CHAPTER-02

Biological Classification

Biological classification is the scientific procedure of arranging organisms into groups

and subgroups on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities and placing the group
in a hierarchy of categories.

Importance of classification-

It is not possible to study every organism. Study of one or two organism of a group gives
sufficient information about the essential features of the group.

It helps in identification of new organism.

Classification helps in knowing the relationship amongst different groups of organisms.

The organism of past cannot be studied without a proper system of classification.

Classification

Artificial system of classification

Natural system of classification

Phylogenetic system of classification

Artificial system of classification– Only one or two morphological characters for

grouping of organism is used. Flowering and non-flowering plants, enaima and anaima.
Aristotle classification.

Natural system of classification– Takes into consideration comparable study of a

number of characters so as to bring out natural similarities and dissimilarities and
hence natural relationships among the organisms. Bentham and Hooker classification,
etc.

Phylogenetic System of Classification– Based on the evolutionary relationship of

organisms. In this system organism are classified on the basis of their evolution on earth
from primitive to highly evolved. Engler and Prantl classification and Hutchinson
classification, etc.

Depending upon the type of system of classification organism are classified into
following kingdom system.

Kingdom system of classification

Two kingdom : Plantae Animalia

Three kingdom : Plantae Protista Animalia

Five kingdom : Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animaila

In two kingdom system of classification organisms are grouped on the basis of presence
and absence of cell wall as proposed by Linnaeus( father of taxonomy).

Three kingdom systems- Haeckel separated unicellular animals, algae and fungi on the
basis of lack of tissue differentiation and new kingdom Protista was introduced.

Five kingdom systems- R.H.Whittaker divided all the organism into five kingdom in
order to develop phylogenetic classification.

Monera– The kingdom includes all prokaryotes- mycoplasma, bacteria, actinomycetes

and cyanobacteria.

Unicellular, prokaryotes and contain the most primitive of living forms

The cells are microscopic and cell wall is generally present.

Genetic materials are not organized into nucleus and contain naked DNA.

Membrane bounded organelles are absent.

Reproduction is asexual except gene recombination.

Flagella may be present and are of single stranded.

Example- Blue-green algae, Bacteria, etc.

Bacteria are the most abundant micro-organism that can survive in all kinds of climate.

They are group of most primitive prokaryotes which live under most hostile conditions
like extreme salty area (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy area
(methanogens). They differ from other bacteria in having different cell wall structure
(absence of peptidoglycan). Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant
animals like cows and buffalo, which is responsible for production of biogas (methane)
from dung of these animals.

Eubacteria – They are called as true bacteria. They contain rigid cell wall, if motile
contain flagellum. Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae are gram positive photosynthetic
bacteria. They contain chlorophyll a and carotenoids. They may be unicellular, colonial
or filamentous, fresh water, marine or terrestrial. Some of them have specialized
heterocyst cells to perform nitrogen fixation (Nostoc and Anabaena).

Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidize inorganic substances like nitrate, nitrite, ammonia etc.
to produce energy and help in recycling of nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur etc.

Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant and act as decomposer. They are helpful in
production of curd, antibiotic and fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants. Some of them
are pathogenic and cause disease like cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.

Mycoplasma – they are the simplest free living prokaryotes. They are also known as
PPLO (Pleuropneumonia like organism). They lack cell wall and can survive without
oxygen. They cause disease in plants and animals.

Protista– Kingdom

Protista includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Eugleoids, slime mould and

Protozoans.

It includes all unicellular and colonial eukaryotes.

Most of them are aquatic forming plankton.

Mode of nutrition may be photosynthetic, saprophytic, parasitic or holozoic.

Flagella if present are 11 stranded with 9+2 arrangement of microtubules composed of
tubulin.

Genetic material consists of 2 or more DNA molecules.

They includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids) found in fresh water as well as
marine water.

In diatoms cell wall forms two thin overlapping cells which fit together as in soap box.

The siliceous indestructible cell wall pile up at the bottom of water reservoirs and form
big heaps called diatomaceous earth. It may extend for hundred meter and used for
polishing, filtration of oil and syrups. They are chief producer in oceans.

They are basically unicellular, motile, biflagellate and photosynthetic protists.

Predominate colour is golden brown but yellow, green, red and even blue also exists.

Some Dinoflagellates like Gymnodinium and Gonyaulax grow in large number in the sea
and make the water look red and cause the so called “red tide”.

They are Euglena like unicellular flagellates which possess pellicle instead of cell wall
which make their body flexible.

They have two flagella, one short and other long.

They are photosynthetic in presence of sunlight and act as predators in absence of

sunlight.

Example- Euglena, Peranema.

Slime Moulds

They are saprophytic protists and feeds on decaying twigs and leaves.

Under favorable condition, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which produce
fruiting bodies bearing spores.

