APRIL KIND OF BUT NOT REALLY

HEAD START LECTURE

MATHS METHODS

Presented by:
Benjamin Nguy
 LEARNING GOALS

• Revision of functions
• Revision of transformations
• Revision of coordinate geometry
• Revision of exponential and logarithmic laws
• Information on Circular Functions

• Differentiation in depth and its applications

• Anti-differentiation in depth and its applications

 DOMAIN AND RANGE

• The domain is the set of allowable 𝑥 values

• The range is the set of allowable 𝑦 values
• The range and domain are related in the sense that:
• If the domain changes the range will be effected directly
• If the range changes the domain in which the range exists
will change
• For example:
• 𝑦=𝑥+5, if my range is [3,8],  what is my domain, if it was
[0,∞],  what would be my domain?
• 𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓1 =[−2,3] and 𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓2 =[−5,∞)
 MAXIMAL OR IMPLIED DOMAIN

• The maximal or implied domain is the domain (and

corresponding range) we use when we are not given a
specific domain
• For the following the maximal domain is found by solving for
the following:

• √2𝑛&𝑔(𝑥) ,  𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:𝑔(𝑥)≥0 (𝑛∈𝑍)

• ​1/𝑔(𝑥) ,  𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:𝑔(𝑥)≠0
• ​1/√2𝑛&𝑔(𝑥) ,  𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛:𝑔(𝑥)>0 (𝑛∈𝑍)
 MAXIMAL OR IMPLIED DOMAIN

• Consider the following equation 𝑦=​1/√⁠3​𝑥↑2 −3 ,  state the

maximal domain of the function.
• →3​𝑥↑2 −3>0
• 3​𝑥↑2 >3
• ​𝑥↑2 >1
• 𝑥<−1  or 𝑥>1
• Therefore:
• {𝑥:𝑥<−1  ∪𝑥>1}  or 𝑥∈(−∞,−1]∪[1,∞)
• Is this correct?
• 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓y :    (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞)
 FUNCTIONS

• Function notation: 𝑓:[𝑎,𝑏]→𝑅,  𝑓(𝑥)=𝑦

• Commonly written as: 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑦
• Functions behave similarly to normal operations
• Let 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑦  𝑎𝑛𝑑  𝑔(𝑥)=𝑧, then:
• 𝑓(𝑥)+𝑔(𝑥)=𝑦+𝑧
• 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)=𝑦𝑧
• For subtraction and quotient of functions we can take
negative or reciprocals of the functions then apply the
above rules
• ​𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) =𝑓(𝑥)×​1/𝑔(𝑥) =𝑦×​1/𝑧 =​𝑦/𝑧
 DOMAIN OF PRODUCT FUNCTIONS

• The domain of the function is the intersect of the domains

of the other two functions.
• That is:      𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑔𝑓 =𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑔 ∩𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑓
• The range is then determined based on the new domain.

• For example:
• 𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑔(𝑥) =[−15,15],    and 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓𝑓(𝑥) =[5,23]
• Then: 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓𝑔(𝑥)𝑓(𝑥) =𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓𝑔(𝑥)+𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑔
∩𝑑𝑜​𝑚↓𝑓
= [−15,15]∩[5,23]
=  [5,15]
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS

• The inverse of a function is denoted with ​𝑓↑−1 (𝑥)

• It is the function reflected along the line 𝑦=𝑥
• Domain and range are swapped
• 𝑑𝑜𝑚(​𝑓↑−1 )=𝑟𝑎𝑛(𝑓)
• 𝑟𝑎𝑛(​𝑓↑−1 )=𝑑𝑜𝑚(𝑓)
 INVERSE FUNCTIONS - PROCESS

• Let 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥)
• Explicitly state: “For inverse, swap 𝑥  and 𝑦”
• Swap 𝑥  and 𝑦
• Solve for 𝑦
• Write your final answer in the form ​𝑓↑−1 (𝑥)=…
• Write the domain if required
 EXAMPLE

• Find the rule for the inverse of the function:

𝑓:[2,0]→𝑅,𝑓(𝑥)=​2𝑥↑2 −8.
• Let 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥)=2​𝑥↑2 −8
• For inverse, swap 𝑥  and 𝑦
• 𝑥=2​𝑦↑2 −8
• 𝑦=±√⁠​𝑥/2 −4  
• ∴​𝑓↑−1 (𝑥)=√⁠​𝑥/2 +4  
• Why positive? Notice the domain?
• Do we write the domain?
 ODD AND EVEN FUNCTIONS

• An odd function always satisfies: 𝑓(−𝑥)=−𝑓(𝑥)

• An even function always satisfies: 𝑓(−𝑥)=𝑓(𝑥)
• If they don’t satisfy either conditions then they are neither
even nor odd
• Are the following functions even or odd? Or neither?
• 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑎​𝑥↑2   →  EVEN
• 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑎​𝑥↑3 →ODD
• 𝑓(𝑥)=​𝑥↑1050 →  EVEN
• 𝑓(𝑥)=​𝑥↑1111 →ODD
• 𝑓(𝑥)=​𝑒↑3𝑥 −5                                              →  
​𝑥↑​𝑥↑2 −​7↑𝑥 +1
PRETTY SURE IT’S NEITHER
 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

• Basically a function within another function

• You may have seen it written like 𝑓𝑜𝑔
• VCAA almost always writes it like 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

• Some properties:
• 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) only exists if 𝑅𝑎​𝑛↓𝑔 ⊆𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓𝑓
• 𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) =𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓𝑔

• If 𝑅𝑎​𝑛↓𝑔 ⊆𝐷𝑜​𝑚↓𝑓 is not satisfied we can limit 𝑔(𝑥) to fit

 COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS

• Let 𝑔(𝑥)=​𝑥↑2 −2 and 𝑓(𝑥)=√⁠3𝑥

• Restrict 𝑔(𝑥) such that 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) exists. Find 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).

