1

ELECTRIC FIELD IN MATERIAL

SPACE
CHAPTER 2
ENGINEERING ELECTROMAGNETICS
BEF22903
Properties of Materials
The behavior of electromagnetic fields will change from one
material to other.
This is because the different material have different
permittivity , permeability , and conductivity .
Permittivity is associated with electrical fields.
Whereas permeability is associated with magnetic parameters of
material.
Conductivity relates to a measure of how easily electrons can
travel through the material under the influence of an external
electric field.
Materials can be classified in terms of their conductivity as
Conductors (metal copper and aluminum)
Non-conductors (insulators or dielectrics glass and rubber)
2
A metal has high conductivity ( >>1),
An insulator has low conductivity ( <<1),
A material whose its conductivity lies in between metals and
insulators such as silicon and germanium is called a
semiconductor.
The SI unit for conductivity is mhos per meter ( /m), or
Siemens per meter (S/m)
The conductivity of material influences by some factor such as
temperature and impurities.
If T , free electrons and lattice access more energy.
It causes lattice vibration become more frequent and hence more
scattering occurs.
So, the of conductor decreases with the increasing of T.
T in insulator will causes electrons stripped from their bound
orbit and conduction will happen (voltage breakdown).
Properties of Materials
Material
Conductivity,
(S/m) at 20
0
C
Material
Conductivity,
(S/m) at 20
0
C
Conductors
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Tungsten
Zinc
Brass
Pure Iron
Mercury
Carbon
Sea Water
6.2 x 10
7
5.8 x 10
7
4.1 x 10
7
3.5 x 10
7
1.8 x 10
7
1.7 x 10
7
1.1 x 10
7
10
7
10
6
3 x 10
4
4
Semiconductors
Pure Germanium
Pure Silicon
2.2
4.4 x 10
-4
Insulators
Paper
Glass
Porcelain
Mica
Paraffin
Hard Rubber
Fused Quartz
Wax
10
-11
10
-12
10
-12
10
-15
10
-15
10
-15
10
-17
10
-17
Conductivity of Some Materials
>>1
<<1
3
Current:
Electric current is generally caused by the motion of electric
charges.
The current through a given area is the electric charge passing
through the area per unit time.
I = dQ/dt (Amperes)
One ampere (1 A) meaning that, the charge is being transferred
at a rate of one coulomb per second.
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb of charge /1 Second
Convection and Conduction Currents
Current Density, J:
If current, I flowing through a planar surface, S, the current
density in perpendicular to the surface is given by
J = I/S
Thus,
I = JS
If the current density is not normal to the surface, the current is
I = JS
Thus, the total current flowing through a surface is given by:

=
S
d I S J
Convection and Conduction Currents
4
Convection Current:
Convection current occurs in insulator or dielectric such as
liquid, vacuum and rarified gas.
It results from motion of electrons (current flows) or ions
through an insulating medium.
E.g. A beam of electrons in a vacuum tube.
Convection current doesnt involve conductors.
Hence it does not satisfy Ohms law.
Convection and Conduction Currents
Convection Current Density:
Consider an element of cylinder with volume charge density
v.
The charge move along cylinder axes with average velocity u
x
.
In the time interval t the element of charge has moved at a
distance x.
The total charged particle moved through a surface cylinder
perpendicular to the direction of motion in a time increment t
is
The resultant current is
Convection and Conduction Currents
x v
v
v v
su
t
x s
t
Q
I
x s v Q
=

= =
= =
u J
v
x v

u J
s
I
=
= =

5
Conduction Current:
Conduction current occurs in conductors where there are a large
number of free electrons.
It occurs due to the drift motion of electrons (charge carriers).
Conduction current obeys ohms law.
When an external electric field, E is applied to a conductor,
conduction current occurs due to the drift of electrons.
The charge inside the conductor experiences a force, F that is,
F = eE
Due to continuous collision with atomic lattice, the electrons
moves or drifts with an average velocity called the drift velocity,
u which is proportional to the applied electric field, E.
Convection and Conduction Currents
The conduction current density is;
where is the conductivity of the conductor.
In a semiconductor, current flow is due to the movement of both
electrons and holes, hence conductivity is given as;
= n
e
u
e
e + n
h
u
h
e
where n
h
and u
h
are the number of hole per unit volume and
hole mobility respectively.
Convection and Conduction Currents
( )
E J
E E u J

