By Abdi A. (Asst. Prof.

Feb. 2024
 The period from the late 13th to the beginning of the
16th centuries experienced dynamic political,
economic, and socio-cultural developments that lay
the foundation for the formation of modern Ethiopia
in the 19th and 20th centuries.
 Among the major political, economic, and socio-
cultural developments :the "restoration" of the
"Solomonic" Dynasty, succession problems, territorial
expansion, evangelization, development of trade as
well as expansion of extensive socio−cultural
interactions among different peoples who lived in
different agro−ecological zones were some of the
events that shaped the course of history in the region.
 Therefore, this chapter treats those events and shows
the relationships that exist between them.
4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic‟‟
Dynasty
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial
Expansion and Religious Processes

4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in

Muslim Sultanates

4.4. Rivalry Between the Christian Kingdom

and the Muslim Sultanates

4.5. External Relations

 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed
that they were descendants of the last king of
Aksum (Dil-Naod), and hence, they were
legitimate to take over state power from the
“illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty.

 As the claim has no historical evidence, the

name “Restoration” is put in quotation mark.

 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in

quotation marks because the claim of descent
from King Solomon of Israel is legendary.
 The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre
Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that associated
Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.

 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling

class descended from the line of Menilek I, son
of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of
Israel.

 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno-

Amlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed
descent from Menilek I.
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment
of a „Royal Prison‟ of Amba Gishen

4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of

the Christian Kingdom

4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and

Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in
1285, a political instability caused by constant
power struggles among
 his sons and
 grandsons for succession occurred.
 A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to:
 the Sultan of Egypt and
 thePatriarch of Alexandria in 1290 reflected
the existence of those struggles.
 The power struggle also continued during the
reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who reigned
from 1294 to 1299.

 The succession problem seems to have been

partly resolved in 1300 during the reign of
Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the
establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-
Gishen located in present day southern Wollo.
 According to rule of the royal prison:
 All male members of the royal family were
confined until one among them was installed
in power.
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch
guarded the royal prison.
 When the monarch died, court dignitaries
would send an army to the royal prison to
escort the designated (chosen) successor and
put him on the throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was
destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's
force in 1540.
 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636,
the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
(instead, they used mobile courts), living in tents
 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in
Medieval Amhara (South Wollo around Lake Haiq).
 However, it gradually shifted southward to the
districts of :
Menz,
Tegulet,
Bulga, and
finally to the regions dominated by the great height of
the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and
Zequalla mountains.
 Yet, until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44),
the center and the territorial limit of the Christian
Kingdom was mainly limited to the present day
 Tigray,
 Lasta,
 Medieval Amhara and
 Shewa.
 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who
embarked on a policy of territorial expansion.
 His main motives of expansion were economic
and political i.e. to control the trade routes
and seize territories.

 Besides territorial expansion, his period also

witnessed the expansion of trade leading to
the flow of commodities to the coast following
the major routes.

 In the process of consolidating his power,

Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an attempt
to end centrifugal tendencies, which
threatened the unity of the Christian Kingdom.
 In the process, he expanded his territory into:
 Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4;
 Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7;
 Bete-Israel
(located b/n Dambiya and Tekeze
River) around 1332; and the Red Sea and the
coastal areas of Massawa
 Enderta (northeast Tigray) in 1320s
 Eritrean
and controlled the whole region in
1325 he then appointed a governor with a title
of Ma’ekale-Bahir, which later on changed to
Bahire-Negash.
 In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid
tributes to the Christian Kingdom.

 In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few

of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo
were brought under the influence of the
Christian state.

 He fully controlled of all the trade routes and

sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the
early 1330s.

 The consolidation and territorial expansion of

the Christian Kingdom continued during the
successors of Amde-Tsion.
I) Evangelization

II) Religious Movements

A. The Ewostatewos Movement
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites

III) Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob

 Christianity had a long history of expansion.
 Churches and their believers had been in
existence long before expansion of the Christian
Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa.

 For instance, in Shewa there were early

Christians who maintained contacts with their
distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia.

 Those early Christians played an important role

in the spread of Christianity in several areas.
 Here,we adress the works of: Abba Eyesus-Mo'a
of (Haik Estifanos)and Abune Tekle-Haymanot of
(Debre-Libanos)
 In the 13th C, Abba Eyesus-Mo'a of (Haik Estifanos)
opened new opportunities of learning for Christians
who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later
evangelized the newly incorporated areas where the
influence of Christianity had either been non−existent
or minimal.

 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion

during the medieval period set an additional
momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot of (Debre-Libanos) (13th
C) played a key role in reviving Christianity in
Shewa, which was followed by the
evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia
including medieval Damot.

 He baptized and converted Motalami to

Christianity.