• 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑​  𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒↓𝑔(𝑥) :[−2,∞)

• 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙  𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓𝑓(𝑥) :[0,∞)
• Therefore we must solve for the domain such that:
0≤𝑔(𝑥)<∞  
• →𝑔(𝑥)≥0,    →𝑥∈𝑅\(−√⁠2 ,√⁠2 )
• Therefore 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖​𝑛↓𝑔↑∗ :𝑅\(−√⁠2 ,√⁠2 )
• And 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))=√⁠3(​𝑥↑2 −2)
 DILATIONS FROM X

• Dilation  by  a  factor  of  𝑎  from  the  𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→𝑎  𝑓(𝑥)
• Dilation by a factor of 3 from the x−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• √⁠𝑥  →3√⁠𝑥    (Stretches it away from the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
 DILATIONS FROM Y

• Dilation  by  a  factor  of  𝑏  from  the  𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→  𝑓(​𝑥/𝑏 )
• Dilation by a factor of ​1/2 from the 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ​𝑥↑2 →​(2𝑥)↑2 =4​𝑥↑2 (Stretches it towards the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
 REFLECTIONS IN X

• If 𝑎 is negative then there is a reflection in the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→−𝑓(𝑥)
• Reflect in the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ​𝑥↑2 →−​𝑥↑2 (mirrored in the
𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
 REFLECTIONS IN Y

• If 𝑏 is negative then there is a reflection in the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→𝑓(−𝑥)
• Reflect in the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• √⁠𝑥 →√⁠−𝑥 (mirrored in the 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
 TRANSLATIONS ALONG X

• Translation of 𝑐 units in the positive direction of the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→𝑓(𝑥−𝑐)
• Translate 3 units in the negative direction of the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ​𝑥↑2 →​(𝑥−(−3))↑2 =​(𝑥+3)↑2
 TRANSLATIONS ALONG Y

• Translation of 𝑑 units in the positive direction of the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• 𝑓(𝑥)→𝑓(𝑥)+𝑑
• Translate 3 units in the positive direction of the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ​𝑥↑2 →​𝑥↑2 +2
 TRANSFORMATIONS

𝑓(𝑥)→𝑎  𝑓(𝑏(𝑥−𝑐))+𝑑

Dilation by a factor of 𝑎 from the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Dilation by a factor of ​1/𝑏  from the 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑐 units to the right
𝑑 units up
If 𝑎<0, there is a reflection in the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
If b <0, there is a reflection in the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
TRANSFORMATION WITH MATRICES

𝑇:​𝑅↑2 →​𝑅↑2 ,𝑇=[█■𝑏&0@0&𝑎 ][█■𝑥@𝑦 ]+[█■𝑐@𝑑 ]

Dilation by a factor of 𝑎 from the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Dilation by a factor of 𝑏 from the 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑐 units to the right
𝑑 units up
If 𝑎<0, there is a reflection in the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
If b <0, there is a reflection in the y−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
 EXAM TIPS

• READ THE QUESTION

• VCAA likes to trick students who don’t realise which
equation is the original

• Example wording:
• The graph of 𝑔(𝑥) can be obtained from the graph of ℎ(𝑥).
• This means ℎ(𝑥)→𝑔(𝑥), VCAA WILL put the function 𝑔(𝑥)
first in hopes that you do not read the question and just
assume
• Do not fall for it.
 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

• Gradient (change in 𝑦 for every unit of change in 𝑥)

• 𝑚=​∆  𝑦/∆  𝑥 =​𝑦−​𝑦↓1 /𝑥−​𝑥↓1

• Distance between two points  

• 𝐷=√⁠​(𝑥−𝑥
​ ↓1 )↑2 +​(𝑦−​𝑦↓1 )↑2

• Midpoint
• (​𝑥+​𝑥↓1 /2 ,​𝑦+​𝑦↓1 /2 )
• For all of these, it doesn’t matter which coordinate you use
first
 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMS

• They are inverses of each other

• Exponentials have a base function 𝑦=​𝑒↑𝑥
• Logarithms have a base function 𝑦=​log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑥
• Exponentials have horizontal
asymptotes
• Logarithms have vertical
asymptotes
• Graph them by using the base
function, and applying
transformations
 EXPONENTIAL LAWS