m
ne
m
e
ne
v
=
=
|

\
|
= =

2
m
ne
2
The point form of ohm law
6
Conductor and Conductance
An Isolated Conductor:
A conductor has abundance of charge that is
free to move within the material.
When an isolated conductor is placed in an
external electric field E
e
, the positive free
charges are pushed along the same direction
as the electric field, while the negative free
charges move in the opposite direction very
quickly.
The charges accumulate on the surface of
the conductor and form an induced surface
charge.
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
E
e
E
e
E
e
E
i
E
i
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
E
e
E
e
E
e

v
=0
E = 0
Conductor and Conductance
These separated negative and positive charges
on the opposite sides of the conductor
produces an internal induced electric field E
i
which will cancel the E
e
inside the conductor
if the conductor is a perfect or good conductor.
The net field inside the conductor is equal to
zero (E = 0).
This immediately implies that the charge
density
v
is also equal to zero everywhere
(Gauss's law).
There is no potential difference between any
two points in the conductor (V
AB
= 0).
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
E
e
E
e
E
e
E
i
E
i
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
E
e
E
e
E
e

v
=0
E = 0
7
Conductor and Conductance
Non Isolated Conductor:
Non isolated conductor is a conductor whose ends are maintained
at a potential difference V as shown below;
It is wired to a source of electromotive force
When a potential difference of V is applied across the conductor,
the electric field inside a conductor is not zero.
E
l
+V-
Conductor and Conductance
Hence there is no static equilibrium inside a conductor.
Conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium only if no
electric field exist inside a conductor.
Since E 0, the free charges in the conductor start moving, thus
producing conduction current.
As the electrons moves from one end to another, they experience
a damping force called resistance, R.
The reciprocal of R is called the conductance G and the unit of G
is siemens (S) or
-1
.
G = 1/R
The direction of the electric field produced is the same as the
direction of the flow of positive charges or current.
8
Joules Law Generation and
Resistance from Field Theory
Resistance:
The electric field E applied is uniform (since V is constant)
and it is related to electric potential V as:
E = V / l
Since the conductor has a uniform cross section, the current
density is given as:
J = I / S
Also conduction current density (J) is given as:
J = E
Substituting the value of J in the above equation, we have
I = E S
Joules Law Generation and
Resistance from Field Theory
Equating the expressions for E
E = V / l = I / S
V = (l / S) I
V = I R
Hence Resistance of a conductor is given as:
R = l / S = l / S
Where is the conductivity and is the resistivity of the
conductor.
For a conductor of non-uniform cross section , the resistance
is given as:

= =
S E
l E
S J
l E
d
d
d
d
I
V
R

9
Joules Law Generation and
Resistance from Field Theory
Joules Law:
We now consider the power dissipated in a conducting
medium in the presence of and electrostatic field E.
For a volume v, the total dissipated power in watt is
(Joules law)
The power density, w
p
in W/m
3
is given by


. .
.
.
2
2
E J E
E
J E
= = =
=
=

dv
dP
w
dv P
dv P
p
v
v
Joules Law Generation and
Resistance from Field Theory
Joules Law:
For a conductor with uniform cross section, dv = dS dl, so
R I VI dS J dl E dSdl dv P
s v l v
2
. . . . = = = = =

