VELAMMAL VIDHYASHRAM

SURAPET

Chennai -66

Biology INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON

DNA FINGERPRINTING AND ITS APPLICATIONS

(Submitted in partial fulfillment of SSCE Biology Practical Examination for the year 2024-2025)

NAME: SIDDARTH C
CLASS: XII
ROLL NUMBER:

SSCE 2024 - 2025

 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Investigatory Project report titled DNA

Fingerprinting And Its Applications. the bonafide work of SIDDARTH C of Grade12 in

the academic year 2024-25, who carried out the project under the guidance of Ms.

Maheswari P for the partial fulfillment of Biology Practical examination conducted by

SSCE - CBSE, New Delhi for the academic year 2024 - 2025.

Signature of Teacher in charge Signature of Internal Examiner

Signature of Principal Signature of External Examiner

 ACKNOWELDGEMENT

I am extremely grateful to my mentor Ms. Maheswari P, Department

of Biology, Velammal Vidhyashram –Surapet, Chennai for the valuable guidance and support
during the project.

I wish to express my gratitude to the Principal of Velammal Vidhyashram for the

continuous support in the completion of this project.

I express my gratitude to my parents, friends and family members for their great support and
patience.

Signature of the Student

(SIDDARTH C)
 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.No. TOPICS

1. Introduction

2. Basic Idea of The Experiment

3. Aim

4. Materials Required

5. Procedure

6. Observation

7. Result

8. Precautions

9. Sources of Error

10. Applications

11. Conclusion

12. Bibliography

DNA Fingerprinting and Its Applications

1. Introduction to DNA Fingerprinting

What is DNA Fingerprinting?

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA profiling or genetic fingerprinting, is a technique

used to identify individuals based on the unique characteristics of their DNA. This process
takes advantage of the fact that each person has a unique genetic code (except for identical
twins). By examining certain regions of DNA, known as STRs (Short Tandem Repeats)
and VNTRs (Variable Number Tandem Repeats), DNA fingerprinting provides a highly
reliable way to identify individuals for purposes ranging from criminal investigations to
paternity testing.

History of DNA Fingerprinting

The technique was first developed in 1984 by Sir Alec Jeffreys, a British geneticist. His
discovery came from the recognition that certain sections of the human genome contained
repeating patterns of base pairs that could vary between individuals. Unlike traditional
blood typing or other methods of identification, DNA fingerprinting could accurately
identify a person with high precision. Jeffreys’s work laid the foundation for modern
forensic science and criminal investigations.

Principle of DNA Fingerprinting

The underlying principle of DNA fingerprinting relies on two critical features of human
genetics:

1. Polymorphisms: These are regions in the DNA sequence that vary greatly between
individuals. STRs and VNTRs are examples of polymorphic regions, where the
number of repeats can differ from one person to another.

2. Uniqueness: Due to these variations, every individual (except identical twins) has a
unique genetic sequence. This uniqueness is what makes DNA fingerprinting such a
powerful tool in forensic science.

2. Techniques Used in DNA Fingerprinting

Step 1: DNA Collection

DNA can be obtained from a variety of biological samples:

 Blood: The most commonly used source of DNA.

  Saliva: Easily collected with swabs from inside the cheek.

 Hair: DNA can be extracted from the hair follicle.

 Skin Cells: Collected from a cheek swab or other skin tissues.

 Other Body Fluids: Semen, urine, and even fingernail clippings can provide DNA
samples.

Step 2: DNA Extraction

After collecting the sample, the DNA must be extracted from the cells. Extraction involves
breaking the cell membrane and isolating the DNA from other cellular material. This can be
done using chemical reagents or mechanical processes. The goal is to obtain a pure sample
of DNA that can be analyzed further.

Step 3: DNA Amplification (PCR)

Since DNA samples are often very small, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is used to
amplify the DNA. PCR is a process that makes multiple copies of a specific region of the
DNA, making it easier to analyze. This step is particularly important for forensic
applications, where the sample size may be minimal, and for examining STRs and VNTRs
that are small, specific areas in the genome.

Step 4: Gel Electrophoresis

Once the DNA is amplified, the next step is to separate the DNA fragments using a method
called gel electrophoresis. The DNA samples are placed in a gel matrix, and an electric
current is applied. DNA molecules are negatively charged, so they move through the gel
toward the positive end. The smaller DNA fragments move faster, while larger fragments
move slower. This creates a banding pattern that can be used for analysis.

Step 5: DNA Profiling and Analysis

The banding patterns produced by gel electrophoresis are visualized and analyzed to create
a DNA profile. These patterns represent the length and number of repeated sequences in the
DNA. The uniqueness of these patterns means they can be used to identify individuals,
establish familial relationships, or match a sample to a suspect in a criminal investigation.

Step 6: STR Analysis

Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) are regions in the DNA where a short sequence of
nucleotides is repeated multiple times. These repeats vary between individuals, and the
number of repeats can be used to differentiate between individuals. STR analysis is
particularly effective in forensic investigations because STR markers are highly
polymorphic and inherited from both parents, making them highly discriminative.