• ​𝑎↑𝑛 ×​𝑎↑𝑚 =​𝑎↑𝑚+𝑛

• ​(​𝑎↑𝑛 )↑𝑚 =​𝑎↑𝑛𝑚
• ​  ​𝑎↑𝑚 /​𝑎↑𝑛 =​𝑎↑𝑚−𝑛
• ​𝑎↑0 =1
• ​𝑎↑−1 =​1/𝑎 →      ​𝑎↑−𝑚 =​1/​𝑎↑𝑚
• ​𝑎↑​1/2 =√⁠𝑎 →      ​𝑎↑​1/𝑛 =√𝑛&𝑎

• ​𝑎↑𝑛 =​𝑒↑​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠​𝑎↑𝑛 =​𝑒↑​​𝑛  log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑎 (CHANGE OF BASE)

 EXAMPLE

• Solve the following equation for 𝑥:

• 2×​2↑𝑥 /16 =​8↑3𝑥+1

• 2×​2↑𝑥 ×​2↑−4 =​2↑3(3𝑥+1)

• ​2↑1−4 ×​2↑𝑥 = ​2↑3(3𝑥+1)
• ​2↑−3 ×​2↑𝑥 =​2↑3(3𝑥+1)
• ​2↑−3+𝑥 =​2↑3(3𝑥+1)
• →−3+𝑥=3(3𝑥+1)
• 𝑥=−​3/4
 LOGARITHM LAWS

• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑚 +​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑛 =​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑚𝑛

• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑚 −​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑛 =​log↓𝑎 ⁠​𝑚/𝑛
• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠​𝑚↑𝑛 =𝑛​​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑚
• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠1 =0
• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑎 =1
• ​𝑎↑​𝑛  ​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑥   =​𝑥↑𝑛

• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠𝑏=​log↓𝑐 ⁠𝑏 /​l​ og↓𝑐 ⁠𝑎       (CHANGE OF BASE)

 EXAMPLE

• Solve the following for 𝑥, ​log↓𝑏 ⁠(​𝑥↑2 −2)+​log↓𝑏 ⁠(3)=​1/​​log↓

−12𝑥 ⁠(𝑏)
• ​log↓𝑏 ⁠(3(​𝑥↑2 −2))=​log↓𝑏 ⁠(−12𝑥)
• →3​𝑥↑2 −6=−12𝑥
• ​𝑥↑2 +4𝑥−2=0
• ​(𝑥+2)↑2 −6=0
• (𝑥+2−√⁠6 )(𝑥+2+√⁠6 )=0
• 𝑥=√⁠6 −2  ,    𝑥=−√⁠6 −2
• 𝑥<0
• ∴𝑥=−√⁠6 −2 Why?
 EXAM TIPS

• Sometimes when solving equations like this you will get

answers outside our allowable values for logs and indexes
• These will not always be explicitly limited for you, but you
must know them or you will be penalised

• 𝑒​ ↑𝑎 ≠𝑛        ,𝑛≤0
• ​log↓𝑎 ⁠(𝑛)= 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑,        𝑛≤0

• A less common one is the one from the previous example:

• ​log↓𝑛 ⁠(𝑎)=​log↓𝑐 ⁠(𝑎) /​​log↓𝑐 ⁠(𝑛) =𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑,          𝑛≤0
 REFLECTION POINT

• Don’t drop marks by answering outside the allowable

domains
• UNDERSTAND how transformations work, not just rote learn
it. It makes it significantly easier
• Index laws and log laws are not on your formula sheet, you
must remember them
• Indices and logarithm questions have implied domains,
keep this in mind when answering questions
• DO NOT DO MORE THAN YOU HAVE TO. IF YOU ANSWER THE
QUESTION CORRECTLY AND ADD IN UNNECESSARY
CONTENT, IF ITS WRONG, YOU LOSE MARKS.
 DIFFERENTIATION

• The formal definition

• Deriving the derivative
• Basic derivatives
• Chain Rule
• Product Rule
• Quotient Rule
• Tangents and Normals
• Rates of Change
• Stationary Points and their nature
• Limits and differentiability
 DERIVATIVE - DEFINITION

• The derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a

function with respect to one of its variables.

• That is: 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒=​Δ𝑦/Δ𝑥 =​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 =𝑓′(𝑥) (Look

familiar?)

​ 𝑦/𝑑𝑥 =​lim┬ℎ→0 ⁠​𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)/(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑎

• 𝑑
(Differentiation by first principles)

• Simply put, the derivative is finding the gradient between

two points that are infinitesimally close.
 DERIVATIVE OF ​𝑥↑𝑛

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​𝑥↑𝑛 )=𝑛​  𝑥↑𝑛−1

• This forms the basis of a lot of differentiation problems

• “Multiply down and subtract one”

• Similarly: ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  ​((𝑎𝑥+𝑏)↑𝑛 )=𝑎𝑛  ​(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)↑𝑛−1

• Both these formulae are on your formula sheet

 DERIVATIVE OF ​sin⁠(𝑥) AND cos​(𝑥)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​sin⁠(𝑎𝑥) )=𝑎​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥) )=−𝑎  sin(𝑎𝑥)

• s𝑖𝑛  becomes 𝑐𝑜𝑠 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 becomes 𝑠𝑖𝑛

• The most important part to remember is the negative sign

for the cosine function ONLY

• These formulae are on your formula sheet

 DERIVATIVE OF tan​(𝑥)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​tan⁠(𝑎𝑥) )=​𝑎/​​cos↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥) =𝑎​​sec↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥)