J E J E
10
Example 1
A 2-mm-diameter copper wire with conductivity of 5.8 10
7
S/m
and electron mobility of 0.0032 (m
2
/Vs) is subjected to an electric
field of 20 (mV/m). Find:
(a) the volume charge density of free electrons,
(b) the current density,
(c) the current flowing in the wire,
(d) the electron drift velocity, and
(e) the volume density of free electrons.
Ans:
(a)
ve
= 1.81X10
10
C/m
3
(b) J = 1.16X10
6
A/m
2
(c) I = 3.64A (d) u
e
= 6.4X10
-5
m/s
(e) n
e
= 1.13X10
29
Free electrons/m
3
Dielectrics
The major difference between a metal and an insulator lies in
the number of electrons available for conduction of current.
Dielectric materials have few electrons available that are
strongly bounded to the atom.
Metals have an abundance of free electrons that can migrate
through the structure of the material.
Dielectric material can be categorized as non-polar and polar
materials.
Non-polar material:
e.g. hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the rare gases.
It does not have permanent dipole moments.
It only polarized when applied external field and return to
original manner after remove external field.
11
Dielectrics
Polar material:
e.g. water, sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid and polystyrene.
It comprises permanent dipoles moments that oriented
randomly throughout the interior of the material which tend
to align along the direction of applied external field.
Polarization in Dielectric
Effects of Electric Field on a Dielectric
Without an electric field,
The negative charge (electron) is in any material form a
symmetrical cloud around the nucleus (positive charge),
with the center of the cloud being at the same location as
the center of the nucleus.
When an external electric field is applied,
The charges in a dielectric are not able to move about
freely or no migration of charges because they are bound
by finite force.
But the external electric field can polarize the atoms or
molecules in the material by distorting the center of the
cloud and the location of the nucleus. s
12
Polarization in Dielectric
E
ext
= 0 E
ext
0 Electric Dipole
Positive charge is displaced from its equilibrium position in the
direction of E by the force F
+
= QE.
Negative charge is displaced in the opposite direction of E by
the force F- = QE
An electric dipole is produced (charge +Q at the center of the
nucleus and charge Q at the center of the electron cloud)
The dielectric is polarized.
Polarization in Dielectric
Effects of Electric Field on a Dielectric
Such electric dipole induced small electric fields called a
polarization field which is weaker than and opposite in
direction to E
ext
.
It can be described by dipole moment p as
p =Qd (Cm)
where q is the positive charge and d is the distance vector
from Q to + Q of the dipole.
13
Polarization in Dielectric
If there are N dipoles in a volume v of the dielectric, the total
dipole moment due to the electric field is
= + + + =
=
N
k
k N
Q Q Q Q
1
2 1
....
k N 2 1 total
d d d d p
Polarization in Dielectric
The electric polarization field P is defined as the dipole moment
per unit volume is
There is no free charge within the closed surface, so the volume
bound charge is
If in the dielectric region contains free charge. From Gausss
law the total enclosed charge, bound plus free charge is


S E
S P
d p P
k
Q Q d Q
d Q
Q
v v
vb
s
T
s
vb
k
k
v
k
k
v
v n v n
+ = =
=
= =

=

=

0
1
0
1
0
1
lim
1
lim

14
Polarization in Dielectric
Thus, the free charge enclosed is
where
The volume charge densities of bound charge, total and free
enclosed charge are
( )
P E D
S D
S P E
S P S E
+ =
=
+ =
+ =
=

0
0
0

d
d
d d
Q Q Q
s
s
s s
vb T

= = =
v v
T T
v
vb vb
dv Q dv Q dv Q
Polarization in Dielectric
By using divergence theorem, ( )
In free space, P = 0. For some dielectric, P is proportional to the
applied E
where (chi) is the electric susceptibility of the material
E P
0

e
=
e

dv d
v s
D S D

=



= = = =
= = = =
= = = =

v
v v
v s
T
v
T
v s
T
vb
v
vb
v s
vb
dv dv d Q
dv dv d Q
dv dv d Q
D D S D
E E S E
P P S P



0 0 0

15
Dielectric Constant and Dielectric
Strength
Dielectric Constant:
The dielectric constant or relative permittivity,
r
is the ratio of
the permittivity of the dielectric, to that of free space,
0
.

For free space and non-dielectric material

r
= 1.

0
0

r r
= =
( )

E E E E D
P E D E P
0
0 0 0 0
0 0
1 Thus,
1
obtained we into g subtitutin By

,
e r
r e e
e
= + =
= + = + =
+ = =
Dielectric Constant and Dielectric
Strength
Dielectric Strength:
The dielectric strength, E
ds
is the maximum electric field that a
dielectric can tolerate or withstand without electrical
breakdown.
Dielectric breakdown is said to have occurred when a
dielectric becomes conducting.
When the electric field in a dielectric is sufficiently large (E >
E
ds
), it begins to pull electrons completely out of the molecules
and the dielectric becomes conducting.
16
Dielectric
(Linear, Isotropic and Homogeneous)
A dielectric material is
linear if the magnitude of the induced polarization field is
directly proportional to the magnitude of E or does not
change with the applied E field.
Isotropic if P and E are in the same direction or does not
change with direction.
Homogeneous if its constitutive parameters (, and ) are
constant throughout the material or does not change from
point to point.
Boundary Conditions
If electric field E exists in a region consisting of two different
media, the conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface
separating the media are called boundary conditions
E.g. The boundary conditions at an interface separating;
Dielectric and dielectric
Conductor and dielectric
Conductor and free space
E can be decomposed into two orthogonal components:
E = E
t
+ E
n
where E
t
and E
n
are the tangential and
normal components of E respectively.
E
n
E
E
t
17
Boundary Conditions
(Dielectric and dielectric)
First boundary condition can be determined by performing a
line integral of E around a closed rectangular path abcda.
From the figure,
E
1
=E
1t
+ E
1n
E
2
=E
2t
+ E
2n
By assuming the closed
path abcda is very
small with respect to
the variation of E.
Thus,
0 = + + + =

