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Unit 4
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & OPERATING
SYSTEM

FUNCTIONAL UNITS:

A computer is an electronic device, it can function on data and instructions.

Different type of operations are performed on different type of functional units, they
are:
1. Input unit
2. Output unit
3. Memory unit
4. Arithmetic and Logic unit [ALU]
5. Control unit

Fig: Functional unit of computer

Above figure shows basic structure of a computer.

Input unit: Computer accepts encoded information through input unit. Data
or instruction sent to a main memory using input unit.

Ex: Keyboard, Mouse, Light pen, Scanner, Joystick, Trackball etc.

Output unit: The function of this unit is to display information, error

message etc., to the outside world. Output unit receive information from
memory unit.

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Ex: Monitor, Printer, Speaker etc.

Memory unit: The function of memory unit stores the program and data
permanently or temporary, there are two types:

 Primary memory
 Secondary memory

Primary Memory: It is also called as main memory it stores data

temporally. This memory contains a large number of semi-conductor
storage cells, therefore it is called semi-conductors memory.

Ex: RAM

Secondary Memory: It is also called as auxiliary memory it can store

large amount of data permanently. It is made by magnetic material.

Ex: Hard disk, Floppy disk, CD, ROM etc.

Arithmetic and Logic unit: Most of the computer operations are performed in
ALU. It consists of electronic logic circuits to perform arithmetic operations like
addition subtraction, multiplication, division and logic operations like AND, OR
etc.

Control unit: It is a main unit in a computer system the function of this unit is to
control and co-ordinate with all other units of a computer system.

ALU and Control unit together called CPU [Control Processing Unit].

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STORED PROGRAM CONCEPTS: We all are working with modern

computers which are nothing but stored program computers this concept was
first introduced by mathematician John Von Neumann. He is consultant on
ENIAC and EDVAC computers in early 1950’s.

Ex: ENIAC, EDVAC.

A stored program concept is nothing but a principle according to which a set of

instructions which perform a given task called program, should be stored within
the main memory at the time of execution.

Advantages of stored program concept:

 It allows executing the same set of instructions for a repeated number of

times.
 Stored programs can modify.
 Repeated manual tasks are reduced.

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Flynn’s classification of computer

 In 1996 Mr. M J Flynn Suggested based on number of number of instruction
streams and data streams.


1. According to Flynn's there are four different classification of computer
a. SISD (Single Instruction Single Data Stream)
b. SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data Stream)
c. MISD (Multiple Instruction Single Data stream)
d. MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data Stream)

1) SISD (Single Instruction Single Data Stream) :

A SISD computing system is a uniprocessor machine that is capable of executing a single
instruction operating on a single data stream. Most conventional computers have SISD

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architecture where all the instruction and data to be processed have to be stored in primary
memory.
Single instruction: Only one instruction stream is being acted or executed by CPU
during one clock cycle.
Single data stream: Only one data stream is used as input during one clock cycle.
Ex:

2) SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data Stream)

A SIMD system is a multiprocessor machine, capable of executing the same instruction on all the
CPUs but operating on the different data stream.
Ex: IBM 710 is the real life application of SIMD.

3) MISD (Multiple Instruction Single Data stream)

An MISD computing is a multiprocessor machine capable of executing different instructions on
processing elements but all of them operating on the same data set.

4) MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data Stream)

A MIMD system is a multiprocessor machine that is capable of executing multiple instructions
over multiple data streams. Each processing element has a separate instruction stream and data
stream.

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4.2 Memory Hierarchy

The memory hierarchy characteristics mainly include the following.

 Performance,
 Ability,
 Access Time,
 Cost per bit

Level-0:

 At level-0, registers are present which are contained inside the CPU.
 Since they are present inside the CPU, they have least access time.
 They are most expensive and therefore smallest in size (in KB).
 Registers are implemented using Flip-Flops

Level-1:

 At level-1, Cache Memory is present.

 It stores the segments of program that are frequently accessed by the
processor.
 It is expensive and therefore smaller in size (in MB).
 Cache memory is implemented using static RAM.

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Level-2:

 At level-2, main memory is present.

 It can communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory
devices through an I/O processor.
 It is less expensive than cache memory and therefore larger in size (in few
GB).
 Main memory is implemented using dynamic RAM

Level-3:

 At level-3, secondary storage devices like Magnetic Disk are present.

 They are used as back up storage.
 They are cheaper than main memory and therefore much larger in size
(in few TB).

Level-4:

 At level-4, tertiary storage devices like magnetic tape are present.

 They are used to store removable files.
 They are cheapest and largest in size (1-20 TB).

Advantages of Memory Hierarchy

The need for a memory hierarchy includes the following.