 The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in

Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity to different
areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish,
Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and Wegda, and
Fatagar, Damot, Waj and Enarya.
A) The Ewostatewos Movement
 The Mid 14th C, witnessed development of
monasticism and religious movements of which
the major one was the Ewostatewos movement,
named after the founder.
 Monasticism refers to the religious practice of
renouncing all worldly pursuits in order to fully
devote one’s life to spiritual works.
 Abba Ewostatewos established his own
monastic community in Sara'e (in present day
Eritrea).
 His teachings was on the strict observance of
Sabbath on Saturday.
B) Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
 The Estifanosites were a movement within
Ethiopian monasticism, named after the founder
and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos.

 The movement rose to prominence in the 15th C

and continued until the sixteenth century, when
it was formally reconciled with the main body of
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

 He established a rigid monastic organization,

which emphasized poverty, absolute self-
subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular
authorities.
C) The Religious Reforms of Atse Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several
measures to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox
Church.
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian
clergy in order to create harmonious church-state
relationship.
 He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by
reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church.
 He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote
areas.
 He ordered the people to observe fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
 Lack of sufficient religious books was another
problem.
 Thus, the king encouraged the establishment of
a library in every church which was followed by
revival of religious literature.

 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe-

Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-
te'aqebo Mister,etc.
 In addition, during his reign, some parts of
Te’amreMaryam were translated from Arabic to
Geez.
 Trade was one of the major factors that resulted
in the formation of the Musim Sultanates since
the 14th C.
 Trade also remained a major source of conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
sultanates.
 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that
emerged along trade routes and became a center
of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until
the second half of the sixteenth century was the
Sultanate of Adal.
 After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of
campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates
thereby extending its hegemony over these areas.
 It also resisted the expansion of Christian
Kingdom.
 However, one branch of the Walasma family,
which realized that Ifat was becoming an easy
target to the Christian Kingdom due to its
location, moved further to the southeastern
lowlands and established new and vigorous
Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts
around Harar in 1367.
 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty
was at a place called Dakar, a place located to the
southeast of Harar.
 The Walasma family consolidated its power in
the new center, and began another phase of
military campaigns against the frontiers of the
Christian Kingdom.

 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city

of Harar and after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a
growing threat from a new force-the Oromo
forced the sultanate to change its capital to
Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.

 Therefore, Dakar==Harar==Awsa the correct

order of the Adal sultanate political sites
 Islam spread into the central and southwestern
parts of the Ethiopian region through Muslim
merchants and preachers.
 Trade served as channel for the expansion of
Islam in the Muslim Sultanates.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates during this
period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-
1577).
 Zeila served as the main trade outlet and old
city states of Mogadishu, Brava and Merca were
used as ports for hinterland.
 With the revival of trade, different towns and
trade centers emerged along the route from
Zeila to the interior.

 Muslim states had significant control over trade

routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity, although contested by
“Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival
and consolidation.
 Causes for the rivalry:
 Economic motives: The ambition to control the
trade route and commodities that passed
through Zeila led to rivalry between the
“Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.

 The first recorded conflict between the

Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328,
when the Muslim Sultanates organized their
armies to take military action against the
Christian kingdom.
 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped
merchants belonging to the Christian King,
Amde-Tsion, confiscating their goods, capturing,
and imprisoning the king's agent.
 These actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a
campaign against Haqaddin I; then he defeated
and took him prisoner and eventually replaced
him by his brother Sabradin.
 In 1332, Sabraddin himself revolted on Amde-
Tsion, by mobilizeing all the Muslims of the
lowlands and invaded the Christian Highlands.
 Fatagar and Dawaro allied with Sabraddin of Ifat.
 However, Amade-Tsion scored another victory over
Sabaraddin. As a result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro
were incorporated into the Christian Kingdom.
 After Sabradin, his brother, Jamaldin was appointed
as ruler over “all the Muslims”.
 The Muslims were mainly defeated because they
were disunited and sometimes they fought among
themselves.
 Amde-Tsion required from them annual tributes and
freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.
 For a long time to come, Christian control over the
long distance trade route was assured.
 But the Walasma rulers were not prepared to
give up the extensive territories taken from
them by Amde-tsion and to continue to be
tribute paying vassals of his successors.