a
d
d
c
c
b abcda
b
a
d d d d d l E l E l E l E l E
Boundary Conditions
(Dielectric and dielectric)
From the line integral of E around a closed rectangular path
( )
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
1 2
2 1 1 1 2 2
and
0
0
0
2 2 2 2
get, we
0

D
E E
l E E
l E l E
h
E
h
E l E
h
E
h
E l E
d d d d d
t t
t t
t t
t t
n n t n n t
a
d
d
c
c
b abcda
b
a
=
=
=
=
=

+
= + + + =

l E l E l E l E l E
The tangential
component of E is
continuous across
an interface.
18
Boundary Conditions
(Dielectric and dielectric)
Second boundary condition is determined by applying Gausss
Law over a small pillbox shaped Gaussian surface.
From the figure,
D
1
=D
1t
+ D
1n
D
2
=D
2t
+ D
2n
By applying Gausss
law;
S S D S D
S
S Q d
s n n
s
side bottom top
s enc
= +
= + +
= =

0
.
2 1
S D
If h 0, the contribution to the total flux
by the side surface goes to zero, leaving flux
through the top and bottom.

If no free charges exist (

s
= 0) at the interface. Then
Boundary Conditions
(Dielectric and dielectric)
n n
n n
E E
D D
2 2 1 1
2 1
=
=
The electric flux density is discontinuous
across an interface if a surface charge
exists. The size of the discontinuity is
equal to the surface charge density.
The normal component of D is continuous across
the interface; that is D undergoes no change at
the boundary.
s n n
s n n
s n n
E E
D D
S S D S D

=
= =
=
=
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 medium and 1 medium If
get We



19
Boundary Conditions
(Dielectric and dielectric)
The refraction of the electric field across the interface can be
determined as follows;
From
We have (1)
From
We get (2)
Dividing (1) by (2) and then
by substituting =
0

r
give
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 2 1 1
2 1
cos cos
cos cos
sin sin
E E
D D
D D
E E
E E
n n
t t
=
=
=
=
=
2
1
2
1
tan
tan
r
r

=
Boundary Conditions
(Conductor and dielectric)
First boundary condition can be determined by performing a
line integral of E around a closed rectangular path abcda.
From the figure,
E
1
=E
1t
+ E
1n
E
2
=E
2t
= E
2n
= 0
By assuming the closed
path abcda is very
small with respect to
the variation of E.
Thus,
0
2 2 2 2
0
2 1 1 1 2 2
=

+
= + + + =

h
E
h
E l E
h
E
h
E l E
d d d d d
n n t n n t
a
d
d
c
c
b abcda
b
a

l E l E l E l E l E
Dielectric (
1
=
0

r1
)
Conductor
E
2
= 0
20
Boundary Conditions
(Conductor and dielectric)
Due to the fact that E = 0 inside the perfect conductor,
0
and
0
0
0
2
) 0 (
2 2 2
) 0 ( ) 0 (
get we Thus,
0
1 1 1
1
1
1 1 1
2 2
= =
=
=
=

+
= =
t t
t
t
n t n
n t
E D
E
l E
h h
E l E
h
E
h
l
E E
Dielectric (
1
=
0

r1
)
Conductor
E
2
= 0
Boundary Conditions
(Conductor and dielectric)
Second boundary condition can be determined by applying
Gausss Law over a small pillbox shaped Gaussian surface.
From the figure,
D
1
=D
1t
+ D
1n
E
2
= 0, D
2
=
2
E
2
= 0
D
2
= D
2t
= D
2n
= 0
By applying Gausss
law;
S S D S D
S
S Q d
s n n
s
side bottom top
s enc
= +
= + +
= =