The cell wall of spores contain cellulose.

The spores are dispersed by air currents.

Example- Physarum, Fuligo.

Protozoans

All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.

They are considered as primitive relatives of animals.

Amoeboids move and capture food by pseudopodia. Some are parasitic also.

Flagellated protozoans are free-living or parasitic. They have flagella.

Ciliated protozoans are aquatic and have cilia all over the body for movement.

Sporozoans includes organism that have infectious spore like stage in their life cycle.

Kingdom Fungi–

They are achlorophyllous, heterotrophic, spore forming, non-vesicular eukaryotic

organisms.

Cell wall is made up of chitin or fungal cellulose.

Reserved food is glycogen.

Mode of nutrition is saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic.

Reproduction may be vegetative (fragmentation, fission or budding), asexual (conidia,

sporangiospores or zoospores) or sexual reproduction by oospores, ascospore and
basidiospores.

Sexual cycles involves the following steps-

Plasmogamy, fusion of male and female gametes.

Karyogamy, fusion of two nuclei.

Meiosis in zygote to produce haploid spores.

Phycomycetes–
They are found in aquatic habitat and on decaying wood in moist and damp places.

The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.

Asexual reproduction by zoospores( motile) or aplanospores (non-motile).
Example- Mucus, Rhizopus, Albugo etc.

Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)

They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).

Mycelium and branched and septate and asexual spores are conidia.

Sexual spores are called ascospores produced inside the fruiting body called ascocarps.
Example- Neurospora, Asperigillus, Claviceps etc.

Basidiomycetes (The club fungi)

The mycelium is branched and septate.

Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Asexual spores are not found. Sexual

reproduction is by two vegetative or somatic cells forming basidium.

Basidiospores are produced in basidium by developing a fruiting body called

basidiocarps.

Example- Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia.

Deuteromycetes (The fungi imperfect)

Only vegetative and asexual phase is known.

Mycelium is septate and branched. Some members are saprophytes or parsites.

Example- Alternaria, Trichoderma, Colletotrichu.

Kingdom Plantae

Eukaryotic, chlorophyll bearing organism.

Life cycle is divided into diploid saprophytic and haploid gametophytic,

which alternate with each other.

Kingdom Plantae includes

Algae,

Bryophytes,

Pteridophytes,

Gymnosperms and

Angiosperms.

Kingdom Animalia

Heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and cell wall is absent in the
cell.
Mode of nutrition is holozoic and reserve food is glycogen or fats.

Sexual reproduction is by copulation between male and female followed by

embryological development.

Virus, Viroids and Lichens

Five kingdom system of classification do not includes Virus, Viroids and Lichens.

Viruses are non-cellular organisms having inert crystalline structure outside the living.
When they enter the living cell, they take over the machinery of living cell to replicate
themselves.

D.J.Ivanowsky recognized certain microbes as causal organism of mosaic disease of

tobacco.

In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material that could be DNA or
RNA. In general, virus that infect plants have single stranded RNA and virus that infect
animals have double stranded DNA.

Some common diseases caused by virus are common cold, influenza, AIDS, small pox,
leaf rolling and curling.

Bacteria feeding virus are called Bacteriophage.They are usually double stranded DNA
viruses.

The protein coat called capsid is made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the
nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

 Viroids are discovered by T.O.Diener as new infectious agent smaller than virus
causing potato spindle tuber disease. They are free RNA without protein coat.
 Lichens are symbiotic association between algae and fungi. The algal part is
called Phycobiont and fungal parts are called Mycobiont. They are good
pollution indicator as they do not grow in polluted area.

NCERT TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS SOLVED

1.Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a

period of time?
Soln. Biological classification is the scientific procedure of arranging organisms in a
hierarchical series of groups and sub-groups on the basis of their similarities and
dissimilarities. Scientists have proposed different systems of classification which
have undergone several changes from time to time.
Earlier Aristotle proposed artificial system of classification, which divided animals
and plants on basis of habitat. E.g., Aquatic (fish, whale), terrestrial (e.g., reptiles,
cattle) and aerial (e.g., bat, birds). Then, natural system of classification was based
on morphology^ anatomy, physiology, reproduction, ontogeny, cytochemistry, etc.
After natural system, organisms were classified on basis of evolutionary relationships
called phyloge¬netic system. It is based on cytotaxonomy, chemotaxOnomy,
numerical taxonomy and cladistic taxonomy.
2.State two economically important uses of:
(a) heterotrophic bacteria
(b) archaebacteria
Soln. (a) Heterotrophic bacteria: They include saprotrophic, symbiotic and parasitic
bacteria. They act as natural scavengers as they dispose off the dead bodies,
organic wastes, release raw materials for reutilisation. They also help in sewage
disposal, manure production etc. Symbiotic bacteria help in nitrogen fixation. Some
bacteria arq employed in the production of a number of industrial products like lactic
acid, curd, cheese, butter, vinegar etc. Some bacteria are used in preparation of
serum, vaccines, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics etc. e.g., Pseudomonas,
Xanthomonas, etc.