Step 7: Hybridization and Southern Blotting

Earlier techniques used a method called Southern blotting, where DNA fragments are
transferred to a membrane and exposed to a DNA probe that binds to specific sequences.
Although this method is now largely replaced by PCR-based techniques, it laid the
groundwork for modern DNA fingerprinting.

3. Applications of DNA Fingerprinting

A. Forensic Science

Crime Scene Investigation

DNA fingerprinting is widely used in criminal justice systems around the world. In criminal
investigations, DNA samples can be collected from crime scenes and compared to suspects’
DNA profiles. This has led to the identification of perpetrators and the exoneration of
wrongfully convicted individuals. DNA profiling can identify a person from a single hair,
skin cell, or drop of blood left behind at a crime scene.

Cold Case Investigations

DNA fingerprinting has also helped solve cold cases, where traditional evidence may no
longer be available. By extracting DNA from old evidence, such as stored biological
samples, investigators can now match it with DNA from suspects or databases, solving
cases that would otherwise have remained unsolved.

Exoneration of the Innocent

There have been numerous instances where DNA fingerprinting has been used to prove the
innocence of wrongfully convicted individuals. This has been particularly important in
cases involving long sentences or death row convictions, where DNA evidence can be used
to ensure justice is served.

B. Paternity and Family Relationship Testing

Paternity Testing
One of the most common applications of DNA fingerprinting is in determining biological
relationships, particularly paternity. By comparing the DNA profiles of a child and alleged
father, it can be determined with a high degree of certainty whether the man is the
biological father.

Ancestry and Genealogy

DNA fingerprinting is also used in genealogy to trace family lineage. Companies offer
genetic testing services to individuals who want to trace their ancestry and learn more about
their genetic roots. The test analyzes markers in the DNA that are passed down through
generations, providing insights into a person’s ethnic background and ancestral history.

C. Medical Applications

Genetic Disorders

DNA fingerprinting is instrumental in diagnosing genetic disorders. It can identify

mutations in genes responsible for conditions such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s
disease, and sickle cell anemia. Identifying these mutations allows for early intervention
and treatment.

Personalized Medicine

In the era of personalized medicine, DNA fingerprinting plays a key role in tailoring
treatments based on an individual’s genetic profile. This approach can help avoid adverse
reactions to medications and identify the most effective treatment options based on a
person’s genetic makeup.

D. Genetic Research

Gene Mapping

Researchers use DNA fingerprinting techniques to map genes and identify genetic markers
associated with diseases. By identifying these markers, scientists can better understand how
certain diseases are inherited and potentially develop targeted therapies.

Population Genetics

DNA fingerprinting is used in population genetics to study genetic variation within and
between populations. This can help researchers understand human evolution, migration
patterns, and genetic diversity across regions.

E. Wildlife Conservation
Tracking Endangered Species

In conservation biology, DNA fingerprinting is used to track endangered species and

monitor their genetic diversity. This is important for creating breeding programs and
ensuring the survival of species at risk of extinction.

Combating Poaching

DNA profiling is also used to combat illegal wildlife poaching. By identifying genetic
markers in poached animal products (such as ivory or rhino horn), authorities can trace the
origins of the poached items and crack down on illegal wildlife trafficking.

F. Immigration and Identification

Identity Verification

In cases where identification documents are unavailable or unreliable, DNA fingerprinting

is used to verify a person’s identity. This is especially common in immigration and refugee
situations, where DNA testing can confirm familial relationships and prove an individual's
identity.

4. Ethical Considerations in DNA Fingerprinting

While DNA fingerprinting is an invaluable tool, it also raises several ethical concerns that
need to be addressed.

A. Privacy Concerns

One of the primary concerns with DNA fingerprinting is the potential for breaches of
privacy. As DNA contains highly personal and sensitive information, there is the risk that it
could be misused. Unauthorized access to genetic databases could lead to discrimination in
employment, insurance, or even social status.

B. Informed Consent

Informed consent is a critical issue in DNA testing. Individuals must understand what their
genetic information will be used for and give explicit consent before testing. This is
especially important in forensic and medical contexts where the data might be shared or
stored for long periods.

C. Genetic Discrimination
Genetic discrimination is another issue related to the use of DNA fingerprinting. People
may be discriminated against based on their genetic information by employers, insurance
companies, or government agencies. This has led to calls for stronger regulations and
protections for individuals' genetic data.

D. Ethical Use of DNA Data

As DNA data is used more widely, it is essential to create ethical guidelines for its use. This
includes ensuring that DNA profiles are stored securely, used only for the intended purpose,
and not misused for personal gain or political reasons.

5. Future Directions in DNA Fingerprinting

A. Advances in Technology

As technology evolves, so will DNA fingerprinting methods. Advances such as Next-

Generation Sequencing (NGS)