• Either answer is fully correct and will be accepted as so

unless otherwise specified in the instructions

• Sometimes questions involving this will NEED your answer

written in one form or the other to proceed, learn them both

• This is on your formula sheet

 DERIVIATIVES OF TRIG

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​sin⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) )=𝑎​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥)−𝑏 )=−𝑎  sin(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​tan⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) )=​𝑎/​​cos↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) =𝑎​​sec↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)

• Adding or subtracting a constant within the function does

not have an effect on the derivative
• These are NOT on your formula sheet
 DERIVIATIVE OF ​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥 )=𝑎​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥

• Multiply the whole thing by the number in front of 𝑥  and

then keep everything else the same

• Students often forget to multiply by the constant in front of

𝑥, and re-write the derivative as is. You had one job.

• This is on your formula sheet

 DERIVATIVE OF ​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥))=​1/𝑥

• This one looks odd, you just have to remember it

• This derivative is often neglected by students in study, then

it appears on an exam and they complain its not possible.

• This is on your formula sheet

 CHAIN RULE

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 =​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑢 ​𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥  (𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)))=​𝑓↑′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)

• The hardest part is identifying what you should let 𝑢 equal

• The trick is finding a substitution that makes the function
into one of the basic derivatives
• DO NOT forget to multiply by the derivative of the inside
function
• This is on your formula sheet
 CHAIN RULE EXAMPLE

• Evaluate ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 ,  where 𝑦=​sin⁠​(𝑥↑3 )+4

• Let 𝑢=​𝑥↑3
• 𝑦=​sin⁠(𝑢) +4
• ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑢 =​cos⁠(𝑢)
• ​𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥 =3​𝑥↑2
• ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 =​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑢 ​𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥 =3​𝑥↑2 (​cos⁠(​𝑥↑3 ) )
 DERIVING DERIVATIVES

• 𝑑
​ /𝑑𝑥 (​𝑒↑𝑓(𝑥) ) Let 𝑢=𝑓(𝑥)
• 𝑑​ /𝑑𝑥 (​𝑒↑𝑓(𝑥) )=​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)​𝑒↑𝑓(𝑥)

​ /𝑑𝑥 (​log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑓(𝑥))    

• 𝑑 Let 𝑢=𝑓(𝑥)
• 𝑑​ /𝑑𝑥 (​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑓(𝑥)) )=​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)/𝑓(𝑥)

• These are NOT on your formula sheet

 PRODUCT RULE

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑢𝑣)=𝑢​𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥 +𝑣​𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥))=𝑓(𝑥)​𝑔↑′ (𝑥)+​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)

• This is a simple rule, follow the rule exactly them simplify

• The difficult part is when the chain rule is involved within

the product rule

• This is on your formula sheet

 PRODUCT RULE EXAMPLE

• Find the derivative of ​𝑥↑2 ​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥)

​ /𝑑𝑥 =2𝑥×​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) +​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) )×​𝑥↑2

• 𝑑
• 𝑑​ /𝑑𝑥 (​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) )=−​sin⁠(𝑥)​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥)

​ /𝑑𝑥 =2𝑥×​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) +−​sin⁠(𝑥)​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) ×​𝑥↑2

• 𝑑
•            =2​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) 𝑥−​𝑒↑​cos⁠(𝑥) ​𝑥↑2 s​ in⁠(𝑥)
 QUOTIENT RULE

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (​𝑢/𝑣 )=​𝑣​𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥 −𝑢​𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥 /​𝑣↑2

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (​𝑓(𝑥)/𝑔(𝑥) )=​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−​𝑔↑′ (𝑥)𝑓(𝑥)/​(𝑔(𝑥))↑2

• Please, use brackets

• Very similar to the product rule but not exactly the same, be
careful

• This is on your formula sheet

 QUOTIENT RULE EXAMPLE

• Let 𝑓(𝑥)=​cos​(𝑥)/​𝑥↑2 +2 ,  find VCAA

​𝑓↑′ METHODS
(𝑥). 2016 EXAM 1

​ ↑′ (𝑥)=​(​𝑥↑2 +2)×−​sin⁠(𝑥)−cos​(𝑥)(2𝑥) /​(​𝑥↑2 +2)↑2

• 𝑓
•                        =​−​sin⁠(𝑥) (​𝑥↑2 +2)−2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥)/​(​𝑥↑2 +2)↑2

• Yes, that is the answer in its simplest form

• Do not attempt to do more simplification than required
• Note that  −​sin⁠(𝑥) (​𝑥↑2 +2)≠−​sin⁠(𝑥) ×​𝑥↑2 +2
• USE BRACKETS
 EXAM TIPS

• Notice the questions?

