Chapter 4

Memory Organization

1
 Introduction
• Memory Unit
– an essential component in any general purpose computer
since it is needed to store programs and data.
• A memory unit that communicates directly with the CPU is
called main memory.
• Memory unit that provide backup storage is called auxiliary
memory.
• Auxiliary memory devices are used to store system
programs, large data files and other backup information.
Only programs and data currently needed by the processor
reside in main memory.
• All other information is stored in auxiliary memory and
transferred to main memory when needed. 2
 Memory Hierarchy
• To obtain the highest possible access speed while
minimizing the total cost of the memory system
• Consists of all storage device in a computer system
(auxiliary, cache, main , high speed registers and processing
logic)

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Memory Hierarchy (cont…)

4
Memory Hierarchy (cont…)

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 CPU Registers
• CPU Register - also known as Internal Processor Memory.
• The data or instruction which has to be executed are kept in these
registers.
• A CPU register is a quickly accessible location available to a
computer's processor.
• Registers usually consist of a small amount of fast storage, although
some registers have specific hardware functions, and may be read-
only or write-only.

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 Cache Memory
• Memory that lies in between main memory and CPU
• Holds those parts of the program and data that are most
heavily used
– increases the overall processing speed of the computer by
providing frequently required data to the CPU at a faster
speed.

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 Main Memory (RAM)
• Memory unit that communicates directly with CPU
Programs and data currently needed by the processor reside
here
• It is also known as primary memory.
• It is of two type
– Random Access Memory (RAM) and
– Read Only Memory (ROM)

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 Auxiliary Memory
• The Most common auxiliary memory devices used in
computer system are magnetic disk and tapes.
• Other components used, but not as frequently, are
– magnetic drums,
– magnetic bubble memory, and
– optical disks
• The average time required to reach a storage location in
memory and obtain its contents is called the access time.
• In electromechanical devices with moving parts such as
disks and tapes, the access time consists of seek time
required to position the read-write head to a location and a
transfer time required to transfer data to or from the devices.
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 Memory Management System
• Many operating system are designed to enable the CPU to
process a number of independent programs concurrently -
known as multiprogramming.
• Sometimes a program are too long to be accommodated in
total space available in main memory.
• A program with its data normally resides in auxiliary
memory.
• When the program or a segment of program is to be
executed, it is transferred to main memory to be executed by
the CPU.
• The part of the computer system that supervise the flow of
information between auxiliary memory and main memory is
called the memory management system. 10
 Memory Types
1. Sequential Memory
• A class of data storage device that read their data in
sequence
• Are usually a form of magnetic memory
• Typically used for secondary storage in general-purpose
computers due to their higher density, resistance to wear and
non-volatility
• Eg: hard disk, CD-ROMs, magnetic tapes, etc
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Is a form of computer data storage
• Allows stored data to be accessed in any order
• Associated with volatile types of memory
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 Main Memory
• Basic memory of the computer
• Temporary memory except ROM
• Faster for read write operation
• Expensive internal memory so not portable.
1. RAM
– Volatile memory.
– Stores information required during processing
– Has two two types
• Static RAM(SRAM) and
• Dynamic RAM(DRAM)

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 Types of RAM

SRAM DRAM
• Does not lose its content • Loses its content after few
until computer is turned off seconds
• Information is stored in • Information is stored in the
form of voltage form of charge
• faster • slower

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 Read only Memory (ROM)
• ROM stands for read only memory, a solid-state
semiconductor memory that can only read data stored in
advance. Its characteristic is that once the data is stored, it
can no longer be changed or deleted.
• It is usually used in computer or other electronic devices,
and even if the power is turned off, the data will not
disappear.

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 Types of ROM
1. MROM - Mask Read Only Memory
• It is inexpensive and is the very first ROM which is hard wired
device that contains a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions.
2. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory
• It can be written only once by a user.
• PROM is manufactured as a blank memory, while the ROM is
programmed during the manufacturing process.
• The user buys a PROM, the user will need a special device
called a PROM programmer or PROM burner to write the
desired data onto the blank PROM chip.
• The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called
burning the PROM.
• The memory can be programmed just once after manufacturing 15
 Types of ROM (cont …)
3. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• It is a special kind of read only memory chip that has the
opportunity to erase the programmed data, which the feature can
be seen from its name.
• The programmable read-only memory can be programmed to
write data with high voltage, and the data remains until it is
exposed to ultraviolet light for lasting up to 10 minutes or
longer.
4. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read
Only Memory
• It can be erased and reprogrammed about 10,000 times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 milliseconds.
• users can selectively erase and program any location and it can
be erased one byte at a time instead of being erased the entire
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 Types of ROM (cont …)
5. Flash Memory
• Flash memory (flash) is a modern type of EEPROM.
• Flash memory can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary
EEPROM, and newer designs has the feature that is very high
endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles).
• Except these types, there are other types of non-volatile memory
including optical storage media, such as 
– CD-R and
– CD-RW

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 RAM chip
• Used for communication with the CPU if one or more
control inputs.
• requires 7-bit address and an 8-bit bidirectional data bus.
• chip select (CS) are for enabling the chip.
•When CS1=1 and (CS2)’=0,
the unit in operation.
• High impedance state
indicates open circuit.
• When CS1=1 and (CS2)’=0,
the memory is places in a R/W
mode.
• When the RD input is
enabled, the content of the
selected byte is placed into the
data bus.
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 ROM Chip
• A ROM chip is
unidirectional.
• 9 address lines to address 512
bytes.
• Chip select CS1=1 and
(CS2)’=0 for the unit to
operate.
• Otherwise, the data bus in a
high-impedance state.