0
.
2 1
S D
By letting the cylinders height h 0, the
contribution to the total flux by the side
surface goes to zero.
Dielectric
(
1
=
0

r1
)
Conductor
D
2
=E
2
= 0
21

Thus under static conditions, the following conclusions can be

made about perfect conductor:
No electric filed existing within a conductor
No potential difference between any two point in the
conductor (a conductor is an equipotential body).
The electric field can be external to the conductor and
normal to its surface
Boundary Conditions
(Conductor and dielectric)
s n
s n
s n
n
E
D
S ) ( S D
D
=
=
=
= = = =
1 1
1
1
2 2
0
0 hence and 0 thus 0, of Because

E D E
2 2 2
Conductor as Electrostatic Screening
or Shielding
The important application of the fact that E = 0 inside a
conductor is in electrostatic screening or shielding.
The conductor is used as a conductive enclosure to protect an
electronic device from other electric circuits in order to
prevent an electromagnetic interference to be occurred as well
as to achieve an electromagnetic compatibility.
If conductor A kept at zero potential
surrounds conductor B, B is said to be
electrically screened by A from
conductor C.
Conductor C outside A is screened by
A from B.
Thus A acts like a screen or shield.
B
C
A
22
Boundary Conditions
(Conductor and free space)
Free space may be regarded as a special dielectric with a
dielectric constant that equal to 1 (
r
= 1).
Thus the boundary conditions become
Free space
(
r
= 1)
Conductor
E
2
= 0
Free space (
r
= 1)
Conductor
E
2
= 0
0
0
1 0 1
1
= =
=
t t
t
E D
E
s n
s n
E
D
=
=
1 0
1
Example 2
Two extensive homogeneous isotropic dielectrics meet on plane
z = 0. For z > 0,
r1
= 4 and for z < 0,
r2
= 3. A uniform electric
field kV/m exists for z 0. Find E
2
for z 0
and the angles E
1
and E
2
make with the interface and normal to
the interface ( z-axis) for a boundary without charge density
(
s
= 0).
z y x 3 2 5 + =
1
E
23
Example 3
Region y < 0 consists of a perfect conductor while region y > 0 is
a dielectric medium (
r1
=2). If there is a surface charge of 2nC/m
2
on the conductor, determine E and D at
a) A (3, -2, 2)
b) B (-4, 1, -5)
V/m 9 . 112 E , / 2 D b)
0 E D a)
: Ans
2
y m nC y = =
= =
r r
r r
Exercise 1
Question 1:
The plane z = 4 is the interface between two dielectrics. The
dielectric in region z > 4 has dielectric constant of 5 and
V/m in that region. If the dielectric constant
is 2 in region z < 4, find the electric field intensity in that region.
The angles E
1
and E
2
make with the interface.
Question 2:
A homogeneous dielectric (
r1
=2.5) fills region (x 0 ) while
region 2 (x 0) is free space. If nC/m
2
.
Find D
2
and
2
.
z y x 8 12 6
1
+ = E
z y x 4 10 12
1
+ = D
24
Exercise 1
Question 3:
Given that V/m. Find (a) E
1
and (b) the angle
E
1
and E
2
makes with the y-axis.
2
1

2
= 3
0

1
= 4.5
0
x
y
z y x 12 6 10
2
+ + = E
Capacitor
Capacitor consists of two conductors or plates carrying equal
but opposite charges and separated by free space or a dielectric.
When dc voltage source (V) is connected to the conductors, +ve
charge (+ Q) will accumulate on the bottom surface of top plate
and an equal amount of ve charge ( Q) will accumulate on the
top surface of bottom plate.
There are generally three types of capacitor:
Parallel-Plate capacitor
Coaxial capacitor
Spherical capacitor
25
Capacitance
The capacitance, C of the capacitor is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of the total charge Q on one of the plates to the
magnitude of the potential difference V between conductors.
Capacitance is measured in Farads (F).
The capacitance, C can be obtained from two methods:
Assuming Q and determining V in terms of Q (involving
Gausss law)
Assuming V and determining Q in terms of V (involving
solving Laplaces equation)

= =
l E
S E
d
d
V
Q
C
S

Capacitance
Steps to find Capacitance:
Choose a suitable coordinate system.
Let the two conducting plates carry charges + Q and Q.
Determine E using Coulombs or Gausss law and find the
potential between conductors V from,
The negative sign may be ignored in this case because we are
interested in the absolute value of V.
Obtain C from C = Q/V.

