Grade 11

UNIT SEVEN
STATES, PRINCIPALITIES, POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND
INTERACTIONS IN ETHIOPIA (13TH – MID-16TH CENTURY)
Introduction
This unit deals with a number of interrelated historical developments which happened in
the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa during the period from 1270 to the mid-16th
century. The period beginning from 1270 to 1855 is also generally known as the medieval
period of Ethiopian history. Around 1270, the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia got a new
dynasty that replaced the Zagwe dynasty. With the development of Long-Distance trade and
the spread of Islam in the region, a number of Muslim sultanates also flourished along the
trade routes. In addition, the resourceful south and western Ethiopian regions consisted of a
number of other peoples and states where the people practiced various forms of indigenous
religion. The 16th century history of the region was characterized by the coming of Jesuit
missionaries and the Oromo population movement.

Learning Outcomes: After learning this unit, students will be able to:

 point out the distinguishing features of the Solomonic Dynasty;

 analyze the role of trade as a source of conflict in the medieval period Ethiopian
region;
 draw a map of the Ethiopian region which shows the extent of influence of the
Christian kingdom;
 appreciate the positive achievements of the restored Solomonic Dynasty.

Key Terms and Concepts

ÊLegitimacy Ê Stone enclosure Ê Supermacy

ÊRivalry Ê Indigenous religion Ê Gadaa system

7.1 The Christian Kingdom under the Restored “Solomonic” Dynasty (1270s –1550s)

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

§ evaluate the main factors that led to the restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty;

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§ highlight the main features of the Christian Kingdom under the restored “Solomonic”
dynasty’
§ demonstrate analytical and argumentation skills by debating on the factors for the con-
flict between the Christian kingdom and Muslim sultanates.

Brainstorming Questions
• Was the designation of “Solomonic” to the new dynasty which assumed power
in 1270 justifiable?
• What do people in your locality understand by the name “Solomon” or “Saba”?
What sort of inspiration do they have?
7.1.1 Restoration of the “Solomonic” Dynasty

As stated above, the Zagwe Dynasty fell down mainly because of opposition coming from its
tributary region of Amhara. By then, Amhara constituted the present day southern Wollo and
northern Shewa. The Amhara ruling classes took away political power from the Zagwe around
1270. A local ruler in Amhara named Yikuno Amlak (r. 1270-85) founded a new dynasty.
The new dynasty was called the “Solomonic” dynasty. This also marked the beginning of the
Ethiopian Medieval Period (1270-1855).

King Yikuno Amlak and his followers took this dynastic name to justify their legitimacy. To that
end, he resorted to the legend of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon to whom he claimed
descent through the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod. Yukono Amlak used this legend to show the
people that the Zagwe rulers were “illegitimate” to the political power. Hence, Yikuno Amlak
and his followers considered themselves the “restorers” of the ancient dynasty. All these things
were enshrined in a 14th century book called “Kibre Negest” (the Glory of Kings). The new
dynasty was influential and, even though it is a legend, its claim was generally accepted by the
people. All the monarchs who ruled the Christian kingdom until 1974, regardless of their ac-
tual origin, claimed descent from the family of Yikuno Amlak. This means that the “Solomonic”
dynasty lasted for over 700 years.

NB: Concerning the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel, refer unit three that
speaks about Judaism.

The capital of the Christian highland kingdom was shifted from Lalibela in Lasta to the area of
Lake Hayk in Medieval Amhara. Gradually, the Christian state shifted its center to Shewa. But
later, “moving” or “roving” capitals characterized the Christian state in which the royal court
moved from one district to another in the eastern foot hills of the Shewan plateau.
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7.1.2 Basic Features of the Christian Highland Kingdom: State Structure, Social Strati-
fication and the Economy

Territorial expansion was one of the basic features of the Christian highland kingdom par-
ticularly since the early decades of the 14th century. When Yikuno Amlak assumed power
in about 1270, the territorial extent of the Christian Highland Kingdom was almost limited
to the former possessions of the Zagwe state. Various Muslim and non-Muslim states and
peoples also independently existed on the eastern, southern and southwestern frontiers of
the kingdom. To mention a few, the Felasha lived along the northwestern frontier. Beyond
the Abay River, there was the predominantly Agew inhabited kingdom of Gojjam. The
kingdom of Damot was situated in the vast region southwest of the Christian highland
kingdom. The kind of relationship the Christian highland kingdom had with these various
states and peoples during the reigns of Yikuno Amlak and his immediate successors is not
clearly known. But it seems to have been true that it was based on trade relations and the
slow expansion of the Christian Church.

However, with the coming to power of King Amde Tsiyon (r.1314-44), grandson of Yikuno
Amlak, the Christian highland kingdom started vigorous territorial expansion. Amde Tsiyon
was the most expansionist king of the medieval period. Consequently, a long period of con-
flict and war affected the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa. But the influence of the
Christian state in the Ethiopian region was very strong in the later centuries, until it relapsed
in the early 16th century with the rise of the Adal under Imam Ahmad.

The large-scale territorial expansion of the Christian highland kingdom was accompanied
by the further expansion of the Orthodox Church. At the time of the rise to power of
Yikuno Amlak, the Church had already been strongly established in Tigray, Wag, Lasta, An-
got and Amhara. During his successors’ tenure, the church further expanded into Shewa,
Gojjam, Begemdir, and in the region around Lake Tana.

In the early period of the ‘Solomonic’ dynasty, agriculture was the basis of the economy
of the Christian highland kingdom, which was dominated by mixed farming. Most of the
members of agrarian communities were prosperous with large families. These families also
kept slaves as household servants. Beginning in the 14th century, the Ethiopian version of
feudalism was consolidated as a political and economic system. The records of the period
show that in the medieval period, the kings made land grants to officials in return for mili-
tary or administrative services.

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Trade also took a very important place in the economy of the Christian highland Kingdom,
especially after the military control of the Sultanates of the region by King Amde Tsiyon
and his successors. During the period between 1270 and 1529, Zeyla replaced the Red
Sea coast as the main gateway for internal and external trade in the region. Because of
this, sometimes the trade is called the Zeyla trade. Most of the trade items like ivory and
gold originated from the western and southwestern Ethiopian regions. Cereals and fruits of
the highlands were also highly demanded in the lowlands on both sides of the Red Sea.
The Zeyla trade was significantly controlled by Muslim merchants. Revenue collected from
import and export trade was a source of income for the kings of the Christian highland
kingdom. They themselves participated in the trade, organized and financed big caravans
led by their trade agents.

The development of long-distance trade in the Ethiopian region had other far-reaching
impacts. Through trade, various peoples and states in the Ethiopian region were intercon-
nected and developed a sense of economic interdependence. Besides, trade routes which
crisscrossed the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa resulted in the exchange of various
social and cultural values among the diverse peoples of the region. However, the desire to
monopolize long distance trade in the region led to frequent clashes between the Christian
highland Kingdom and the Sultanates of the region.

Map 7.1 Major trade routes in the Ethiopian Region, 1332-1527

Another most important feature of the period was the consolidation of the feudal mode of
production in the Ethiopian context. This was mainly the creation of a feudal administra-
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tion. In order to effectively administer the vast empire which came into existence, the kings
maintained both hereditary chiefs and appointed their own officials. In some regions, the
hereditary ruling classes were allowed to remain in power under the close supervision of
the central government. In other regions, officials were royally appointed by the king and
sent to the newly incorporated areas with a large number of soldiers. The new administra-
tive and military officials were given the right to collect tribute from the local peoples over
whom they were appointed. This system was called the Gult system. Gult was a right to levy
tribute on the owners of Rist land and its produce. Rist was a hereditary right to land use by
members of families and clans whose ancestors retained the land for a long period of time.

The Bale Gult (Gult right owner) enjoyed a number of economic and political privileges
over the peasants under him/her. For example, he/she was responsible for the collection of
tribute in kind including grains, cattle, honey, butter, salt, household equipment, etc. from
the peasants. The Bale Gult retained most of the tribute for him/her, and sent part of it to
the central state. The Bale Gult could use the corvee (free labour) of the people under his/
her rule. Moreover, as a local governor, the Bale Gult was responsible for the maintenance
of law and order in his region. He/she also acted as a chief judge and gave administrative
justice to the local people. It was also obligatory for the Bale Gult to raise a regional army
from among the Rist land owners and command them during a time of regional or na-
tional crisis. The Gult system greatly simplified the task of administering the vast Christian
highland kingdom of the period. This system remained to be the predominant feature of
Ethiopian feudalism up to the 1974 Revolution.