• You must write your answer in respects to what VCAA asks
• If they ask for ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 you must write ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 in your answer

• Failing to do so will cost you a mark, and the questions are

work at most 2.
• You will lose half the marks if you do not have correct
notation.
• Brackets are your best friend
• Do not try to simplify messy equations that aren’t obvious at
first glance
 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

• A tangent must meet the following conditions:

• Is a straight line
• Shares a common point with the function
• Has the same gradient as the function at the common point

• A normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent

 TANGENTS

• Follow the following steps to find a tangent:

• Find the derivative of the function

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥))=𝑓′(𝑥)
• Find the gradient of the function at the point
• ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥  (𝑓(𝑥))|𝑥=𝑎 or 𝑓′(𝑎)
• Find the equation of the tangent
• 𝑦−𝑓(𝑎)=𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥−𝑎)
• Write your answered in the specified form
• 𝑦=𝑚𝑥+𝑐
 TANGENTS EXAMPLE

• Find the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥)=2​𝑥↑2 at the point 𝑥=3

• Find the derivative of the function

• 𝑓′(𝑥)=4𝑥
• Find the gradient of the function at the point
• ​𝑓↑′ (3)=12
• Find the equation of the tangent
• 𝑦−18=12(𝑥−3)
• Write your answered in the specified form
• 𝑦=12𝑥−18
 NORMALS
• Follow the following steps to find a normal:

• Find the derivative of the function

• ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥))=𝑓′(𝑥)
• Find the gradient of the function at the point
• ​𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥  (𝑓(𝑥))|𝑥=𝑎 or 𝑓′(𝑎)
• Find the equation of the normal
• 𝑦−𝑓(𝑎)=​−1/​𝑓↑′ (𝑎)  (𝑥−𝑎)
• Write your answered in the specified form
• 𝑦=𝑚𝑥+𝑐
 NORMALS EXAMPLE
• Find the equation of the normal to the function 𝑓(𝑥)=√⁠2𝑥
at 𝑥=3
• Find the derivative of the function
• ​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)=​1/2 ×​2𝑥↑−​1/2 =​1/√⁠2𝑥 =​√⁠2 /2√⁠𝑥
• Find the gradient of the function at the point
• ​𝑓↑′ (3)=​1/√⁠6
• Find the equation of the normal
• 𝑦−√⁠6 =−√⁠6 (𝑥−3)
• Write your answered in the specified form
• 𝑦=​√⁠6 /6 𝑥+​√⁠6 /2
 RATES OF CHANGE

• There are two types of rates of change

• Average rate of change =​𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)/𝑏−𝑎
• Instantaneous rate of change =𝑓′(𝑎)

• It is important to differentiate between the two types

• Average rate of change is essentially the gradient between

two points

• Instantaneous rate of change is the derivate at the point

 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

• 𝑥=𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
• 𝑣=𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝑎=𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑡=𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

• 𝑣=​𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 Velocity is the change in displacement

• 𝑎=​𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 =​𝑑↑2 𝑥/𝑑​𝑡↑2 Acceleration is the change in
velocity

• All these values can be negative. What do they mean if they

are negative?
 STATIONARY POINTS

• A stationary point is any point on a function where the

derivative is zero

• The graph appears to be flat when there is a stationary

point

• There are three types of stationary points:

• Local maximum
• Local maximum
• Stationary point of inflection
 TYPES OF STATIONARY PPINTS

• There are two ways to determine what type of stationary

point it is

• The first one is using a derivatives chart

− ​𝒇↑′ (𝒙)=𝟎 +
Local Maximum / − \
Local Minimum \ − /
Stationary Point \ − \
of Inflection / − /
 TYPES OF STATIONARY POINTS

• The other way to determine what the type of stationary point

is, is using the second derivative
• This method, however, is only plausible when the second
derivative is easily obtained
• The second derivative is literally deriving the function a
second time
​𝒅↑𝟐 𝒚/𝒅​𝒙↑𝟐 =𝒇′′(𝒙)
Local Minimum Positive
Local Maximum Negative
Stationary point of inflection Zero
 ABSOLUTE MAXIMA AND MINIMA

• The local maxima and minima is where the derivative is

equal to zero
• However, the absolute maxima and minima does not
necessarily occur where the derivative is equal to zero
• However, it can be

• The local maxima is literally the point on a function where

the 𝑦−𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is the highest

• Similarly, the local minima is the point on a function where

the 𝑦−𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is the lowest
 Example

For the function 𝑥(𝑥−2)(𝑥+2),  𝑓𝑜𝑟  𝑥∈[−7,9]. Find the 𝑥  

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 of the local maximum(s) and absolute maximum(s).

• 𝑓
​ ↑′ (𝑥)=3​𝑥↑2 −4,        →​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)=0,      𝑥=±​2√⁠3 /3
• 𝑓​ ↑′′ (𝑥)=6𝑥,      ​𝑓↑′′ (​−2√⁠3 /3 )=negative,​      𝑓↑′′ (​2√⁠3 /
3 )=positive
• ∴local  maximum  at  𝑥=​−2√⁠3 /3

• absolute  maximum  at  higher  endpoint,  𝑥=9

 DIFFERENTIABILITY

• When is a function not differentiable?