=
B
A
AB
d V l E
26
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Consider a capacitor constructed with two pieces of conducting
plates of surface area S and separated by a distance d.
The two plates are assumed carrying charges + Q and Q that
uniformly distributed on them.
The space between the plates is very small compared with the
dimensions of the plates and filled with a homogeneous
dielectric so that the flux fringing at the edges can be ignored.
Parallel Plate Capacitor
Gauss's law can be used to calculate the electric field, E.
A Gaussian surface with height h, and closed by two planes of
area size S, is constructed as shown in the figure below.
The E at the top plate Gaussian surface will be zero as it is
inside the conductor. Thus, D on the top of the Gaussian surface
is zero.
27
Parallel Plate Capacitor
From the Gausss law,
Total charge enclosed by the close Gaussian surface = flux
flowing through top of the Gaussian surfaces + flux flowing
through the side of the Gaussian surfaces + flux flowing through
bottom of the Gaussian surfaces.

( ) ( )
( ) z Thus,
0 0
= =
=
= + + =
+ + =
=

S
Q
S
Q
E
ES Q
dS E z dS z E
d d d
d Q
r o r o
r o
o r o
bottom
r o
bottom
r o
side
r o
top
r o
s
r o





E

S E S E S E
S E
Parallel Plate Capacitor
OR

By using conductor-dielectric boundary condition:

S
Q
S dS Q
s
s s
=
= =

is density charge the Thus,
From
( )
z
S
Q
z
S Q
z
z z
D
r
r r
S
n
S n r S n
S n

) ( ) (
0
0 0
0

=
= =
= =
=

E
E D
28
The potential difference, V between the plates is:
Thus from C = Q/V, the capacitance for parallel-plate capacitor
is obtained as,
Parallel Plate Capacitor
( ) ( )
d
S
C
S
Qd
Q
V
Q
C
S
Qd
dl
S
Q
V
z dl z
S
Q
d V
r o
r o
r o
d
r o
d
r o




=
= =
= =
= =

0
0
l E
Parallel Plate Capacitor
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is
proportional to area, S.
inversely proportional to separation, d.
proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric filling.
independent of E.
( ) F Farads
d
S
Ed
ES
d
d
V
Q
C
r r S 0 0

= =

= =

l E
S E
29
Coaxial Capacitor
The inner and outer of coaxial conductors are assumed
carrying charges Q and + Q that uniformly distributed on them
respectively.
By applying Gausss law, the charge Q is obtained as below;
Hence, the electric field, E is given by;
( ) ( )
r
rL
Q
rL E r dz d r r E d Q
L
s

2
2
0
2
0

=
= = =

E
S E
Coaxial Capacitor
The potential different between a and b is determined as below;
Thus, the capacitance of a coaxial capacitor is given by;
( ) [ ]
a
b
L
C
a
b
L
Q
Q
V
Q
C
a
b
L
Q
V
r
L
Q
dr
r L
Q
r dr r
rL
Q
d V
b
a
b
a
b
a
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2
ln
2
1
2

2

=
= =
=
= = = =

l E
30
Spherical Capacitor
The inner sphere of radius a and outer sphere of radius b
separated by a dielectric medium.
The charges + Q and Q are assumed on the inner and the outer
spheres respectively.
Applying Gausss law, the charge is obtained as below;
Thus, the electric field, E can be written as;
( ) ( )
r
r
Q
r E Er
d d Er r d d r r E d Q
s

4
4 ) 2 )( 2 (
sin sin
2
2 2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2

=
= =
= = =

E

S E
( )
(

=
(

= =
(

=
(

= = = =


b a
C
b a
Q
Q
V
Q
C
b a
Q
V
r
Q
dr r
Q
r dr r
r
Q
d V
a
b
a
b
a
b
1 1
4
1 1
4
1 1
4
1
4 4

4
2
2

l E
Spherical Capacitor
The potential different V
ba
between the conductors is
Thus, the capacitance of the spherical capacitor is;
31
Leakage Resistance in Capacitor
If insulating material between two conductors does not perfect,
current will flow through the dielectric and capacitor contains
resistance.
The expression is
The capacitance is
Thus, the product of both R and C expression yields