The mobile nature of the royal court was another main feature of the medieval period
Christian highland kingdom of Ethiopia. Unlike Aksum and Lalibela, from 1270 until the
establishment of Gondar in 1636, there was no permanent capital city. Instead, the kings
ruled from moving or roving capitals. The districts of Shewa, such as Menz, Tegulet, Bulga,
Yarar, Intoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zikuala served as temporary centers of royal
encampment. They moved from one region to another, followed by their court officials,
soldiers and other camp followers. The kings and their dignitaries lived in tents, while other
camp followers lived in temporary huts. As a result, there were no permanent structures like
palaces and castles.

The royal court constantly moved from region to region during the period, partly to obtain
fresh supplies or provisions for the large number of camp followers and partly due to a
shortage of fire wood. But they also moved to control rebellions by making their seats at
nearby sites. As a result, there was relative peace and stability in the Christian highland
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kingdom during the early medieval period. There were no standing structures like castles
and palaces. Moving capital also had a negative consequence on the environment. In fact,
after the middle of the 15th century, some of the kings tried to stay at one place for many
years. For instance, king Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68) founded the town of Debre Birhan in
1454 and subsequently lived there for fourteen years.

Activity 7.1

1. Who was Yikuno Amlak? What exactly was the Kibre Negest?
2. From where did the kings rule the Christian highland kingdom?
3. Explain how the “Solomonic” dynasty was consolidated beginning in the early 14th
century.
4. What were the economic and political roles of the Zeyla trade?
5. Enumerate the basic features of the Christian highland kingdom during the early
medieval period.
7.1.3 Power Struggle, Consolidation, and Territorial and Religious Expansion
of the Christian Highland Kingdom
Succession Problem and Its Solution

Sometime after the death of Yikuno Amlak in 1285, the dynasty began to face internal po-
litical instability. One of the causes of this instability was the power struggle among the sons
and grandsons of Yikuno Amlak. The problem of succession was so intense, particularly
between 1294 and 1299 that five successive kings briefly came to power.

The problem of succession was resolved when the mountain fortress of Amba Gishen or
Debre Negest (Mountain of Kings) was established around 1300. All the male descendants
of Yikuno Amlak, except his sons, were kept aloof on the flat-topped mountain of Amba
Gishen. They could receive education, work on the land and even marry, but they could not
leave the Amba. The passes and foothills of the mountain were guarded by warriors loyal
to the reigning king. This system facilitated smooth successions and helped for the consol-
idation of the Christian state. The practice continued until Amba Gishen was destroyed by
Imam Ahmad of Adal in 1540.

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Consolidation and Territorial Expansion

The ‘Solomonic’ dynasty ruled the territories which had been under Zagwe rule. They in-
cluded Tigray, Lasta, Bete-Amhara and Shewa. With the coming to power of king Amde
Tsiyon (r. 1314-44), however, the Christian highland kingdom started rapid territorial expan-
sion. He was the most expansionist king of the medieval period. Amde Tsiyon incorporated
the kingdoms of Damot in 1316/17, Felasha between Dembiya and the Tekeze in 1332 and
Gojjam in 1323/24. The conquest of these kingdoms gave Amde Tsiyon an important
source of manpower and trade items, which further strengthened his power. In the 1320s
Amde Tsiyon further consolidated his power by extending his conquests to the provinces of
the north as far as Massawa. In what is now Eritrea, he appointed a governor with the title
of Ma`ikele Bahr (later, Bahire Negash).

The initial successes of Amde Tsiyon prepared the ground for the major wars against the
Muslim Sultanates. Ifat was the most powerful of all the Sultanates. At the time, Ifat extend-
ed its hegemony over other Sultanates between the highland and the coast, along which
the Zeyla trade routes passed. Because of this, Ifat threatened the economic interests of the
Christian highland kingdom. It also harassed and detained travelers and messengers to and
from the kingdom. With the aim of bringing an end to this threat, Amde Tsiyon prepared for
war cautiously. Amde Tsiyon waited until he could find a pretext to start a conflict with Ifat.

Towards the end of 1325, the sultan of Ifat named Haqq ad-Din I arrested the commercial
agent of the king. At that time, Ifat was not prepared for war, and Amde Tsiyon`s attack
took it by surprise in 1328. Amde Tsiyon`s army gained an easy victory, after which many
villages, including the town of Ifat, were plundered and burnt.

Haqq ad-Din`s son and successor, Daradir, opened a massive offensive on the frontier ter-
ritories of the Christian highland kingdom. In one of the battles that followed, Daradir de-
feated the Imperial army. But in another reengagement his army was defeated, and Daradir
himself was captured and killed.

In the south, Amde Tsiyon had already annexed the Sultanate of Hadya in about 1317.
Although Hadya paid tribute to the Christian highland kingdom, effective rule had not
been established there. Thus, encouraged by Muslim merchants, the Garad (ruler) of Hadya
named Amano rebelled against Amde Tsiyon. He stopped sending the annual tribute which
indicated his revolt. Amde Tsiyon reacted immediately by leading a strong army that de-
stroyed Hadya and took many prisoners, including Amano. Consequently, Hadya was re-

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duced to tributary status and became the main source of manpower for the army of the
Christian highland kingdom.

Amda Tsiyon`s military conquests seriously affected the economic interests of Muslim mer-
chants and Sultanates between Hadya and the coast. They reacted by forming a united front
against Amde Tsiyon. The leader of this alliance was the ruler of Ifat named Sabr ad-Din I
(fl. 1332) who launched his attack in 1332. However, in the final battle the army of Ifat was
completely defeated and Sabr ad-Din escaped to the neighbouring Sultanate of Dawaro.
Then, Amde Tsiyon marched to Dawaro, where he succeeded in capturing Sabr ad-Din and
imprisoning him. In the afterwards, Ifat was no longer a powerful sultanate in the region,
and it was reduced to tributary status. The Christian highland state successively appointed
its officials over Ifat and a large military garrison was stationed there.

After 1332, Amde Tsiyon continued his campaigns against other Sultanates along the Zeyla
trade routes. He reduced them one after the other to tributary status. By 1344, when Amde
Tsiyon died, the Christian highland kingdom covered a very vast area that included the
Sultanates of the southeast. On the other hand, the Walasma rulers of Ifat left the sultanate,
and moved further east to the lowlands, where they eventually established a new sultanate
called Adal around 1380. Adal became the new center of challenge to the predominance
of the Christian highland kingdom. The struggle against it started during the reign of Haqq
ad-Din II (r.1363/64-87), who extended his power over other sultanates around Adal. In
the 1380s, Haqq ad-Din opened a massive offensive against King Dawit I (r. 1382-1413).
Initially, Haqq ad-Din scored a series of victories. However, this did not last long as the Sul-
tanate of Adal was defeated in 1387 in which Haqq ad-Din himself was killed. The struggle
against the Christian highland kingdom continued under the next sultan of Adal named
Sa`ad ad-Din II (r. 1387-1403). But Adal faced another defeat in the early 15th century.
Sa`ad ad-Din escaped from the battle field, but the imperial army pursued and killed him
in Zeyla in 1403. His sons took refuge in Yemen. The power of Adal was weakened and,
for the next thirty years, there was no serious challenge to the Christian highland kingdom.

The power of the Sultanate of Adal revived once again in the 1430s, under Sultan Ahmed
Badlay, who became one of the most powerful sultans of Adal. He resumed the struggle
against the Christian highland state. As a result, King Yishak (r. 1413-30) marched to Adal
to bring an end to Ahmad Badlay`s resistance. However, Yishak died in 1430 without
achieving his goal. Then, Sultan Ahmad organized a united front of the Sultanates of the
lowlands against King Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68). He also won the support of Mahiko, who
was the then Garad of Hadya. Although Zer`a Ya`ekob initially faced serious military set-
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backs, he finally defeated Sultan Ahmed`s army in 1445. Sultan Ahmad and his ally from
Hadya, Mahiko, were killed at the battle. This marked the peak of the predominant position
of the Christian highland Kingdom in the Ethiopian region and the Horn.

