Revision Notes

Class 11 Biology
Chapter 2- Biological classification

Biological classification
Biological classification is defined as the process of grouping organisms
according to certain similarities.
Linnaeus proposed the two kingdoms of classification, He classified
organisms in the animal kingdom which is called Animalia, and in the
plant kingdom which is called Plantae. There were certain limitations
with the classification of two kingdoms as it does not distinguish between
eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms, and
photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms.

Five Kingdoms Classification

RH Whittaker suggested the five-kingdom classification. The
classification of these five kingdoms is as follows: Monera, Protista,
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The classification was based on the
organization of the thallus, the cell structure, mode of nutrition, the
phylogenetic relationship, and the mode of reproduction.

Five Kingdom Classification

Kingdom Monera
The bacteria are one of the main members of Monera.

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All organisms found in this kingdom are prokaryotes, It includes blue-
green algae and bacterium. They can be found in terribly extreme
habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow, and deep oceans. All
monerans are prokaryotes, i.e., do not have a definite nucleus. They can
be autotrophs, heterotrophs moreover as parasites. Cell wall is present.

Fig.2. Examples of Kingdom Monera

They are divided into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria can be thermoacidophilic (can survive in hot springs),
halophilic (survive in high salt concentrations), and methanogenic (Live
in swampy areas). Their cell wall structure differs from other monerans.
Methanogens are found in the intestines of some ruminants such as
buffalo and cows and help to produce biogas from animal dung.

Eubacteria
They are called "true bacteria". They are characterized by the presence
of a mobile flagellum and a rigid cell wall. Contains cyanobacteria
(blue-green algae). They are similar to plants as they contain chlorophyll
a. For this reason, they are called photosynthetic autotrophs.
Cyanobacteria are unicellular, filamentous algae that form colonies
which are surrounded by a gelatinous sheath. Some have special
structures known as heterocysts that help in nitrogen fixation in place.
For example Nostoc.

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Fig.3. Nostoc

Chemosynthetic autotrophs- These bacteria can oxidize certain

inorganic substances such as nitrites, nitrates. The energy which is
released during the process of oxidation is used in the production of
ATP.
Bacteria can reproduce asexually by a process called the binary fission.
They can also reproduce through spores if the situation is not favorable.
Mycoplasma is also classified found under Monera. They have no cell
wall and can easily survive under anaerobic conditions. Mycoplasmas
are known to be the smallest living organism.

Kingdom Protista
Single-celled eukaryotes placed under the kingdom Protista. They are
mostly aquatic in nature. They are found to be unicellular, eukaryotic
organisms. They have a well-defined nucleus that is surrounded by the
nuclear membrane. They can move through both cilia and flagella,
respiration can be both aerobic and anaerobic, and the mode of
reproduction can be both sexual and asexual.
They are divided into Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids,
Slime moulds, and Protozoans.

1. Chrysophytes
It consists of both diatoms and golden algae. They live in both fresh and
marine water. They are mostly photosynthetic. Silica is found in their
cell wall and this is the reason that their cell wall is indestructible and is
responsible for the formation of diatomaceous earth. They are the main
producers found in the oceans. They are mostly unicellular flagellates.

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they are amoeboid.

Fig.4. Diatoms

2. Dinoflagellates
These types of organisms are marine and perform photosynthesis. They
can be of different colours, for example, yellow, brown, red, or blue. The
appearance of colour is due to the presence of different coloured
pigments present in the cells of the dinoflagellates. The cell wall is made
up of cellulose. They have 2 flagella, with one flagellum placed
longitudinally and the other flagella placed transversely. Some of the
examples are- Gonyaulax catenella, Noctiluca scintillans.

Fig.5. Example of Dinoflagellates

3. Euglenoids
Euglenoids are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water; They are
surrounded by a protein-rich layer called pellicle They have one short
flagellum and one long flagellum; they can behave as both autotrophic

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and heterotrophic organisms; for example Euglena.
Most euglenoids have chloroplasts so that they can synthesize their own
food. The food reserves found in the euglenoids are the paramylon
(carbohydrate).

Fig.6. Euglena

4. Slime moulds
They are saprophytic in nature, and under favourable conditions form
aggregates known as plasmodium.
They form fruiting bodies with spores under unfavourable conditions,
they have true cell walls and are extremely resistant to adverse conditions.

5. Protozoan like protists

They are known to be heterotrophs. They can live as both predators as
well as parasites. Protozoans are of four types-
● Amoeboid protozoa are found in freshwater, moist soil, or
seawater and have pseudopodia to ingest food particles such as in
Amoeba
● Flagellate protozoa can be of both types i.e free-living or
parasitic. This group of organisms is responsible for various
parasitic diseases. For example; Trypanosoma causes sleeping
sickness.
● Ciliated protozoa have thousands of cilia. The movement of the
cilia helps them to move forward or backwards. It also helps in
getting nourishment from the outside. For example; Paramecium.

