 hrs. The dryer overall thermal
efficiency is 45%. Assume a heat of vaporization for paddy of
600kCal/kg of moisture evaporated and a heating value for rice husk of
3,000 kcal/kg.

Given:
Capacity - 2 tons
MC initial - 22%
MC final - 14%
Drying time - 8 hours
Thermal efficiency - 45%
Heat of vaporization - 600kCal/kg
Heating value of fuel - 3,000kcal/kg

Required: Rice husk consumption

Solution:
WMR = 2 tons – [2 tons – (1-0.22)/(1-0.14)]
= 0.186 ton x 1000 kg/ton
= 186.05 kg

Energy Used = 186.05 kg x 600 kcal/kg x 1/8 hrs

= 13,950 kcal/hr

Energy fuel = 13,950 kcal/hr / 0.45

= 31,000 kcal/hr

Wt. of fuel = 31,000 kcal/hr / 3,000 kcal/kg

= 10.33 kg/hr
If the humidity ratio of the drying air and the ambient air are 0.002
1bmoisture/1bda and 0.001 1bmoisture/1bda, respectively, what is the
drying time of 2tons paddy if it is to be reduced from 24% to 14%?
Consider an airflow rate of 100 m3 of air per min - cubic meter of grain
and density of paddy of 550 kg/m3.

Given:
Humidity ratio da - 0.002 lb moisture/lb dry air
Humidity ratio aa - 0.001 lb moisture/lb dry air
Initial MC - 24%
Final MC - 14%

Required: Drying time

Solution:
Diff HR = 0.002 lbm/lbda – 0.001 lbm/lbda
= 0.001 lbm/lbda

WMR = 2 tons – [2 tons (1-0.22)/(1-0.14)]

= 0.23286 ton x 1000 kg/ton
= 232.86 kg

Vg = 2 tons x 1000 kg/ton x m3/550kg

= 3.64 m3
AF = 3.64 m3 x 100 m3 air / min-m3 grain
= 364 m3 / min of air

DT = [232.86 kg x 2.2 lb/kg] / [ 364 m3/min x

0.001 lbm/lbda x 1.2 kg/m3 x 2.2 lb/kg ]
= 511 min/60 min/hr
= 8.53 hrs
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
 followed by subjecting it to a low
1. Temporary holding of grains
pressure to cause the water in the
between drying passes to allow the
product to sublimate hence minimize
moisture in the center of the grain
alteration of its properties.
to equalize with that on its surface.
a. Air drying
a. Tempering
b. Spray drying
b. Static drying
c. Freeze drying
c. Dryaeration
d. None of the above
d. None of the above
4. Device that generally removes
2. Process of subjecting the liquid
excess moisture by forced ventilation
product into a stream of hot air in a
either with or without addition of heat.
drying vessel to separate the water
a. Fryer
from the particles producing fine
b. Dehydrator
particles as the product.
c. Dryer
a. Air drying
d. None of the above
b. Spray drying
c. Freeze drying
5. Batch-type dryer with vertical
d. None of the above
holding-bin used for deep-bed drying.
a. Recirculating dryer
3. Dehydration process that
b. Vertical-bin dryer
operates on principle of cooling the
c. Batch-type dryer
product until it solidifies
d. None of the above
6. Mechanical dryer equipped with a. Drying bin
series of holding bins that allow b. Plenum chamber
grains to continuously pass c. Air duct
through its drying chamber until d. None of the above
their moisture content is reduced to
a desired level. 9. Pressure built up in the plenum
a. Batch dryer chamber used to maintain uniform
b. Continuous-flow dryer distribution of airflow throughout
c. Recirculating dryer the mass of grains.
d. None of the above a. Velocity pressure
b. Static pressure
7. Batch-type dryer that circulates c. Dynamic pressure
or mixes the grains during drying. d. Any combination of the above
a. Vertical-bin dryer
b. Recirculating dryer 10. Component of a dryer that
c. Flat-bed dryer converts the velocity pressure of
d. None of the above the fan to static pressure.
a. Drying bin
8. Air chamber maintained under b. Plenum chamber
pressure and is usually connected c. Manometer
to one or more distribution ducts in d. None of the above
a drying system.
11. The dryer is equipped with a 13. Minimum drying efficiency
suitable-size blower to deliver hot air requirement for mechanical dryers,
into the drying bin. Unfortunately, based on standard performance
the pressure draft at the drying bin criteria.
was found way down below the a. 90%
requirement. As an Agricultural b. 75%
Engineer, what would you c. 50%
recommend to improve the d. None of the above
pressure draft of air at the plenum
chamber of the bin? 14. In grain drying theory, drying
a. Replace the bin with bigger occurs when ____.
plenum chamber. a. the vapor pressure of grains is
b. Reduce the drying temperature higher than the vapor pressure of
of the air when operating the dryer. the air
c. Seal the bin plenum chamber. b. the vapor pressure of grains is
d. None of the above lower than the vapor pressure of the
air
12. Divisional layer between the c. the vapor pressure of grains is
dried and the undried products in a equal with the vapor pressure of the
drying system. air
a. Drying layer d. None of the above
b. Drying zone
c. Drying front
d. All of the above
15. Minimum heat utilization efficiency a. Increase the height of the plenum
requirement for direct-fired petroleum- chamber to slow down the velocity of
fueled mechanical dryers, based on the air in the bin.
standard performance criteria. b. Reduce the rpm of the blower to
a. 90% slow down the air velocity of the hot
b. 80% air.
c. 70% c. Install a heat exchanger in the
d. None of the above furnace.
d. None of the above
16. Minimum heating efficiency
requirement for direct-fired biomass- 18. In heated-air drying in a flat-bed
fueled grain dryers. type dryer, the drying zone starts
a. 75% from the ____ of the drying bin
b. 65% adjacent to the plenum chamber.
c. 50% a. top
d. None of the above b. middle
c. bottom
17. A flatbed dryer is using a direct fired d. None of the above
biomass furnace for heating paddy. As
an Agricultural Engineer, what would
you recommend to eliminate entirely fly
ashes that go with the hot air into the
bin during drying?