The predominant power of the Christian highland kingdom began to decline during the
last quarter of the 15th century. Zer`a Ya`ekob suppressed internal revolts and successfully
repulsed military offensives of the sultanates of Adal and Hadya. By contrast, his successor,
Be`ede Mariyam (r. 1468-1478) was not powerful enough to push back the growing pres-
sure from the sultanates. Indeed, it was during the reign of Be`ede Mariyam that the Imperial
army faced its first serious defeat. Eventually, the decline of the Christian highland state led
to the emergence of Adal as a hegemonic power in the Ethiopian region and the Horn. In
March 1529, a coalition of Muslim low landers led by Imam Ahmad of Adal utterly defeat-
ed King Libne Dingil`s (r. 1508-40) army at the battle of Shimbra Kure.

Religious Expansion

The territorial expansion of the Christian highland kingdom during the medieval period
was accompanied by the further expansion of the Christian church. Under the ‘Solomon-
ic’ dynasty Christianity revived in Shewa centered at the monastery of Debre Asbo (later
renamed as Debre Libanos) which was founded by Abune Tekle Haymanot. He converted
King Motalami of the kingdom of Damot to Christianity. Besides, there was an earlier mon-
astery of Hayk Istifanos which was opened by Abba Iyasus Moa. Since then, monasticism
has become a dominant practice in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

Later, Christianity spread into the areas south and west of Shewa by the disciples of Abune
Tekle Haymanot and Abba Iyasus Mo`a. This included the kingdoms of Gojjam, Damot,
Enarya and Wajj. In addition to the age old northern Ethiopian monastic centers, a number
of other monasteries and churches were established in many areas of the Ethiopian region
in the 14th and 15th centuries. The number of monasteries on the islands of Lake Ziway and
Lake Tana are worth mentioning.

The evangelization process in the newly incorporated territories was usually assisted by the
state. Kings supported the construction of churches and large monasteries, and granted
them large tracts of land. The clergy, in turn, played a big role in preaching about Christian-
ity and the legitimacy of Christian kings. This church-state alliance reached its peak during
the reign of King Zera Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68).

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Activity 7.2

1. By what means was the Christian highland state able to solve the problem of succes-
sion?
2. What was the name of the dynasty which ruled Ifat and later Adal?
3. What are the names of the states which were incorporated by King Amde Tsiyon at
different times?
4. Explain the roles of the monasteries of Debre Asbo and Debre Hayk in spreading mo-
nasticism.
5. In what ways did the church and state mutually benefit?

7.2. The Expansion of Islam and the Emergence of Muslim Sultanates

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

 identify the roles of Islam and trade in state formation in the Ethiopian region and
the Horn;
 point out the common features of the Sultanates of the Ethiopian region and the
Horn’
 appreciate the positive contributions of the Sultanates to the Ethiopian socio-eco-
nomic development of the medieval period;
 draw a map showing the location of the Sultanates of the Ethiopian region and the
Horn;
 appreciate the role of trade and trade routes in linking the politically divergent
states, principalities and peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Brainstorming Questions

• What do you know about the Sultanates of Ifat and Adal?

• If there is a ruin that belonged to a Sultanate in your locality sometime in the past,
tell something about it.

The expansion of trade and the Islamic religion were the main factors in the emergence of
the Muslim Sultanates of the Ethiopian region. As mentioned in unit three, Islam spread to
the Ethiopian region through two main directions: the Red Sea coast and the port of Zeyla
on the Gulf of Aden. The Dahlak Islands and the Red Sea coastal areas were the earliest
areas where Muslim Arabs made their settlement. However, Islam could not rapidly expand

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into the interior of the Ethiopian highlands in that direction. Rather, it was mainly limited
to the Red Sea coastal territories.

The most important gateway for the spread of Islam into the interior of the region was,
therefore, the port of Zeyla on the Gulf of Aden. Several trade routes from the interior of
the region run in the direction of this port. Thus, Arab and non-Arab Muslim merchants
were the agents of the expansion of Islam. These merchants established important market
centers along the Zeyla trade routes leading to the interior. They stayed in these market
centers sometimes to exchange the items they brought from South Arabia with the locally
available items. As these merchants stayed longer in these market centers, they underwent a
considerable interaction with the local pastoral communities whom they gradually convert-
ed to Islam. Apparently, it was in this process that Islam was peacefully introduced to Harar,
Eastern Shewa, Wollo, Bale, Arsi and other regions of the interior.

The spread of Islam and the development of long dsitance trade in the region led to the
establishment of a series of Muslim Sultanates along the Zeyla trade routes in th interior.
The most important were Shewa, Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Darha (Dera), Bali, Hadya, Arababni,
Sharkha and Adal. As discussed in unit three, Shewa was the earliest of all the Muslim
Sultanates. Their rulers used the title of sultan, and hence,these Muslim states are called
sultanates. Muslim Sultanates of the region shared many features in common, such as:

 Their population was made up of Muslim communities.

 Their rulers exercised both religious and political powers.
 Islam and trade were the main factors in their emergence.
 Most of them were located in the southeastern lowlands of the Ethiopian region.
 Although some of their communities practiced mixed farming, the economy of the
Sultanates mainly depended on trade.

At the same time, however, each sultanate developed in its own unique ways. The accounts
of Arab writers like al- Ummeri and Christian literature illustrate the internal history of the
Medival Muslim states of the Ethiopia region.

7.2.1. Trade and Trade Routes

Zeyla was the most important trade outlet for both the Christian highland Kingdom and
the Sultanates during the medieval period. In addition, the old northern Swahili city states
of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca served as ports for their hinterland. In the north, the port
of Massawa served as an additional trade outlet. The Zeyla trade served as a factor in the

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rise and consolidation of the various Sultanates of the Ethiopian region. Along the major
trade routes a number of big market towns and trade centers have emerged. The Zeyla trade
routes linked the various states of the Ethiopian region and the Horn. The trade continued
to serve as a major channel of socio-economic and cultural interaction among the various
ethnic groups of the Ethiopian region and the Horn.

During much of the medieval period, the Zeyla trade was dominated by the Sultanates and
their merchants. But kings of the Chrisian highland kingdom took part in the trade through
their agents. The ambition to monopolize the Zeyla trade and the commodities that passed
through Zeyla led the Sultanates and the Christian highland kingdom to a long period of
rivalry and conflict.

Activity 7.3

1. What was the most important gate for the spread of Islam into the interior of the
Ethiopian region?
2. Discuss how Islam could spread peacefully into Eastern Shewa, Harar, Wollo, Bali,
Arsi and other regions of the interior.
3. What were the most important Sultanates in the Ethiopian region and the Horn?
4. Identify some of the political, economic and social features that were commonly
shared by the Sultanates of the medieval period.

7.2.2. The Socio-Economic and Political Conditions of Muslim Sultanates

The Sultanate of Ifat

The Sultanate of Ifat existed over a wide area in the lowlands east of the Shewan plateau.
Ifat seems to have emerged in the mid-13th century. Umar Walasma, who was the contem-
porary of King Yikuno Amlak of the Christian highland kingdom, was the first historically
known ruler of the Sultanate. Hence, the ruling dynasty of Ifat was called Walasma. The Sul-
tanate of Ifat attained military and political prominence under Umar Walasma, and subdued
and incorporated the Sultanate of Shewa in 1385.

Ifat was situated in a strategic area through which the Zeyla trade routes passed into the
interior of the Ethiopian region. This strategic position enabled Ifat to monopolize the
trade in the region. Besides, the local communities in the area where Ifat flourished were
converted to Islam. This helped Ifat to become the leading and most powerful Sultanate in

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the Ethiopian region. In the first half of the 14th century, Ifat extended its power over other
Sultanates along its frontiers. However, it lost this dominant position when the Christian
kingdom under King Amde Tsiyon started vigorous territorial expansion. Ifat`s Sultan Sabr
ad-Din fought many battles to retain the power of Ifat in the lowlands. But, he was finally
deafted in 1332, after which Ifat became a tributary state to the Christian highland king-
dom.