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Fig.7. Paramecium

● Sporozoa forms reproductive cells known as spores. They are

pathogenic and parasitic. For example, the Plasmodium
species causes malaria. Reproduction can be of both types i.e
asexual or sexual.

Fig.8. Plasmodium species

Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are naturally heterotrophic; some feed on dead organic matter and
are called saprophytes, and some can feed on living organisms known as
parasites. Some fungi can live in mutual relationships with other
organisms such as algae, they are called lichens. These types of fungi are
called symbionts.
Lichens are symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae and
mycorrhiza is the symbiotic relationship between fungi and the roots of
higher plants.
Reproduction in fungi can occur by many methods such as budding,
fragmentation, and fission. Asexual reproduction occurs by means of

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spores, which are known as conidia, zoospores, or sporangiospores.
Sexual reproduction takes place through different spores known as
oospores, ascospores, and basidiospores.
In fungi, there are three steps in a sexual cycle:
the first step is protoplasmic fusion, known as plasmogamy, then the
fusion of nuclei occurs known as karyogamy which leads tothe
formation of the zygote. Then finally, the meiosis of the zygote leads to
the formation of the spores.
The Mycelium is known as the vegetative part of the fungus. The hypha
network is called the mycelium. During the sexual cycle of fungi, two
haploid hyphae fuse to form diploid cells. The kingdom fungi are
divided into different classes.-
● Phycomycetes (lower fungi)- Asexual reproduction occurs
through motile spores known as zoospores, and immobile spores
are known as aplanospores. The spores are produced within the
sporangium. The zygospore is formed by the fusion of the
gametes. The mycelium is coenocytic (several nuclei) and
multicellular. For example, Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo.

Fig.9. Common Fungi

● Ascomycetes (sac fungi)- They can be both saprophytic and
parasitic. Asexual reproduction occurs through conidia. Sexual
reproduction occurs through ascospores; branched and septate
mycelium is found in Ascomycetes; for example Penicillium,
Aspergillus, Claviceps, etc.

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Fig.10. Ascomycetes

● Basidiomycetes (club fungi)- Vegetative reproduction takes

place through the process of fragmentation. Sexual organs are
absent. Plasmogamy between two vegetative or somatic cells
leads to the formation of the basidium. The basidium undergoes
karyogamy and meiosis to form four basidiospores, for example,
Agaricus (mushrooms), Ustilago (fire rot), etc.
● Deuteromycetes are commonly known as imperfect fungi
because they do not reproduce sexually at any stage of their life
cycle. Sexual reproduction occurs through conidia. The
mycelium is septate and branched; for example Alternaria,
Trichoderma, etc.
● Zygomycetes (conjugation fungi) are a primitive group of
fungi. Asexual reproduction takes place by non-motile
sporangiospores. For example, Rhizopus.

Kingdom Plantae
It includes all eukaryotic, multicellular, and photosynthetic plants.
The characteristics of the members of Plantae are as follows:
● Most of them are eukaryotic in nature.
● The main pigment present is chlorophyll.
● Its cell wall is made up of cellulose.

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 ● Photosynthesis helps in the synthesis of food.
● The process of reproduction can be both sexual and asexual.
● They represent the phenomenon of alternation of generations,
i.e., diploid sporophytes, and haploid gametophytes.

Kingdom Animalia
These types of organisms are heterotrophic and eukaryotic. Some of the
characteristics of the members of Animalia are as follows:
● They are multicellular organisms of various size.
● The organ systems are well developed such as the skeletal
system, circulatory system, respiratory system, etc.
● They are found to be bilaterally symmetrical.
● They also have well-developed locomotory organs.
● Breathing takes place through gills, book lungs, book gills, skin,
lungs, etc.
● Membrane-bound cell organelles are present and nucleus is
bounded by a nuclear membrane.
● The circulation takes place through the blood, blood vessels, and
the heart.
● Reproduction takes place through the formation of haploid
gametes. The fusion of the gametes forms a diploid zygote that
divides to form a new diploid organism.
● The kidneys are the most important excretory organ.

Viruses
The viruses are acellular structures and therefore do not find a place in
Whittaker’s five kingdom classification. They consist of nucleic acid
(either DNA or RNA) that is surrounded by a protein coat. These viruses
can grow and multiply only within a host cell. Viruses exist as crystals
outside the host cell. They cause disease and severely damage the host.
For example; variola causes smallpox, HIV (human immunodeficiency
virus) causes AIDS, etc.

Viroids
They are the smallest known infectious structures and consist only of
nucleic acid without a protein shell.

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Lichens
They are known to be the symbiotic associations of algae and fungi. The
algal component are autotrophic and synthesize and provide food. The
fungal component offers protection and shelter.

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