3.What is the nature of cell-wall in diatoms?

Soln. The cell walls of diatoms are called frustules. The cell wall is chiefly composed
of cellulose impregnated with glass-like silica. It is composed of two overlapping
halves (or theca) that fit together like two parts of a soap box or petri dish. The upper
half (lid) is called epitheca and the lower half (case) is called hypotheca. The outer
covering possesses very fine markings, pits, pores and ridges. The siliceous
frustules of diatoms do not decay easily. They pile up at the bottom of water
reservoirs and form big heaps called diatomite or diatomaceous earth. It may extend
for several hundred metres in certain areas from where the same can be mined.

4.Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red tides’ signify.
Soln.The rapid increase in populations of algae and other phytoplanktons, in
particular cyanobacteria, in water bodies rich in organic matter is called algal bloom.
The density of the organisms may be such that it may prevent light from passing to
lower depths in the water body. Algal blooms are caused by an increase in levels of
nitrate, a mineral ion essential for algal and bacterial growth.
The source of increased nitrate may be from agricultural fertilizers, which are
leached – into water systems from the land, or sewage effluent.
Red tides are caused by a sudden, often toxic proliferation of marine phytoplankton,
notably dinoflagellates, that colour the sea red, brown, or yellowish due to the high
concentration of the photosynthetic accessory pigments. Some dinoflagellates, such
as Gonyaulax, produce potent toxins, which may kill fish and invertebrates outright or
accumulate in the food chain, posing a hazard to humans eating shellfish and other
seafood. These phytoplanktonic blooms may be related to nutrient-rich inputs from
the land, or upwelling oceanic waters, and are initiated by the activation of cyst-like
forms lying on the sea bed.

5.How are viroids different from viruses?

Soln. Viroids are the smallest known agent of infectious diseases that contain small
single-stranded RNA molecule. They lack capsid and have no proteins associated
with them. Viroids infect only plants. Whereas, viruses have genetic material
surrounded by a protective coat of protein or lipoprotein. The genetic material of
viruses are of 4 types – double-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, single-
stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA. They infect both plants and animals.
6.Describe briefly the four major groups of protozoa.
Soln. All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or. parasites. They are
be-lieved to be primitive relatives of animals. They are classified into four groups on
the basis of locomotory organelles.
(i) Amoeboid protozoans : These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist
soil. They move and capture their prey by developing pseudopodia (false feet) as in
Amoeba. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites.
(ii)Flagellated protozoans : The members of this group are either free-living or
parasitic. They have flagella for locomotion. The parasitic forms cause diseases such
as sleeping sickness e.g., Trypanosoma.
(iii)Ciliated protozoans : These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of
the presence of thousands of cilia. They have
a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside ‘
of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water
laden with food to be steered into the gullet e.g., Paramecium. ~
(iv)Sporozoans: This includes diverse parasitic organisms that have an infectious
spore¬like stage in their life cycle. Locomotory organs are absent. The most
notorious N . is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which
causes malaria which has a staggering effect on human population.

7.Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some

plants that are partially heterotrophic?
Soln. Some insectivorous plants like Drosera,
Nepenthes, Utricularia are partially heterotrophic
plant. These plants are deficient in nitrogen
content but are otherwise autotrophic. They, trap various insects to obtain nitrogen
from them. Rest, the food i.e., carbohydrate is
manufactured by themselves.

8.What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?

Soln. A lichen is structurally organised
entity consisting of the permanent association
of a fungus and an alga. The fungal component of a lichen is called mycobiont and
the algal component is called phycobiont. Both mycobiont and phycobiont are
associated
in symbiotic union in which the fungus is predominant and alga is subordinate
partner. – ; Fungus provides the structural covering that protects alga from
unfavourable conditions,
i.e., drought, heat, etc. It also traps moisture from the atmosphere and anchors the
lichen to a rock, tree bark, leaves and other similar supports. The alga prepares
organic food by the process of photosynthesis from carbon dioxide. If the algal
component is cyanobacteria (blue-green alga), they fix atmospheric nitrogen in
addition to preparation of food.