The Sultanate of Hadya

Hadya was one of the medieval period Sultanates of the Ethiopian region. The exact time
when Hadya was founded is not clearly known. The Sultanate is mentioned for the first time
in the chronicle of King Amde Tsiyon. Among the Muslim Sultanates, Hadya occupied the
most westerly territory in the Ethiopian region. The western frontiers of Hadya touched the
Gibe River. In the southwest, the territory of the sultanate reached around the Gibe river.
In the south, its territory seems to have stretched up to Lake Hawasa, while in the north it
extended a little to the north of Lake Ziway.

It is known that the original inhabitants of the Sultanate were the ancestors of the present
Hadya ethnic group. Its rulers held the title of Garad. The economy of Hadya was based
mainly on mixed farming. But some sections of its population led a purely pastoral way of
life. Trade also contributed a lot to the economy of the Sultanate.

The Sultanate of Hadya possessed rich natural resources. Partly because of its natural wealth,
the kings of the Christian highland kingdom sought to reduce Hadya to its tributary. In the
1330s, King Amde Tsiyon made Hadya a tributary state along with other Sultanates in the
region. Nevertheless, Hadya, led by its Garads, rebelled now and then against imperial rule.
As a result, the kings of the Christian highland kingdom occassionally led punitive expe-
ditions to retain the tributary status of Hadya. They even tried to secure the loyalty of the
rulers of Hadya by means of political marriage. Sources indicate that Queen Mother Elleni
belonged to the ruling family of Hadya. She played a crucial role in the politicts of the
Christian highland kingdom during the second half of the 15th and early decades of the 16th
centuries. Kings Be`ede Mariyam (r. 1468-78) and Libne Dingil (r. 1508-40) were also offi-
cially married to the princesses of Hadya. Other members of the ruling class of the Christian
highland kingdom also followed the example of the kings and married women from Hadya.
Yet, Hadya continued to rebel against imperial rule at different times. The last rebellion of
Hadya was during the reign of King Sertse Dingil (r. 1563-97), who permanently abandoned
the Sultanate because of increasing pressure from the expanding Macha Oromo.

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The Sultanate of Bali

Bali was another Sultanate in the Ethiopian region. Its rulers used the title of Garad. We do
not have clear evidence as to when Bali emerged as a state. The population of the medie-
val Sultanate of Bali seems to have consisted of different ethnic groups. Bali was the most
southerly located Sultanate. Except for the southern frontier, Bali was surrounded by various
other Sultanates. To the north of Bali existed the Sultanates of Dawaro and Sharka. It was
separated from Dawaro by the Wabi Shabale River. In the west, there was Hadya, while the
eastern frontier was occupied by the Sultanate of Adal. The southern limit of the territory of
Bali is not clearly known. Bali is mentioned in the chronicles of Christian kings beginning
with Amde Tsiyon. Since then, the Garads of Bali paid tribute to the Christian highland
kingdom until the 16th century.

The Sultanate of Sharkha

Sharkha was a small Sultanate which was situated north of Bali and west of Dawaro. The ter-
ritory of this Sultanate roughly corresponded with present day Arsi. One of Sharkha`s early
inhabitants were some groups of Oromo and ancestors of the present day Halaba ethnic
group. The exact time at which Sharkha emerged as a state is not known. Beginning from
the reign of Amde Tsiyon, Sharkha was a tributary state of the Christian highland kingdom.
In the first quarter of the 16th century, it was controlled by the army of Imam Ahmad.

The Sultanate of Dawaro

Dawaro existed south of Fatagar, and in the north it was bordered by Ifat on the right bank
of the Awash River. In the south Dawaro stretched as far as the Wabi Shabale River, bor-
dering Bali. Dawaro, therefore, roughly corresponded with present day Arsi region. Some
groups of Oromo and the ancestors of the Sidama ethnic group are known to have settled
in the Sultanate of Dawaro. The Dawro people trace their origins to this Sultanate. Accord-
ing to tradition, they moved to the Omo River region in the 16th century because of the
wars of Imam Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim al- Gahzi.

The Sutanate of Darha

Darha (Dera) was a very small Sultanate which existed east of the Awash River between the
Sultanates of Dawaro and Bali. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Sultanate of Bali
briefly extended its power over Darha. This came to an end when the Christian highland
kingdom grew stronger under King Amde Tsiyon and reduced both Bali and Darha to

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tributary status. Kings of the Christian highland kingdom used Darha as a place of exile
for disobedient monks, who were forced to stay for some times among unfriendly Muslim
populations as a punishment.

The Sultanate of Fatagar

Fatagar emerged along the Zeyla trade route around the mid-13th century. Fatagar existed in
the region between Lake Ziway in the south and the present day Bishoftu area in the north.
The territory of Fatagar also included the present-day territories of Minjar, Shenkora, and
Ada`a in Shewa. Fatagar became a tributary of the Christian kingdom during the reign of
Amde Tsiyon. Later, it was reduced to the status of a province directly ruled by the kings of
the Christian highland kingdom for almost a century.

The Sultanate of Arababni

Arababni was a small Sultanate about which we know only about its existence through the
work of al-Ummeri. It existed south of the Awash River between the Sultanates of Hadya
and Dawaro. Al- Ummeri further states that the agricultural products of the Sultanate in-
cluded cereals, legumes and fruits.

The Sultanate of Adal

The Sultanate of Adal was founded by the Walasma rulers of Ifat towards the end of the
14th century. Once Ifat was annexed by Amde Tsiyon in 1332, and became tributary to
the Christian highland kingdom, its ruling class was divided into two groups. The first
group, consisting of the merchant class, decided to recognize the authority of the Christian
highland Kingdom over Ifat. The second group, the militant wing, however, opposed this
domination and was determined to regain the lost independence of Ifat. The Walasma ruler
named Haqq ad-Din II (r. 1363/64-87) rebelled against Amde Tsiyon`s sons and succes-
sors, Seyf Ar`ed (r. 1344- 71) and Newaye Mariyam (r. 1371-80). However, Ifat was not
favourable for military resistance because it was closer to the Christian highland Kingdom.
Therefore, this militant group retreated further to the south eastern lowlands of Harar, where
they founded the Sultanate of Adal around 1380 centered at Dakar, south east of Harar,
but in 1520, it was shifted to Harar. Among others, Sa`ad ad-Din II (r. 1387-1403), rebelled
against King Dawit I (r. 1380-1412).

The offensive of Adal grew strong, particularly during the time of Sultan Ahmad Badlay. He
led a series of successful military campaigns against King Zer`a Ya`ekob (r. 1434-68). How-

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ever, in 1445, Ahmad Badlay suffered a complete defeat. During the second half of the 15th
century, both Adal and the Christian highland kingdom suffered from internal weaknesses.
Adal recovered in the first half of the 16th century and, under Imam Ahmad, replaced the
Christian highland kingdom as the dominant power in the Ethiopian region and the Horn
of Africa.

Activity 7.4
1. Mention the names of the dynasties that ruled the Sultanates of Shewa and Ifat?
2. Which Muslim Sultanates were the most powerful in the Ethiopian region?
3. Who was Sultan Ahmad Badlay?
4. What was the title used by the rulers of the Sultanates of Bali and Hadya?

7.3. Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of the Western, Southern

and Central States in Ethiopia
Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

 identify the peoples and states in the southern, south western and central parts of
the Ethiopian region;
 explain the indigenous form of religion of these states;
 appreciate the contribution of indigenous form of government;
 sketch out the location of these states on a map.

Brainstorming Questions

• Can you tell us an indigenous form of religion which is being practiced still today
around your locality? What type of stories do you know about it?
• Can you tell us about a medieval historical heritage from your locality or near by?

In addition to the Christian highland kingdom and the Sultanates, there were other states
in the southern and central areas of the Ethiopian region. The majority of the inhabitants in
these states practiced indigenous religion.