• It is not differentiable at the point where:

• It is not continuous (we discuss this next)

• It is not defined

• There is a cusp (sharp point)

 LIMITS

• A limit is the value a function approaches as it gets closer

and closer to a certain value, 𝑥

• A function is continuous if it is defined and when the limit of

the function, as it approaches a point, from both sides is
the same

• That is:

• ​lim┬𝑥→​𝑎↑− ⁠𝑓(𝑥)=​lim┬𝑥→​𝑎↑+ ⁠𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑎) is defined

 LIMITS EXAMPLE

• Evaluate ​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠​𝑥↑2 −1/𝑥−1

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
0.5 1.5
0.9 1.9
0.99 1.99
0.999 1.999
0.9999 1.9999
0.99999 1.99999
… …
• ∴​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠​𝑥↑2 −1/𝑥−1 =2
 LIMITS EXAMPLE
• Evaluate ​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠​𝑥↑2 −1/𝑥−1

• ​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠​𝑥↑2 −1/𝑥−1 =​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠​(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)/𝑥−1

• =​lim┬𝑥→1 ⁠𝑥+1
•                                  =2

• What this means is that, as the equation APPROACHES

𝑥=1 the limit is 2.
• Note the function is not actually defined at 𝑥=1
• Therefore the function is not differentiable at 𝑥=1
 REFLECTION POINT

• The basic derivatives

• Derivative rules
• Rates of change (instantaneous vs average)
• Local maxima and minima
• Absolute maximums and minimums
• Differentiability and limits

• USE BRACKETS WHEN DIFFERENTIATING

• AGAIN, DO NOT CONTINUE MORE THAN YOU HAVE TO WHEN
SIMPLYFYING
 ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

• The formal definition

• Integration: the definite integral
• Basic antiderivatives
• The fundamental theorem of calculus
• Integration by recognition
• Area under the curve
• Area between two curves
• Average value
 INTEGRAL - DEFINITION

• The antiderivative of a derivative is the original function plus

a constant
• ∫↑▒​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥=𝑓(𝑥)+𝑐

• The integral is the area under the curve between two points
• Imagine approximating the area using rectangles
• The integral is the area using
rectangles which are
infinitesimally small in
width
 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​𝑥↑𝑛

• ∫↑▒​𝑥↑𝑛 𝑑𝑥=​1/𝑛+1 ​𝑥↑𝑛+1 +𝑐            ,𝑛≠−1

• This is the opposite of the basic derivative

• “Add one then divide”

• Similarly: ∫↑▒​(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)↑𝑛  𝑑𝑥=​1/𝑎(𝑛+1) ​(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)↑𝑛+1

+𝑐    ,𝑛≠−1

• Both of these are on your formula sheet

 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥

• ∫↑▒​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥  𝑑𝑥=​1/𝑎 ​𝑒↑𝑎𝑥 +𝑐

• ∫↑▒​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)​𝑒↑𝑓(𝑥)  𝑑𝑥=​𝑒↑𝑓(𝑥) +𝑐

• Be careful not to accidently multiply instead of divide

∫↑▒7​𝑒↑3𝑥 𝑑𝑥=​7/3 ​𝑒↑3𝑥 +𝑐
• The first rule is on your formula sheet, the second is not
 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​𝑎↑𝑥

• ​𝑎↑𝑥 =​𝑒↑​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠​𝑎↑𝑥 =​𝑒↑​​𝑥  log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑎 (CHANGE OF BASE)

• ∫↑▒​𝑎↑𝑥 𝑑𝑥=∫↑▒​𝑒↑​​𝑥  log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑎 𝑑𝑥= 1

​ /​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑎) ​𝑎↑𝑥 +𝑐

• This type of question is accessible but is unlikely to appear

• The importance of this is to recognise the change of base

• When approached with functions involving bases of not e,
you must convert it to base e first.
 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​1/𝑥

• ∫↑▒​1/𝑥  𝑑𝑥=​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)+𝑐              ,𝑥>0

• ∫↑▒​​𝑓↑′ (𝑥)/𝑓(𝑥)  𝑑𝑥 =​log↓𝑒 ⁠𝑓(𝑥)+𝑐

• When asked to integrate fractions you will either use the

basic rule or the logarithm one.
• Students often forget about the logarithm rule when they
get ​𝑥↑−1

• The first rule is on the formula sheet, the second is not

 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​sin⁠(𝑥)   and ​
cos⁠(𝑥)
• ∫↑▒​sin⁠(𝑎𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=−​1/𝑎 c​ os⁠( 𝑎𝑥)+𝑐

• ∫↑▒​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=​1/𝑎 s​ in⁠(𝑎𝑥) +𝑐

• It is important to realise that when integrating the sine

function we have a negative cos.
• Students sometimes get confused and omit the negative

• Both formulas are on the formula sheet

 ANTIDERIVATIVES OF TRIG

• ∫↑▒​sin⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) 𝑑𝑥=−​1/𝑎 c​ os⁠( 𝑎𝑥−𝑏)+𝑐

• ∫↑▒​cos⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) 𝑑𝑥=​1/𝑎 s​ in⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) +𝑐

• When you add or subtract a constant within the function the

antiderivative is the same but with the constant still within

• The constant outside is unaffected

 ANTIDERIVATIVE OF ​sec↑2 ⁠(𝑥)

• ∫↑▒​​sec↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥)𝑑𝑥= 1
​ /𝑎 t​ an⁠(𝑥) +𝑐

• ∫↑▒​​sec↑2 ⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)𝑑𝑥= 1
​ /𝑎 t​ an⁠(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) +𝑐

• This one you kind of just have to remember, it is literal

application that the “antiderivative of a derivative is its
function”
• Don’t for the constant of integration
• This is not on your formula sheet
 INTEGRATION

• Antidifferentiation is indefinite integration

• Therefore, integration is evaluating the integral between two
points

• When integrating you DO NOT need to put "+𝑐“, although

you wouldn’t be penalised, do not do it.