= =
S E
l E
d
d
I
V
R

= =

RC
d
d
V
Q
C
S
l E
S E
is the conductivity of
the dielectric medium
Leakage Resistance in Capacitor
For parallel-plate capacitor:
For a cylindrical capacitor:
For a spherical capacitor

4
1 1
1 1
4
,
1 1
4
2
ln
ln
2
,
ln
2
,
b a
b a
C
R
b a
C
L
a
b
a b
L
C
R
a
b
L
C
S
d
d
S C
R
d
S
C

=
|
|

\
|

= =

=
=
|
|

\
|
= = =
=
|

\
|
= = =



32
The Electrostatic Potential Energy
Stored in the Capacitor
When a source is connected to a capacitor, it uses energy in
charging up the capacitor.
If the capacitor plates are made of a good conductor with zero
resistance and the dielectric separating the two conductors has
zero conductivity, there is no power losses occur anywhere in
the capacitor.
The charging-up energy is stored as the electric field in
dielectric medium in the form of potential energy.
Electric energy stored in a capacitor is the same as the work
required to charge it up.
The amount of energy stored W
E
in capacitor is given by
C
Q
QV CV W
E
2 2
1
2
1
2
2
= = =
Example 4
Determine the capacitance of each of the capacitors as shown in
the figure above. Take d = 5 mm, S = 30 cm
2

r1
= 4

r2
= 6
d/2
d/2

r1
= 4

r2
= 6
w/2 w/2
33
Since D and E are normal to the dielectric interface, the
capacitors can be treated as consisting of two capacitors C
1
and
C
2
in series.
So the total capacitance is
Solution of Example 4 (a)
C
1
C
2

r1
= 4

r2
= 6
d/2
d/2
d
S
d
S
C
d
S
d
S
C
r o r o r o r o 2 2
2
1 1
1
2
2 /
and
2

2 /

= = = =
( ) ( )( )
( )
pF
d
S
d
S
d
S
d
S
d
S
C C
C C
C
o
r r
r r o
r o r o
r o r o
46 . 25
6 4
6 4
10 5
10 30 2 2
2 2
2 2
3
4
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
=
+

=
+
=
+
=
+
=

D and E are parallel to the dielectric interface, the capacitors can
be treated as consisting of two capacitors C
1
and C
2
in parallel.
So the total capacitance is
Solution of Example 4 (b)
d
S
d
S
C
d
S
d
S
C
r o r o
r o r o
2
2 /
and
2

2 /
2 2
2
1 1
1


= =
= =
( )
( )
( )
( )
pF
d
S
d
S
d
S
C C C
o
r r
o
r o r o
53 . 26
6 4
10 5 2
10 30
2
2 2
3
4
2 1
2 1
2 1
=
+

= + =
+ = + =

r1
= 4
r2
= 6
w/2 w/2
C
2
C
1
34
Example 5
A coaxial capacitor consists of two concentric,
conducting cylindrical surfaces, one of radius a
and another of radius b, as shown in the figure.
The insulating layer separating the two
conducting surfaces is divided equally into two
semi-cylindrical sections, one filled with
dielectric
1
and the other filled with dielectric
2
(a)Develop an expression for C in terms
of the length l and the given quantities
(b) Evaluate the value of C for a = 2 mm,
b = 6 mm,
1
= 2,
2
= 4 and l = 4 cm
( ) pF C
a b
l
C 07 . 6 b)
ln
a) : Ans
2 1
= + =

Example 6
A spherical capacitor with a = 1.5 cm and b = 4 cm has an
inhomogenous dielectric of = 10
0
/r . Calculate the capacitance
per meter of the capacitor.
nF C 13 . 1 : Ans =
35
Exercise 2
Question 1:
A parallel plate capacitor has area of 4m
2
a separation distance of
0.01 m by a dielectric having
r
= 10 and = 10
-8
S/m. the top
plate is applied with 12 V and bottom plate is grounded.
Determine the electrostatic potential energy stored in the
capacitor and the leakage resistance between the plates.
Question 2:
A cylindrical capacitor has radii a = 1 cm and b = 2.5 cm. if the
space between the plates is filled with an inhomogenous
dielectric with
r
= (10 + r)/r, where r is in centimeters, find the
capacitance per meter of the capacitor.