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7.3.1. The Kingdom of Gojjam

The kingdom of Gojjam existed in the region to the south of Lake Tana. There is no clear
evidence concerning the time when the Kingdom of Gojjam emerged. The kingdom was
inhabited by the Agew ethnic group. In about 1323/24, King Amde Tsiyon (r. 1314-44)
campaigned against Gojjam and reduced it to tributary status. Monks from the Lake Tana
Island monasteries and medieval Amhara gradually preached Christianity in Gojjam. Zhan
Kimir was the king of Gojjam during the reign of Amde Tsiyon. He and a local Agaw ruler
of the Lake Tana area named Zhan Chuhay apparently resisted the expansion of Christian-
ity in Gojjam. Me`at Gone was another king of Gojjam during the reign of King Dawit (r.
1380-1412). In the 15th century, Gojjam was one of the important provinces where royal
governors were appointed as rulers. In the course of the 14th and 15th centuries, the east-
ern parts of Gojjam were inhabited by the Amhara of Shewa and the medieval province of
Amhara. Much of Gojjam, especially its eastern territories, were fiefs of the famous Queen
Elleni, who is said to have rebuilt the monastery of Mertole Mariyam.

7.3.2. Polities of Bizamo, Wajj and Ganz

The state of Bizamo existed on the southern bend of the Abay River just opposite the pres-
ent district of Wemberma in southern Gojjam. We do not have evidence about the time in
which the state of Bizamo emerged. It was inhabited by Omotic language speakers like the
Shinasha. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Bizamo was a tributary to the Christian high-
land Kingdom. On the arrival of the Macha Oromo towards the end of the 16th century, part
of the population of Bizamo fled across the Abay River into Gojjam. Part of the population
remained behind and retreated further west to the lowlands, while the remaining part was
assimilated by the Macha Oromo.

On the other hand, the polity of Wajj was situated around Lake Ziway, in the area west
of Fatagar and east of Hadya. We do not have evidence about the ethnic identity and the
emergence of Wajj as a state. Like other states around it, Wajj was reduced to tributary sta-
tus first by King Amde Tsiyon. In the 15th century, the rulers of Wajj used the title of Qats,
which was a Muslim title. Wajj was an important center of military activity by the kings of the
Christian highland kingdom during the post-Imam Ahmad period. The region was occupied
by the Oromo in the last quarter of the 16th century.

Finally, Ganz was probably situated in the Rift Valley area between Wajj to the east, Kambata
to the west and Hadya to the south. The ethnic identity of its early inhabitants and the

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time of its emergence as an entity are not clearly known. Ganz was among the polities and
kingdoms that were reduced to tributary status by King Amde Tsiyon. Its local rulers used
the title of Garad. Islam further expanded in Ganz in the 1530s during the time of Imam
Ahmad.

7.3.3. The Kingdom of Ennarya

The medieval kingdom of Ennarya was situated immediately to the north of the Gojeb
River and west of the upper course of the Gibe River. Very little evidence is available about
Ennarya`s early history. It was under the influence of the Christian highland state beginning
in about the middle of the 13th century. Eventually, Ennarya was reduced to tributary status
by King Amde Tsiyon. Ennarya was the main source of trade items for the region`s long
distance trade up to the 16th century. Among others, pure gold from Ennarya was exported
to countries as far as Egypt, Greece and Rome. Beginning from the end of the 16th century,
Ennarya strongly resisted the Macha Oromo for over a century. Finally, it was defeated by
the Limmu Oromo, who was one of the sub groups of the Macha Oromo confederacy.
Since then, the name of the kingdom was changed to Limmu–Ennarya.

NB: The Kingdom of Damot also belonged to this group of states. Refer this point in unit
three.

7.3.4 The Gonga People

The Gonga people were speakers of the Kafi Noonoo, Shekki Noonoo, Anfillo, Shinasha
Ennarya and Bosha languages. These languages belong to the Omotic language family.
Some 400 years ago, they lived in the same geographical environment between the Abay
and Omo Rivers and had more or less similar socioeconomic and political systems. How-
ever, with the arrival of the Macha Oromo to the region south of the Abay River in the late
16th century, many of them were forced to settle in new areas. The Shekka and Anfillo were
pushed further west to their present environment in southwestern Ethiopia. Besides, when
the kingdom of Bizamo was overrun by the Macha Oromo, the Shinasha moved across the
Abay and settled in southern Gojjam and Metekel.

Most of the Gonga peoples established elaborate state systems of their own. The best ex-
amples were the kingdoms of Ennarya, Anfillo, Bizamo, Kafa, and Shekka. The kings of the
last two kingdoms used the royal title called Tato. All known Gonga states had the tradition
of building trenches,

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stone fortifications and enclosures in the 16th and 17th century for the purpose of defending
themselves from the enemy. As will be discussed in unit eight, the other Omotic states, to
which the Gonga belonged, had a similar tradition of building defensive fortifications.

Activity 7.5

1. Who was the ruler of the Kingdom of Gojjam during the reign of Amde Tsiyon?
2. Who were the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Enarya?
3. Mention the titles of the rulers of Wajj, Ganz, Kafa and Shekka.
4. Who were the Gonga people?

7.4. Relationship between the Christian Highland Kingdom and the Sul-
tanate of Adal (1520s – 1559)
Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

Ê mention the underlying factor for the rivalry and continued conflict between the
sultanate of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom;
Ê analyze how Adal got supremacy in the Ethiopian region and the Horn;
Ê appreciate traditional conflict resolution skills of the time’
Ê analyze the reason why Ottoman Turkey and Portugal involved in the internal
conflict between Adal and the Christian highland kingdom.

Brainstorming Questions
• What type of image do people in your locality have about Imam Ahmad (Gragn)?
• Were there mechanisms to solve conflicts before going to war between Adal and the
Christian highland kingdom?

For much of the second half of the 15th century, Adal was in a state of civil war. The Sultans
lost their power. Actual power was held by the Emirs (Amirs) and Imams. Because of the ensu-
ing rivalry between Emirs and Imams, only a few Imams held power for longer years. In the last
decades of the 15th century, Emir Mahfuz emerged as the powerful ruler of Adal and Zeyla. He
strengthened the sultanate of Adal and began a series of attacks on the Christian highland
Kingdom, particularly during the reigns of Eskindir (r. 1478-94) and Na`od (1494-1508).
However, he was killed by the army of King Libne Dingil (r. 1508-40) at a battle in Zeyla in
1517. The death of Mahfuz opened the way for another rivalry for power among the Emirs.

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Eventually, in the early 1520s, the leadership in Adal passed to a powerful Imam named
Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi. He is popularly known in the Christian highlands as Gragn
(the left-handed). There is lack of clear evidence about his family background. According
to his chronicle, the Futuh al-Habesha, Ahmad belonged to a clan called Balaw in Hubat,
located near present day Babile. He was a cavalry officer under Mahfuz and married his
daughter, Bati Dil Wambara.

Ahmad combined energetic and tactful leadership qualities. First, he systematically got rid
of his internal rivals one after the other, and became the Imam of Adal. Then, he tried to
consolidate his power in the lowlands by reconciling the warring Afar, Somali and Harari
communities. The Afar had already started to make incursions into the agricultural areas
in the highlands since the time before the rise of Mahfuz. The Somali and other pastoral
communities, with their cattle, also began to move into the relatively fertile highland areas
of Adal. This population movement created violence among the Harari, Afar and Somali
communities as they fought each other frequently. It was under these circumstances that
Ahmad played the role of arbitrator and restorer of peace in the lowlands. He persuaded
the fighting groups to abandon their differences and launch a war against the Christian
Highland Kingdom. The restoration of peace in the region enabled Ahmad to recruit a large
number of soldiers into his army from among the people.

However, it should be clear that the war Imam Ahmad launched against the Christian high-
land kingdom was not a war over religious issues. Rather, it was the last stage of the earlier
conflicts between the Walasma Sultans and the kings of the Christian highland kingdom
over the control of Zeyla trade and the lands through which the trade routes passed. Be-
sides, Adal and other Sultanates wanted to regain their independence from the Christian
highland kingdom and create Islamic empire of their own.