• In recent years VCAA have been known to use

transformations in conjunction with integrals as well.
 PROPERTIES

∫↑▒𝑓(𝑥)+𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =∫↑▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥+∫↑▒𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫↑▒𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=𝑘∫↑▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=−∫𝑏↑𝑎▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫𝑎↑𝑐▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥+∫𝑏↑𝑐▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫𝑎↑𝑎▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=0
 INTEGRATION EXAMPLE

Evaluate  ∫5↑8▒​2↑𝑥  𝑑𝑥

∫5↑8▒​2↑𝑥  𝑑𝑥 =​[1 ​ /​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(2) ​𝑒↑𝑥𝑙𝑜​𝑔↓𝑒 (2) ]↓5↑8
                                   = ​1/​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(2) [​2↑𝑥 ]↓5↑8
                                   =​1/​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(2) ([​2↑8 ]−[​2↑5 ])
                                   =​224/​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(2)
 AREA BELOW THE CURVE

• The integral gives us the SINGED area bound by the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

and the curve.
• What this means is if the area is below the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 it will be
negative
• This makes no sense as you cannot have a negative area
• Thus, when encountered with such an issue we must make
the negative area positive
• We usually do this by splitting up the integral and adding a
negative sign in front of the portion below the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
 EXAMPLE
​𝐴↓1 =∫​𝜋/4 ↑​5𝜋/4 ▒​sin⁠(𝜃−​𝜋/4 ) 𝑑𝜃
           =​[−​cos⁠(𝜃−​𝜋/4 ) ]↓​𝜋/4 ↑​5𝜋/4
           =−(​cos⁠(𝜋) −​cos⁠(0) )=2

∴𝐴=2​𝐴↓1 =4  square  units          (why?)

Note, we could have separated the two total area into two
separate areas and integrated both, just remember to put the
negative sign in front of the integral for ​𝐴↓2 .
 AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES

• In general the area between two curves is the area of the

larger portion less the area of the portion we don’t require

∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)−𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ,      if  𝑓(𝑥)≥𝑔(𝑥)  for  𝑥∈[𝑎,𝑏]

• More technically speaking, over a certain period of 𝑥, if

𝑓>𝑔 then we integrate over that certain period using 𝑓(𝑥)
−𝑔(𝑥). However, over the period where 𝑔>𝑓 we must split
the integral and then integrate using 𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥).
 EXAMPLE

• The graphs are f(x)=​𝑥↑3 and g(x)=𝑥

• They intersect at 𝑥=−1,  0,  1  
• 𝑔(𝑥)≥𝑓(𝑥)  for 0≤𝑥≤1
• 𝑓(𝑥)≥𝑔(𝑥) for  −1≤𝑥≤0

• Thus area = ∫−1↑0▒𝑓(𝑥)−𝑔(𝑥)  𝑑𝑥+∫0↑1▒𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)  𝑑𝑥

•                          =∫−1↑0▒​𝑥↑3 −𝑥  𝑑𝑥+∫0↑1▒𝑥−​𝑥↑3  𝑑𝑥
•                                =​[​𝑥↑4 /4 −​𝑥↑2 /2 ]↓−1↑0 +​[​𝑥↑2 /2 −​𝑥↑4 /
4 ]↓0↑1 =​1/2  square  unints
• How can we do this problem using symmetry?
INTEGRAL TRANFORMATIONS
 SOLUTION

• Reflect the graph of 𝑓 in the 𝑦−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

               ∫0↑3▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=5=∫−3↑0▒𝑓(−𝑥)𝑑𝑥=5
• Dilate by a factor of 3 from the 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
         3∫−3↑0▒𝑓(−𝑥)𝑑𝑥=15
• Translate 5 units up
       3∫−3↑0▒𝑓(−𝑥)𝑑𝑥+3×5=30  (Imagine  a  rectangle  being
                                                                                                                                             put  under  the  graph)
 FUNDEMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS

• If 𝑓 is a continuous function on an interval [𝑎,𝑏], then:

∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=​[𝐹(𝑥)]↓𝑎↑𝑏 =𝐹(𝑏)−𝐹(𝑎)

• Where 𝐹(𝑥) is any antiderivative of 𝑓.

• The reason it can be any antiderivative is because the

constants cancel out
• That is: 𝐹(𝑏)+𝑐−(𝐹(𝑎)+𝑐)=𝐹(𝑏)−𝐹(𝑎)
 EXAMPLE

Find  ∫0↑3▒𝑓(3𝑥)𝑑𝑥  if  ∫0↑9▒𝑓(𝑥)=5

       ∫0↑9▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥=𝐹(9)−𝐹(0)=5

∴∫0↑3▒𝑓(3𝑥)𝑑𝑥=​1/3 (𝐹(9)−𝐹(0))=​5/3
 I HAVE A CHEAT METHOD

Find  ∫0↑3▒𝑓(3𝑥)𝑑𝑥  if  ∫0↑9▒𝑓(𝑥)=5

IF YOU HAVE A CALCULATOR!