9.Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – ‘Are viruses living or non-
living’?
Soln. Viruses are regarded as intermediate between non-living entities and living
organisms. It is very difficult to ascertain whether they are living or non-living. Some .
characters of viruses suggest their non-living nature whereas many other characters
suggest their living nature.
They resemble non-living objects in –
(i) Lacking protoplast.
(ii)Ability to get crystallised.
(iii)Inability to live independent of living cell.
(iv)High specific gravity which is found
.only in non-living objects.
(v)Absence of respiration.
(vi)Absence of energy storing system.
(vii)Absence of growth and division. Instead different parts are synthesized
separately.
Viruses resemble living beings in –
(i)Being formed of organic macromolecules which occur only in living beings.
(ii)Presence of genetic material.
(iii)Ability to multiply or reproduce although only inside living cell.
(iv)Occurrence of mutations.
(v) Occurrence of enzyme transcriptase in most viruses.
(vi)Some viruses like Pox virus contains vitamins like riboflavin and biotin.
(vii)Infectivity and host specificity.
(viii)Viruses are ‘killed’ by autoclaving and ultraviolet rays.
(ix)They breed true to their type. Even variations are inheritable.
(x) They take over biosynthetic machinery of the host cell and produce chemicals
required for their multiplication.
(xi)Viruses are responsible for a number of infectious’ diseases like common cold,
epidemic influenza, chicken pox.

10.What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?

Soln. The euglenoid flagellates are the most interesting organisms having a mixture
of animal and plant characteristics. The characteristic features are:
(i) They are unicellular flagellates.
(ii)These protists lack a definite cellulose cell wall. Instead the cells are covered by
a thin membrane known as pellicle. The pellicle is composed of protein, lipid and
carbohydrates.
(iii)One or two flagella which help these protists in active swimming are present. If
two flagella are present, then one is long and other is short. They are tinsel – shaped
i.e., with two longitudinal rows of fine hairs. Each flagellum has its own basal
granule. The two flagella join with each other at a swelling, called paraflagellar body
and finally only one long flagellum emerges out through the cytostome.
(iv)Cell at the anterior end possesses an eccentric mouth or cytostome which leads
into a flask-shaped cavity viz. gullet or cytopharynx. Gullet opens into a large basal
reservoir.
(v) At one end of the reservoir, the cytoplasm contains an orange red stigma (eye
spot). The eye spot is a curved plate with orange-red granules and contains red
pigment astaxanthin. Both paraflagellar body and eye spot act as photoreceptors.
(vi)Just below the reservoir is found a contractile vacuole having many feeding
canals. The contractile vacuole takes part in osmoregulation. It expands and pumps
its fluid contents in the reservoir.
(vii)The mode of nutrition in euglenoids is holophytic or photoautotrophic. Some
euglenoids show mixotrophic nutrition (both holophytic as well as saprobic mode).
(viii)Cytoplasm is differentiated into ectoplasm and endoplasm. Nucleus is large and
occurs roughly in middle. The envelope and nucleolus persist during cell division.
(ix)Each chloroplast is composed of a granular matrix traversed by 10-45 dense
bands and is covered by 3-membraned envelope. They contain the photo¬synthetic
pigments-chlorophyll – n, b. They store carbohydrates as paramylon bodies,
scattered throughout the cytoplasm.
(x) Asexual reproduction occurs by longitudinal binary fission. The flagellum is
duplicated before cell division.
(xi)Under unfavourable condition the euglenoids form cysts to perennate the dry
period.
(xii)Sexual reproduction is not observed.

11.Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of
genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases.
Soln. Virus (L. poisonous fluid) is a group of ultramicroscopic, non-cellular, highly
infectious agents that multiply only intracellularly- inside the living host cells without
involving growth and division. Outside the host cells, they are inert particles. They
are nucleoproteins having one or more nucleic acid molecule, either DNA or RNA,
encased in a protective coat of protein or lipoprotein. A virus consist of two parts –
nucleoid (genome) and capsid. An envelope and few enzymes are present in some
cases,
(i) Nucleoid : The nucleic acid present in the virus is called nucleoid and it represents
viral chromosome. It is made up of a single molecule of nucleic acid. It may be linear
or circular and nucleic acid can be DNA or RNA. It is the infective part of virus which
utilizes the metabolic machinery of the host cell for synthesis and assembly of viral
components.
(ii)Capsid : It is a protein covering around genetic material. Capsid have protein
subunits called capsomeres. Capsid protects nucleoid from damage from physical
and chemical agents. ,
(iii)Envelope : It is the outer loose covering present in certain viruses like animal
viruses (e.g., HIV) but rarely present in plant and bacterial viruses and made of
protein of viral origin and, lipid and carbohydrate of host. Outgrowths called spikes
may be present. Envelope proteins have subunits called peplomers. A virus without
envelope is naked virus.
(iv)Enzymes : Rarely, lysozymes are found in bacteriophages. Reverse transcriptase
enzyme (catalyses RNA to DNA synthesis) is found in some RNA viruses like HIV.
Some common viral diseases are – influenza, polio, measles, chickenpox, hepatitis,
AIDS, bird flu, SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) etc.

12.Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the

following:
(i) mode of nutrition (ii) mode of reproduction
Soln.