Imam Ahmad began his campaign in 1527 by attacking the forces of the Christian kingdom
stationed in the tributary provinces of Dawaro, Fatagar and Bali, after which he returned to
Adal with large booties. On the other hand, King Libne Dingil, who had never expected a
serious Muslim threat since the death of Mahfuz in 1517, ordered the Christian governor
of Bali named Degelhan to subdue Adal. But Degelhan was defeated by the Imam`s forces
in Adal. Since then, Ahmad has carried out a series of expeditions to the highlands of the
provinces west of Adal with no strong resistance from Imperial forces. With this, Ahmad`s
confidence greatly increased and he prepared himself for a conventional war against the
Christian highland kingdom.

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In March 1529, Ahmad crushed Libine Dingil`s army at the battle of Shimbra Kure, near
the present Mojjo town. This was a big land mark in the history of the relationship between
Adal and the Christian highland kingdom. Ahmad`s army was much smaller than Libine
Dingil`s army. but it was better equipped and with it there were Yemeni musketeers who
were sent by the Ottoman Sultan. After his victory the Imam returned to Harar to recruit
more of troops. On the other hand, the Imperial army could not recover from its defeat and
continuously retreated to the north.

The ambition of Imam Ahmad was to create an Islamic empire in the Horn of Africa. To
this end, he made preparations for the total control of the Christian highland kingdom and
its tributary provinces. In 1531, he led the army of Adal and easily annexed Dawaro and
Bali. Ahmad continued his all-out attack on the Christian highland kingdom, but he could
not capture Libne Dingil who moved from one place to another with a small army until his
death in 1540. In the years 1532 and 1533, Ahmad effectively controlled the states and
peoples of southern half of the Ethiopian region. He put all these regions under the hege-
mony of Adal from his command centers at Debre Birhan, and in Wajj and Dawaro. Wolaita
was the only state in the region which successfully resisted the Imam`s army.

Ahmad launched the last phase of his campaigns from the mid-1533 to 1535 against the
northern provinces of the Christian highland kingdom. He put Tigray and the areas adjoin-
ing the Red Sea under his control, and made Aksum his center. The Sultanate of Adal had
supremacy over the Ethiopian region and a large part of the Horn of Africa. The territory
in both the south and the north was divided into provinces which were governed by rulers
appointed by the Imam. By 1535, Ahmad and his army settled in Dembiya near Lake Tana
making it his new center from where he ruled the empire until he was finally defeated and
killed at the battle of Woyna Dega in 1543.

The Involvement of the Portuguese and Ottoman Turks

The conflict between Adal and the Christian highland Kingdom involved the Portuguese
and Ottoman Turks. By then, these two maritime powers of the world were in a state of
rivalry over the dominance of the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions. In 1520 the Por-
tuguese mission came to the court of Libne Dingill. Jao Bermudez came to Ethiopia as a
member of this mission. When the mission departed for Portugal in 1526, he remained in
the country. In 1535 when Imam Ahmad was in complete control of the Ethiopian region,
King Libne Dingil sent a letter to the Pope of Rome and the King of Portugal in the hands
of John Bermudez, requesting their military assistance.

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After several years of delay, Bermudez came to Ethiopia again in 1541 with 400 Portuguese
soldiers led by Christovao da Gama. Libne Dingil had already died in 1540 at the monastery
of Debre Damo in Tigray, and was succeeded by his son, King Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59). The
Portuguese troops entered the Christian highland kingdom through Massawa and continued
their march to the interior to meet the king. On their march to the south, they encountered
their first engagement with the Army of Adal in eastern Tigray. But the ensuing resistance
forced the Portuguese to return to the north to Dabarwa on the Red Sea coast.

Imam Ahmad intended to prevent the Portuguese soldiers from joining the Christian troops
under King Gelawdewos. For that end, he shifted his command center to Deresge in Semien.
From this place he led his army to attack the Portuguese in Saharti. However, with the help of
their cannon, the Portuguese defeated the Imam`s army. The Imam himself was wounded and
slightly escaped capture. Ahmad`s army was defeated in another engagement two weeks later.
Then, he retreated further south to the area southeast of Lake Ashange. The Portuguese also
moved to the area south of the lake and awaited the coming of Gelawdewos.

In the meantime, the Imam turned to the Ottoman Turks for military assistance. The Ottomans
responded immediately by sending 900 troops armed with muskets and cannons. With this,
Ahmad quickly marched to Wefla. In the battle that followed, the Portuguese suffered a crush-
ing defeat. Their commander, Christopher da Gama, was wounded, captured and killed. The
remnants of the Portuguese retreated to the northwest of the country and met with Gelawde-
wos towards the end of 1542.

Meanwhile, Imam Ahamad committed a grave mistake by sending most of the Ottoman mus-
keteers back to their home country. The rest of his army was also overstretched throughout
the vast empire. On the other hand, the Portuguese were furious about the death of their com-
mander and sought to avenge it. The presence of the Portuguese musketeers amongst them
boosted the morale of Gelawdewos`s army. In February 1543 Gelawdewos led the combined
forces of Ethiopians and Portuguese and defeated the Imam`s army at the battle of Woyna
Dega in Dembiya. Ahmad was shot by a Portuguese musketeer and died soon after. The Mus-
lim army and the Imam`s wife, Bati Del Wambara, retreated south to Adal. The brief period of
supremacy of Adal over the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa came to an end.

The conflict between the Christian highland kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal continued until 1559
when the army of Adal led by Emir Nur al-Wazir defeated the army of the Christian highland kingdom
led by king Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59). Gelawdewos himself was killed at the battle site in the south
central Ethiopian region.

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Consequences of the Conflict

The conflicts between the Sultanate of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom which
lasted for about two decades had a number of consequences. In the first place, the con-
flicts caused huge material destruction, and the loss of human lives. Many churches and
monasteries throughout the Christian highland kingdom were looted and burned to the
ground. Invaluable religious documents and relics stored in these institutions were turned
to ash. Besides, the series of conflicts caused a severe reduction of population in both
the highlands and lowlands because a large number of people lost their lives. Above all,
the war weakened the power of the Christian highland kingdom. Imperial armies built over
the preceding centuries were destroyed. Those armies stationed in tributary provinces were
dismantled. This opened the way for the rivalry between the monarchy and the regional no-
bility. Subsequently, regional lords began to challenge the authority of the kings. As a result,
the Christian highland kingdom failed to regain its lost power and authority.

The military conflict was partly the cause of population movements in the region. Many
people were forced to change their settlement areas to avoid the conflicts. The movement
of people from one area to another led to the intermixing of different ethnic and religious
groups. For instance, Muslim lowlanders permanently settled in the highlands. This seems
to have improved the ethnic and religious differences in the region. The military conflict
disrupted the Zeyla trade. The trade routes became more and more unsafe for caravan mer-
chants because of the chaotic situation caused by the military conflicts. Later, some trade
revived through the port of Zeyla and continued until the 1560s.

Activity 7.6

1. Who was Imam Ahmad ibn-Ibrahim al-Ghazi?

2. Who was the winner of the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529? Why?
3. What was the only state in the south which successfully resisted Imam Ahmad`s
forces?
4. Where was the last center of Imam Ahmad?
5. Why were the Ottoman Turkey and Portugal involved in the internal conflict between
states in the Ethiopian region?
6. Mention some consequences of the wars between the Christian state and Adal?

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7.5. Population Movements in the Ethiopian Region

Learning Competencies: After learning this lesson, you will be able to:

 explain the main factor behind the population movement of the Afar, Somali and
Argoba peoples;
 analyze the causes and consequences of the Oromo population movement in
Ethiopia and the Horn;
 sketch out the major directions of the movement of the Oromo on a map;
 appreciate the internal structures of the Gadaa system and its roles in the success-
es of the Oromo during their movement.

Brainstorming Questions
• What do you understand by population movement?

7.5.1. The Movement of the Somali, Afar and Argoba Peoples

Population movements were common in the Ethiopian region during the period between
the 14th and 16th centuries. The Somali, Afar, and Argoba population movements occurred
partly as a result of the conflicts between the Sultanates and the Christian highland king-
dom, and partly because of natural factors such as draught and famine. Repeated conflicts
between the two sides obviously forced these peoples to change their settlement areas.