Let  𝑓(𝑥)=𝑎𝑥
Solve  ∫0↑9▒𝑎𝑥  𝑑𝑥=5 ,                𝑎=​10/81
∴∫0↑3▒𝑓(3𝑥)𝑑𝑥=∫0↑3▒​10/81 (3𝑥)  𝑑𝑥=​5/9  
 INTEGRATION BY RECOGNITION
Evaluate  ∫↑▒𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
• Integration by recognition is a fancy name for manipulating
equations, basically algebra.

• We are often first asked to derive a certain equation and

then integrate something we don’t know!

• This is where integration by recognition comes in.

 EXAMPLE
Derive  y=𝑥  cos(x),  and  hence  evaluate  ∫↑▒𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑥​cos⁠(𝑥) )=​cos⁠(𝑥) −𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥)
𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥) =​cos⁠(𝑥) −​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑥​cos⁠(𝑥) )
∫↑▒𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =∫↑▒​cos⁠(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 −∫↑▒​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑥​cos⁠(𝑥) )𝑑𝑥
∴∫↑▒𝑥​sin⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=​sin⁠(𝑥) −𝑥​cos⁠(𝑥) +𝑐        (Use  one  constant  
                                                                                                                                                                   of  integration  only)
 AVERAGE VALUE

• Imagine the area under a curve

• Now image a rectangle with the exact same length and area

• Now imagine what the height of that rectangle would be

• That is your average value

 FORMULA

​𝐴↓𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =𝑤ℎ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒  𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=​𝐴↓𝑣 =ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
∴​𝐴↓𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =​𝐴↓𝑣 𝑤
​𝐴↓𝑣 =​1/𝑤 ×​𝐴↓𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
​𝐴↓𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 =∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

∴​𝐴↓𝑣 =​1/𝑏−𝑎  ∫𝑎↑𝑏▒𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

 EXAMPLE

• Find the average value of the function

𝑓(𝑥)=2​sin⁠(2𝑥)−1 ,  over the interval −​𝜋/3 ≤𝑥≤​𝜋/6 .

​𝐴↓𝑉 =​1/​𝜋/6 −(−​𝜋/3 ) ∫−​  𝜋/3 ↑​𝜋/6 ▒2​sin⁠(2𝑥) −1  𝑑𝑥  

                                                           =​2/𝜋 ​[−​cos⁠(2𝑥) −𝑥]↓−​𝜋/3 ↑​𝜋/6
                                                           =−​2/𝜋 −1
 LETS WRAP IT ALL UP WITH THIS
Show  by  differentiation  that  

​𝑥↑𝑘 /​𝑘↑2 (𝑘​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)−1)

is  an  antiderivative  of  ​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)

and  hence  evaluate

∫​1/𝑒 ↑1▒−4𝑥​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

VCAA METHODS 2016 EXAM 1
​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (​​𝑥↑𝑘 /​𝑘↑2 (𝑘​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)−1) ))=​1/​𝑘↑2 ​𝑑/𝑑𝑥 (𝑘​𝑥↑𝑘 ​
log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥) −​𝑥↑𝑘 )
                             =​1/​𝑘↑2 (​𝑘↑2 ​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)+​𝑘​𝑥↑𝑘 /𝑥 −𝑘​𝑥↑𝑘−1 )
                             =​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)+​𝑥↑𝑘−1 /𝑘 −​𝑥↑𝑘−1 /𝑘
                             =​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)  

∴∫↑▒​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥) dx=​𝑥↑𝑘 /​𝑘↑2 (𝑘​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)−1) ) ,      as  

required.
 𝑘=2

∫↑▒​𝑥↑𝑘−1 l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥) dx=​𝑥↑𝑘 /​𝑘↑2 (𝑘​l​ og↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)−1) )

∫​1/𝑒 ↑1▒−4𝑥​​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥=−4​[​𝑥↑2 /4 (2​log↓𝑒 ⁠(𝑥)−1)] ]↓​1/𝑒
↑1
                                                 =−((2​log↓𝑒 ⁠(1)−1)−(​1/​𝑒↑2 (2​log↓𝑒 ⁠​(𝑒↑−1 )
−1)) )
=−(−1−(​1/​𝑒↑2 (−2  −1)))
=1−​3/​𝑒↑2
 REFLECTION POINT

• Basic antiderivatives
• The fundamental theorem of calculus
• Integration by recognition
• Area under and between curves
• Average value

• Don’t forget the "+𝑐“ when anti-deriving

• Use brackets!
• The hardest part is practicing your algebra to ensure
minimal mistakes, most of the theory you need is on your
formula sheet
 FINAL EXAM TIPS

DON’T RATIONALISE SURDS (UNLESS YOU TEACHER SAYS SO)

DON’T SIMPLIFY FURTHER THAN YOU HAVE TO (UNLESS YOUR

TEACHER SAYS SO)

ANSWER QUESTIONS IN THE REQUIRED FORMAT

DON’T PUT EQUAL SIGNS BETWEEN THINGS THAT AIN’T EQUAL

DON’T GO FURTHER THAN YOU NEED TO! YOU WILL BE

PENALISED FOR INCORRECT ADDITIONAL WORK
Questions?

Plz no