 Memory distributing is simple and economical

 Removes external destruction
 Data can be spread all over
 Permits demand paging & pre-paging
 Swapping will be more proficient

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Cache Memories

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and

synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main memory
or disk memory but economical than CPU registers.

 Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer

between RAM and the CPU.
 It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed.
 The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data
from frequently used main memory locations.

Cache Performance

When the processor needs to read or write a location in main memory, it first checks
for a corresponding entry in the cache.

 If the processor finds that the memory location is in the cache, a cache hit has
occurred and data is read from cache
 If the processor does not find the memory location in the cache, a cache
miss has occurred. For a cache miss, the cache allocates a new entry and
copies in data from main memory, then the request is fulfilled from the
contents of the cache.

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Application
 Usually, the cache memory can store a reasonable number of blocks at any
given time, but this number is small compared to the total number of blocks in
the main memory.
 The correspondence between the main memory blocks and those in the cache
is specified by a mapping function.

Advantages

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

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Introduction to BIOS and UEFI

BIOS

 BIOS is a fundamental component in all computers.

 UEFI is low-level software
 Stands for Basic Input Output System(BIOS)
 It is a very small piece of code contained on a chip on your system board.
 When you start your computer, BIOS is the first software that runs.
 It identifies your computer's hardware, configures it, tests it, and connects it to
the operating system for further instruction.

BIOS Functions

POST : Testing of computer hardware and also making sure that no error is there
while loading the operating system.

Bootstrap Loader: Once the capable operating system is loaded, the BIOS passes
the control to the operating system.

BIOS Drivers: Low level drivers that give computer basic control over computer’s
basic hardware.

BIOS Setup: Hardware settings can be configured using this setup including system
settings such as system password, time and date.

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UEFI
 Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
 UEFI is low-level software
 It connects a computer's firmware to its operating system.
 Like BIOS, UEFI is installed at the time of manufacturing and is the first
program that runs when booting a computer.
 UEFI stores all the information about initialization and start up in a .efi file, a
file stored on a special partition called EFI System Partition (ESP). The ESP
partition will also contain the boot loader programs for the operating system
installed on the computer.
 It is because of this partition; UEFI can directly boot the operating system and
has faster booting.

Both UEFI and BIOS are low-level software that starts when you boot your PC
before booting your operating system, but UEFI is a more modern solution,
supporting larger hard drives, faster boot times, more security features, and—
conveniently—graphics and mouse cursors.

Advantages of UEFI over BIOS

 UEFI supports drive sizes up to 9 zetta bytes, whereas BIOS only supports
2.2 terabytes.
 UEFI provides faster boot time.
 UEFI runs in 32bit or 64bit mode, whereas BIOS runs in 16bit mode.
 UEFI has discrete driver support, while BIOS has drive support stored in
its ROM, so updating BIOS firmware is a bit difficult.

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4.4 Operating System concepts

Operating System

 An operating system is a software programme.

 It acts as an interface between computer hardware components and the
user.
 Every computer system must have at least one operating system to run
other programs

Ex: Windows, Unix, Linux

History Of OS

 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape
storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early
1950s for their IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by
purchasing the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company
 The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when
a GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS.

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Types of OS

Following are the popular types of Operating System:

1. Batch Operating System

2. Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
3. Multiprocessing OS
4. Real Time OS
5. Distributed OS
6. Network OS
7. Mobile OS

1.Batch Operating System

Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the
same process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as
a group.

The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer.
In this type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a
punch card and submits it to the computer operator.

2.Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating system

Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal to
use a single computer system at the same time. The processor time which is
shared among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

3. Multiprocessing OS
Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central
processing units (CPU) within a single computer system. A multiprocessing
operating system is capable of running many programs simultaneously. Each
processor can share main memory and peripherals in order to simultaneously
execute programs.

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4.Real time OS
In a real time operating system, time interval to process and respond to inputs is
very small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems are
the Real time OS example.

5.Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to
provide very fast computation to its users.

6.Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to
manage data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking
functions.

7.Mobile OS
Mobile operating systems are those OS which are designed to power
smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices .

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Operating System Services (Functions of OS)

Following are the important functions of an operating System:

 Memory Management
 Process Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 I/O system management
 Communication management
 Control over system performance
 Security
 Job accounting
 Networking
Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of
allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs.
Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete
processes and provides communication among processes.
Device Management:- Device management keeps tracks of all devices. It also
performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as storage,
retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
I/O system management:- provides coordination and communication among
various I/O devices and handles functionality issues
Communication management:- Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of the computer
systems.
Control over system performance:− Recording delays between request for a
service and response from the system.
Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer
system against malware threat and unauthorized access.
Job accounting:- Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and
users.
Networking:- A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share
memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one
another through the network.

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