1. The Somali

Prior to the 16th century, Somali sub-groups moved into the interior of the Horn of Africa
from the coastal areas of Zeyla, Berbera, Benadir and Mogadishu. Subsequently, they occu-
pied their present day territory both in Ethiopia and Somalia. During the wars between the
Sultanate of Adal led by Imam Ahmed and the Christian highland kingdom under King
Libne Dingil (r. 1508-40), the Somali formed significant part of the army of Adal. In the
course of the war, pastoral sections of the Somali also moved to the eastern highlands in
search of water and pasture.

2. Afar

Historical sources show that the Afar people have lived in north eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti
and south eastern Eritrea since ancient times. Before the 16th century, due to drought and

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famine, the Afar moved towards the middle Awash. Like the Somali, territories inhabited by
the Afar were within the zone of conflict between the Sultanates and the Christian highland
kingdom. During the conflict, due to their pastoral economy, the Afar obviously moved to
relatively safer areas. This helped them to survive the destructive effects of the conflict.

The Afar were under the influence of the Sultanate of Ifat, and then of Adal. Like the Somali,
during the period of Imam Ahmed, they fought the wars on the side of the Imam, and Afar
pastoral groups moved into the highlands of the Ethiopian region.

3. The Argoba

The Argoba are one of the ancient inhabitants of the Ethiopian region who accepted Islam
in an earlier time through religious leaders who came from Arabia. Linguists classify their
language in the Ethio-Semitic language family. During the medieval period, the Argoba were
agents of trade, Islamic expansion and Muslim state formations in the Horn. They had con-
nections with Ifat, Walasma, Harar, and Hadya.

Mainly due to their location on the caravan trade routes and areas of conflict between the
Christian highland kingdom and the Sultanates of the lowlands, the Argobas were perhaps
most affected by the conflicts. Trade and war may have been the main factors for their
spread in the region between Southern Wollo and Harar. Today, in addition to the Argoba
Zone in the Afar Regional State, there are some villages of the Argoba in Southern Wollo,
Northern Shewa in Amhara, and Hararge in Oromia Regional States respectively.

7.5.2. The Oromo Population Movement

The Oromo are one of the ancient peoples of the Ethiopian region and the Horn of Africa.
Linguistically, Afan Oromo belongs to the East Lowland Cushitic language family which
consists of the Somali, Afar, Gedeo, Kambata, and so on. Available evidences show that
the 16th century large scale Oromo population movement began from the Bale highlands.

Causes of the Movement

At the time, the major part of the Oromo population lived in the highlands of Bale and
practiced mixed farming. An increase in the number of cattle populations in the highlands
of Bale began in the 14th century, resulting in a shortage of pasture land. The lowlands in
the immediate south and southwest of the Bale highlands provided an excellent pasture,
where young men took their cattle for grazing. Young men moved with their cattle to the

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Valleys of Middle Awash and the Ganale River in the south. In the course of time, these
young men evolved into separate Oromo sub-groups with a predominantly pastoral eco-
nomic life. Also, sedentary Oromo groups had already existed in the Sultanates of Sharka
and Dawaro before the 16th century.

When Imam Ahmad began his early campaigns in the 1520s, the southern frontier of the
Christian highland kingdom was open to the northward movement of groups of Oromo.
The movement of the Oromo rapidly increased during the period after the defeat and death
of Imam Ahmad. As a result, between the 1550s and 1580s, the Oromo rapidly moved into
the central, southeastern, western, southern, and some parts northern Ethiopian regions.

Directions and Stages of the Movement

On the eve of their 16th century large scale movement, the Oromo were organized into two separate
confederacies called Borana and Barantu. The Borana confederacy consisted of various sub-groups of
the Macha, Tulama, Guji and Southern Borana Oromo. The Barantu also consisted mainly of Karayu,
Ittu, Marawa, Akkachu, Arsi, and Humbana.

In the course of their movement and expansion, the Borana moved in the direction of the central
and southwestern Ethiopian regions. Oromo groups belonging to the Borana branch also moved to
the highlands of northern Kenya. On the other hand, the Barantu Oromo followed a north easterly
direction and ultimately reached the Awash Valley, Harar, Wollo and other adjacent areas.

The 16th century movement of the Oromo into the highlands was first initiated by the Macha and
Tulama branches of the Borana Oromo in about 1522. They took a northward direction and passed
through the area between Lake Abaya and Mount Walabu, and then headed in the direction of the Rift
Valley Lakes region. In the course of their movement, the Oromo launched swift attacks on the states
of Hadya, Bali, Sharkha, Dawaro and Fatagar. At this time, the army of the Christian highland kingdom
under king Gelawdewos (r. 1540-59) operated in the area of Lake Ziway. But it failed to check the
rapid advance of the Oromo who controlled the territories of these Muslim states in the 1550s.

At the beginning of the 1560s, the Macha and Tulama established their new center at Odaa
Nabee, near Dukam, where the two held a common Chafee (assembly). From this center, they
conducted periodic attacks on the old states of Wajj, Bizamo, Damot and Gafat. In so doing,
they were encountered by the army under King Sertse Dingil (r. 1563-97) who scored a victory
over them in 1572 in the land of the Maya around Wajj. But Sertse Dingil`s temporary success
did not save these states from being over run by the Oromo. As a result, part of the population
of Bizamo and Damot fled across the Abay River to settle in Gojjam.

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In the south west, the Oromo faced the stiff resistance of the medieval kingdom of Ennarya. The
Oromo began to attack this kingdom at the beginning of the 17th century, but resistance con-
tinued throughout the century. Consequently, the Limmu branch of the Macha Oromo defeated
Ennarya in about 1710, and since then, the territory was renamed Limmu-Ennarya. South of the
Gojeb River, another medieval kingdom of Kafa successfully repelled the attack of the Oromo,
and curbed their movement to the south of the river.

On the other hand, the movement of Barantu Oromo followed a north easterly direction. The
Arsi moved from the highlands of Bale into the Lake Ziway area and settled in their present
territory of the same name. In addition, the Karayu left the upper course of the Wabi Shabale
River and moved eastwards to their present territory in the eastern lowland. The Ittu, Humbana
(Anniya and Afran Qallo) and other eastern Oromo branches moved to their present territory of
Hararghe. The Guji also moved to the south and settled in their present territory.

Consequences of the Movement

The centuries long population movement of the Oromo had a number of consequences which
equally affected both the Oromo and the other states and societies of the period. To begin
with, the movement brought the various branches of the Oromo into contact with the various
other peoples of the Ethiopian region.

The medieval kingdoms and sultanates of the region were the first to be affected by the popu-
lation movement. The Christian kingdom was restricted to the regions north of the Abay River.
Similarly, in the east, the Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the city of Harar surrounded by the
Jugol wall. In the southern and south western parts of the Ethiopian region, the states of Bali,
Hadya, Fatagar, Dawaro, Damot, Gafat and Bizamo were either destroyed or highly influenced
by the Oromo.

The communities who accepted the Oromo were treated kindly. Their property would not be
looted. Instead, they were adopted as members of a particular Oromo sub-group through the
institution of Moggassa and enjoyed every right adoption entailed. On the contrary, those who
resisted were harshly treated, their property was plundered and parts of their populations were
forced to flee from their ancestral territories. The good examples in this case were the peoples
in the states of Damot and Bizamo.

The movement eventually resulted in the exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions
between the Oromo and the people with whom they came into contact. Several non-Oromo
ethnic groups adopted the Gadaa system. The Oromo also took various socio-cultural ele-

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ments from the people among whom they settled or from their neighbours. The Oromo
who settled among Christian communities were converted to Christianity. Others adopted
the religion of Islam particularly in the eastern part of the Ethiopian region.

The movement of the Oromo into very wide areas of the Ethiopian region weakened their
indigenous political system. The Gadaa system functioned well in a geographically limited
territory. In this condition, it was impossible for the different branches of the Oromo to
live under one Gadaa assembly. Different centers of assembly sprang up in different areas.
Environmental differences also brought about slight differences in the naming of Gadaa
grades. Nevertheless, though the Oromo established various Gadaa centres, they have been
governed by the same Gada values due to the existence of the Gadaa federation system
which has been strengthened for a century by Muda ceremonies.