The RAM chips have 128 bytes and need seven address lines.
The ROM chip has 512 bytes and needs 9 address lines 19
How to select chips?

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Memory Connection to the CPU

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 Associative Memory
• When a memory unit is accessed by content rather than data
address, the memory is referred to as associative memory
or content addressable memory(CAM).
Argument Register : It contains the
word to be searched.
Key Register K : This specifies which
part of the argument word needs to be
compared with words in memory.

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Associative Memory (cont …)

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 Cache Memory
• A typical computer program flows in a straight-line fashion
with program loops and subroutine calls encountered
frequently.
• Analysis of a large number of typical programs has been
shown that the reference to memory at any given interval of
time tend to be confined within a few localized areas in
memory.
• This phenomenon is known as the property of locality of
reference.
• If the active portions of the program and data are placed in a
fast small memory, the average memory access time can be
reduced, thus reducing the total execution time of program.
• Such memory is known as Cache memory. 24
 Cache Memory (cont …)
• The Performance of cache memory is frequently measured
in terms of a quantity called hit ratio.
• When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in
cache, it is said to produce a hit.
• If the word is not found in cache, it is in main memory and
it counts as a miss.
• No. of hits = number of successful cache memory
references.
• No. of Misses = number of unsuccessful cache memory
references.

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 Cache Memory (cont …)
• The ratio of the number of hits divided by the total CPU
references to memory (hits plus misses) is the hit ratio,
[Hit ratio = hits/ (hits + misses)]
• Average access time for a memory with a single-level cache
formula.
A = C + (1-H)M
 A is the average access time of the system
 M is the access time of the main memory
 C is the access time of the cache
 H is the percent of accesses that are satisfied from the cache.
• Example: A computer with cache access time of 100 ns, a
main memory access time of 1000 ns , and a hit ratio of 0.9,
produces an average access time of 200 ns. 26
 Cache Memory (cont …)
Characteristic of Cache Memory
• The basic characteristic of cache memory is its fast access time.
• The transformation of data from main memory to cache memory is
referred to as a mapping process.
• Three types of mapping procedures are:
– Associative Mapping
– Direct Mapping
– Set-associative Mapping

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 Associative Mapping
• The fastest and most flexible cache
organization uses an associative
memory.
• The associative memory stores both
the address and content (data) of
the memory word.
• If the address is found
corresponding data is read
otherwise main memory is accessed
for the word.
• It is expensive compared to
random-access memories because
of the added logic associated with
each cell. 28
 Direct Mapping
• The n-bit memory address is divided into two Fields:
– k-bits for the index field and
– n-k bits for the tag field.
• The direct mapping cache organization uses
– the n-bit address to access the main memory and
– the k-bit index to access the cache.
• Each word in cache consists of the data word and its
associated tag.
• When a new word is first brought into the cache, the tag bits
are stored alongside the data bits.
• When the CPU generates a memory request, the index field
is used for the address to access the cache. 29
 Direct Mapping (cont …)
• The tag field of the CPU address is compared with the tag in
the word read from cache.
• If the two tags match, there is a hit and the required word is
read from cache otherwise it is read from main memory.

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Direct Mapping (cont …)

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Direct Mapping (cont …)

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 Set- Associative Mapping
• In Direct mapping, every time a miss occurs, an entire block
of words must be transferred from main memory to cache
memory.
• Another disadvantage of direct mapping is that two words
with the same index in their address but with different tag
values cannot reside in cache memory at same time.
• A third type of cache organization, called set-associative
mapping, in which each word of cache can store two or
more words of memory under the same index address.
• Each data word is stored together with its tag and the
number of tag-data items in one word of cache is said to
from a set.
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Set- Associative Mapping (cont …)

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 Virtual Memory
• In a memory hierarchy system, program and data are first stored
in auxiliary memory.
• Portion of a program or data are brought into main memory as
they are needed by the CPU.
• Virtual Memory is a concept used in some large computer
systems that permit the user to construct programs as though a
large memory space were available, equal to the totality of
auxiliary memory.
• A virtual memory system provides a mechanism for translating
program-generated addresses into correct main memory
locations.
• An address used by a programmer will be called a virtual
address, and set of such addresses the address space.
• An address in main memory is called a location or physical 35