 Having lost Ifat, some members of the Walasma

family: Haqaddin II and Sa’adadin, moved their
seat of power further east to Adal, particularly
to Dakar, from where they continued their
struggle to recover their losses.
 The successors of Amde Tseyon:
 Sayfa Aryad (1344-71)(his son), who succeeded
by his sons, first Newaye Maryam (1371-80) and
later Dawit (1380-1413), succeeded by his son,
Tewodros I (1413-1414). King Yeshaq (r. 1414-
1430) had followed Amade-tsion’s track,
fighting with the Muslim sultanate.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused
to pay tribute and rebelled against Neway-
Maryam (1371-80), however, he died fighting in
1386.
 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’dad-Din
II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial success but
defeated by king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in
1402/3.
 Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King
Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then
the area was called "the land of Sadad-Din."
 Following the death of Sa’dad-Din and loss of
Zeila to Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates
declined in power.
 Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and
were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq.
 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the
battle of Yeguba.
 As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay,
Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed, Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned
against Adal. Despite initial successes, the army of Ba'ede-
Mariam lost the battle in 1474. The successors of Ba'ede-
Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of
Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim
Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully.
 As a result, Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518)
attempted to harmonize relations with the Christian
 However, among the various Sultans of the
Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out
some effective military campaigns into the
highlands and in 1517 Emir Mahfuz died
fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r.
1508-40) force.
 His son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi, popularly known as Ahmed Gragn or the
"left-handed" took over the leadership.
 There were wider socio-economic and cultural
interactions between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim principalities.
 As in earlier periods, trade continued to be the
major channel of social integration.
 The long distance trade and local markets
served as core areas of social ties.
 Relatively, the difference in ecology of the
Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom
created economic interdependence, which in
due course strengthened socio-economic
bondage.
 Merchants of the two regions often moved from the
highlands to the coast and vice versa. It was through
such caravan merchants that the social links were
strengthened and religions spread.
 These interactions and interdependence in economic,
social, cultural and political spheres lay the
foundation for modern Ethiopia.
 The period witnessed the flourishing of Geez
literature as is evident from the works of Abba Giorgis
Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies epitomized
by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king).
 On the Muslim side, literature had developed
including the works of Arab writers such as Ibn Fadil
al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.
 Reading Assignment
 4.5. External Relations
I) RELATIONS WITH EGYPT
 From the late thirteenth century onwards, Christian
Kingdom continued to maintain relations with Egypt,
which was mainly religious in character.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s
Sultan, Baybars requesting an Abun from the Coptic
Church.
 Both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as
protectors of religious minorities in their respective
domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile
(the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.
 In the early 14th century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un
persecuted the Copts and destroyed their churches in
Cairo.
 In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration
of the churches and warned that the failure to do so
would result in the diversion of the Nile waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-
Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the
then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have
mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which
the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.
 Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the
Sultan, established harmonious relations between
King Dawit and Egypt.
 Cont‟d… Relations With Egypt
 The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True
Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a
number of religious paintings to the Sultan.
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to
Sultan Barsbay requesting the protection of
Christians in Egypt.
 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI
wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of
the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).
 Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq
(1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to
this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with
complimentary gifts to the King but rejected the
reconstruction of the church.
 II. RELATIONS WITH CHRISTIAN EUROPE
 As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian
Kingdom maintained relations with Christian
Europe.
 During the medieval period, contacts between
the two regions were strongly influenced by the
legend of “Prester John”.
 This was followed by sustained relations in
subsequent decades. For example, it is stated
that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of
Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in
1395.
 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of
Constance. In another report, message from an
Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was presented
to King Phillip of France in 1332.
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a
European monarch is the letter of King Henry
IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed
to “Prester John”, the purported king of the
Christian Kingdom.
 The identification of the King with “Prester
John” was firmly established in the 14th
century. They even thought that it was possible
to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this King.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of
Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent
letters to the king in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen
consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King Dawit
sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine
man called Antonio Bartoli.
 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation
from Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq’s
delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans
and military experts.
 The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting
craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a
Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of
Yishaq.
 In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been
in Ethiopia since the last years of Dawit's reign
and who had previously carried out a successful
trade mission to India on behalf of the King, was
now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s
ambassador.
 An Ethiopian priest, Fikre-Mariam and two other
individuals accompanied him. The mission was
to Alphonso of Aragon, (also ruled as king of
Naples and Sicily).
 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get
political, military, and technical assistance. Alphonso
wrote a letter to Zara- Yaqob and informed him that
he sent him artisans and masons he requested.
 The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-
Europe links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c.
1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which
clearly depicted many places and peoples.
 Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia
in 1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham
arrived at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
 The rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and
Muslim Sultanates in the 15th century strengthened
the relation between the Christian Kingdom and
Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married
to King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the
strengthening of these relations. She also had foreseen
the possibility to consolidate relations with and get
support from Portugal that was against the Tukish.
 In 1508, Portugal sent a person to act as an ambassador
to Christian Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the
mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an Armenian
called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese court
doubted his authenticity and was received coldly.
 The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima,
Duwarto Galliba and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia
in 1520 and remained for six years. The objective was to
establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish
power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.