Finally, changes in the economic life of the Oromo also affected the Gadaa system. In the
territories where they settled, the Oromo adopted a sedentary mixed farming economy that
led to the formation of social classes. They were also involved in long distance trade. During
the first half of the 19th century, acute competition and constant wars over the control of
trade and trade routes led to the rise of powerful warlords who began to challenge the
authority of Gadaa officials. The wealth from agriculture and trade enabled some Abbaa
Duulaa to build their own private armies for further control of land, markets and trade
routes. They imposed their authority on their own sub-groups and then on others. Step by
step, the power of Gadaa declined to control the ambitious Oromo war leaders who stayed
in power longer than what was set in the Gadaa cycle and eventually became Mootii (king).

The Gadaa System of the Oromo

The Gadaa system is an indigenous democratic socio-political institution of the Oromo.

In the past, the system regulated the entire political, economic, social and religious life of
the Oromo. The Gadaa system was inscribed by UNESCO in 2016 as an intangible World
Cultural Heritage of humanity at its 11th intangible world heritage.

Under the Gadaa system newly born generations of Oromo children are expected to pass
through a series of Gadaa grades that succeded each other every eight years in assuming
military, economic, political and ritual responsibilities. Each member of the Gadaa grade
performed in different capacities to the society as a whole.

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Table 7.1 Gadaa Grades of the Oromo

Grade Age of Individuals

Dabale 0-8
Game-Titiko 8-16
Game-Gurgudo 16-24
Kusa 24-32
Raba-Doori 32-40
Gada 40-48

The full cycle of the Gadaa system was ten Gadaa grades, which was divided into two
periods of forty years each. The first forty years were the Gadaa of the father, and had
particular names. The second forty years were the Gadaa of the son, and also had their
own names. The newly born infant boy always enters the system of grades exactly forty
years (five Gadaa grades) behind the father regardless of the age of the father. The move-
ment of forty years was cyclical, repeating itself after every eighty years.

The Gadaa government called Chaffee (Assembly) was also set up by officials elected from
among the members of the Gadaa. The Chaffee functioned at local, regional and central
levels based on democratic principles. Gadaa officials were elected on the basis of their
ability. The qualifications for election include oratory, knowledge of history and traditions
of the society, past military achievements with recognizable potential for future leadership.
The highest authority in the Gadaa government was vested in the Abbaa Bokku or Abbaa
Gadaa (father of the Gadaa or spokesperson). The Abbaa Gadaa was just first among
equals. There were various other officials, including Abbaa Sera (the chief judge) and Abbaa
Duulaa (commander of the army). In addition, a council of retired Gadaa officials assisted
the Abbaa Bokku in running the government.

The elected Gadaa officials ruled the Oromo in accordance with the laws of the Gadaa
system for eight years. The government’s independent executive, legislative and judicial
branches were a way of balancing power. Corrupt or dictatorial leaders would be removed
from power through a process called “buqqisu” (removal) before the official end of their
term.

Oromos women`s participation in the Gadaa system is realized by a parallel institution

known as Siinqee. This institution promoted gender equality in Oromo society. It is also
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one of major institutions of peace making system in the Gadaa system. A female began to
hold Siinqee (thin stick) just after her marriage and this signifies fertility. Siinqee is a symbol
of blessing for fertility, production and prosperity in her life time. Haadha Siinqee (mother
of Siinqee) is one of the members of the Gadaa, and participates in the peace making pro-
cesses along with the legal experts and elders.

The Gadaa system functioned among the Oromo for many centuries even after their move-
ment and expansion throughout the Ethiopian region since the early decades of the 16th
century. However, the system lost many of its traditional elements over time, and eventually
declined. Several internal and external factors contributed to the decline of the Gadaa
system. These were the emergence of powerful Abbaa Duulas (war leaders) who gradually
became Mootii (king), involvement of the Oromo in long distance trade, the expansion of
Islam among the Oromo, interactions with the monarchical Omotic states, and, later on,
missionary activities and the influence of the hierarchical system of the Ethiopian Empire
state.

Consequently, the Gadaa system became reduced to ritual and ceremonial activities as it
is practiced by part of the Oromo. However, some Gadaa expressions and psychological
traits remain intact in current Oromo socio-cultural life. The Gadaa system is a model that
shows the ways in which societies in the past tried to govern themselves democratically. The
system set limits on Gadaa rulers and guaranteed the rights to be enjoyed by all members
of Oromo society. The democratic nature of the system preserved the unity of the Oromo
and sustained its internal peace for centuries back.

Moggassa and Guddifacha

Moggassa and Guddifacha were the institutions practiced by the Oromo during their cen-
turies of movement and expansion. Moggassa means adopting a new Oromo or non-Oro-
mo sub-group or any other social group as a body (in mass) by a ceremony of oath held in
the presence of the Abbaa Gadaa. Based on this institution various Oromo sub-groups ad-
opted quite a number of people. Adopted Oromo sub-groups or any other group became
collectively Ilma Gossa (sons of the sub-group) and were entitled to all the socio-economic
and political rights adoption entailed.

The Oromo’s adoption of a growing number of groups of people expanded their numbers
and, as a result, their military potential to battle the enemy. This significantly contributed
to the success of the Oromo in attacking the enemy and controlling new lands in the

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highlands of the Ethiopian region. Through the Moggassa system, at the same time, the
weak Oromo or non-Oromo groups gained both protection and material benefits from the
members of the adopting gossa. Likewise, Guddifacha was an institution for adopting oth-
ers on an individual level. The adopted son was regarded as a real son, and he enjoyed all
rights of a true son. Non-Oromo individuals were also integrated into the Oromo society
through this institution.

• In the next unit you will learn about the Luwa of the Sidama, Ballee of Gedeo,
Hayyota of the Konso and so on. Like the Oromo Gadaa system, these indigenous
local governance systems had “cyclical grades” through which male members of the
society passed.

Activity 7.7

1. Describe the effects of the Oromo population movement?

2. Mention about Gadaa system and Gadaa grade.
3. Describe some of the Gadaa officials.
4. How did the Gadaa system operate? Discuss in group.
5. What was the advantage of the Moggassa institution for the Oromo?

Unit Summary

In this unit we have discussed the history of the states and peoples of the Ethiopian region
and the Horn of Africa during the period between 1270 and the mid-16th century. The
war and peaceful interactions among several of them mainly revolved around the need to
monopolize the Zeyla trade. The Zeyla trade created a sense of economic interdependence
among the various states and peoples of the Ethiopian region. Along with trade items they
exchanged social and cultural values. At the same time, the competition for control of trade
led to prolonged wars between the states of the region. For a time, most of the states of
the region were reduced to the status of tribute paying provinces of the Christian highland
kingdom, where powerful Kings stationed military garrisons. This condition continued until
the last quarter of the 15th century.

The 16th century was known in Ethiopian history for two great events, such as the wars
between the Sultanate of Adal and the Christian highland kingdom, and the Oromo popu-
lation movement. These two events had lasting political, social, economic and demographic
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impacts on the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. There was an immense loss of lives on both
sides and the destruction of material wealth. The period of Imam Ahmad was followed by
the movement of the Oromo. From their common home land of Bale, various branches of
the Oromo moved in all directions beginning from the early 1520s. As a result, they came
into contact with various other peoples and states of the Ethiopian region and the Horn.
Consequently, a number of pre-existing states in the region either disappeared or highly
influenced by the Oromo. The Christian highland kingdom was limited to the territories
north of the Abay River. The Sultanate of Adal was also similarly limited to the walled city
of Harar as the Oromo settled in the surrounding region.

Review Questions

I. Describe the Following

1. Gult System 3. Siinqee
2. Mikkerecho 4. Musketeer
II. Match the items in column “B” to those in column “A”

1. Umar Walasma A. The Kingdom of Bizamo

2. Garad B. The Sultanate of Adal

3. Shinasha People C. Adoption among the Oromo

4. Imam Ahmad D. The Sultanate of Ifat

5. Moggassa E. The Sultanates of Bali and Hadya

I. Write Short Answers to the Following Questions

1. Explain how the Christian highland state was consolidated under the Solomonic
dynasty.
2. Mention the names of the most important states of the medieval period Ethiopian
region.
3. Explain the role of the Gadaa system in the Oromo population movement.
4. What were the factors behind the success of the Oromo population movement?

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