Revision Notes

Class 11 - Biology
Chapter 8 - Cell: The unit of life

The cell is the smallest, basic structural, and functional unit of living things; hence
it is generally referred to as ‘building blocks of life. Cells are capable of
independent existence and performing essential functions of life. All organisms
including plants, animals are made up of one or more cells and all that cells come
from pre-existing cells. Robert Hooke was the scientist who first discovered cells
in a piece of cork.

Different types of cell

In the human body, different types of cells are present such as hepatocytes in the
liver, nephrons in the kidney, neurons in the brain, etc. The different types of cells
are grouped to form tissues. These tissues perform specific functions.

Fig.1. Different types of cells

Cell theory

In 1839, two scientists named Schleiden who was a German botanist, and Schwann
who was a British zoologist, announced the cell theory. The modern theory of the
cell includes-
• Every living organism is made up of cells.
• The cell is said to be the basic structural and functional unit of living things.

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• All cells arise from the pre-existing cells by division method and this was given by
Rudolf Virchow.
• All energy flow takes place within the cells.
• Cells contain the hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during
cell division.
• All cells have the same chemical composition.

Structure of eukaryotic cells

Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane is a dynamic, fluid-structure that is present in the external
boundary of the cell and separates the interior of the cell from the outside
environment. It is selectively permeable Based on the can that only allows specific
solutes to pass through it. In 1972, Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed
the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane. According to this model, the
membrane is a quasi-fluid structure in which proteins are embedded throughout the
lipid bilayer and this lipid bilayer provides fluidity and elasticity to the membrane.
The bilayer is composed of two layers of amphipathic molecules that contain polar
heads and nonpolar tails.

Fig. 2. Structure of the plasma membrane

Hydrophobic interactions are the primary forces for organizing lipid bilayer. There
are three types of lipid and two types of protein present in the plasma membrane.
Lipids are phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterol and the proteins are peripheral
proteins and integral proteins. Peripheral proteins are proteins that are held with the
bilayer loosely and can be easily removed. While the integral proteins are proteins
that are held in the lipid bilayer very tightly and cannot be removed easily.

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Cell Wall
The cell wall is a rigid non-living structure that surrounds the plasma membrane.
The cell wall is mostly found in plant and fungal cells that provide shape to the cell.
It also protects the cell against mechanical damage or infection and also prevents
the entry of unwanted macromolecules.
Cell walls are important for cell-to-cell interaction and transport. The cell wall is
made up of three parts i.e., primary wall, middle lamella, and secondary wall.
Plasmodesmata are the connections that are present between the cytoplasm of the
neighboring cells and the middle lamella.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are specialized cell organelle which is composed of RNAs and proteins
hence, they are known as ribonucleoprotein. Ribosomes units come together to
translate genetic information which is stored in messenger RNA (mRNA) into
proteins. Functional ribosomes consist of two subunits of unequal size, known as
large and small subunits where small subunits read mRNA and large subunits form
a polypeptide chain of amino acids. Eukaryotic cells generally possess two types of
ribosomes: cytosolic and organellar. The ribosome found in prokaryotes is the 70S
and 80S in eukaryotes where S stands for sedimentation coefficient. It is the ratio
of a velocity to the centrifugal acceleration that helps to measure the particle's size
based on the sedimentation rate.

Fig. 3. Structure of the ribosomes

Endoplasmic reticulum
It is the largest single membrane-bound intracellular compartment which is mainly
found in eukaryotic cells. It is formed by an interconnected network of closed and
flattened membrane-bound structures and the membrane-enclosed sac is called the

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lumen. Based on the presence or absence of ribosomes, ER can be of two types i.e.,
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
When ribosomes are present on ER, it gives a rough appearance to the structure
hence it is known as rough ER. When ribosomes are absent in the ER membrane,
it is known as smooth ER.

Proteins synthesized by ribosomes that are present on the membrane of RER enter
into the lumen by the process of co-translational translocation. Before reaching
their final destination there are five principal modifications of proteins that take
place in the lumen. These modifications are - addition and processing of
carbohydrates, formation of disulfide bonds, proper folding, specific proteolytic
cleavages, and assembly into multimeric proteins. The SER performs different
functions like the synthesis of essential lipids, steroid hormones, metabolism of
carbohydrates, detoxification, and calcium regulation.

Golgi complex/Golgi apparatus:

It is a single membrane-bound organelle that forms a part of the endomembrane
system. Golgi complex is mainly found in the cytosol of the eukaryotic cells and is
made up of flattened membrane sacs known as cisternae. A Golgi stack normally
contains 4-8 cisternae. Each Golgi stack has two faces- the cis face and the trans
face. Both faces are also called the entry face and exit face, respectively. The main
functions of the Golgi apparatus include protein packaging and secretion.

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 Fig. 5. Structure of Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes
It is a single membrane-enclosed organelle that contains hydrolytic enzymes that are
responsible for the breakdown of various biomolecules. These hydrolytic enzymes
include nucleases, proteases, lipases, glycosidases, phosphatase, phospholipases,
and sulphatases. For optimal activity, the enzyme requires an acidic environment
inside the lysosomes with a pH of about 5.0. There remains present a proton pump
inside the lysosomal membrane. This proton pump transports the proton from inside
the membrane using ATP as a source of energy. Lysosomes are responsible for the
digestion of both intracellular as well as extracellular materials as they can break
down virus particles or bacteria in the phagocytosis of macrophages.

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Vacuoles
Fluid-filled vesicles are known as vacuoles and are mostly found in the cytoplasmic
matrix of the cell. There is a membrane that surrounds the vacuole known as
tonoplast. Similar to the pH of lysosomes the lumen's pH is also acidic. Vacuoles in
plant cells are larger than those in animal cells and they contain water, dissolved
inorganic ions, sugars, enzymes, etc. it is different from another type of vacuole
called contractile vacuole because they perform osmoregulation and pumps excess
water out of the cell. The example includes the vacuole in Amoeba.

Mitochondria:
It is found in all eukaryotic cells and is known as a site for aerobic respiration. They
are called the powerhouse of the cell because it synthesizes ATP as the energy
currency of the cell. They are the double membrane-bound cell organelle that
contains circular DNA molecules and ribosomes. The space present between the
outer and the inner membrane is known as intermembrane space. The inner
membrane structure is complex because it is convoluted to form cristae. Cristae help
in increasing the surface area inside the mitochondria.
The inner membrane is rich in phospholipid known as cardiolipin that makes the
membrane-impermeable to solutes. The inner membrane contains enzyme
complexes known as ATP synthase or F0-F1 ATPase and they play an important
role in the synthesis of ATP molecules.

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Plastids
They are double-membrane cell organelle that is generally found in algae and plant
cells. Like mitochondria, they also contain double-stranded DNA and ribosomes in
their structure. They are divided into three different types- leucoplast, chromoplast,
and chloroplast. Plastids contain a pigment that plays an important role in
photosynthesis and is also responsible for the synthesis and storage of food.
The Chloroplast surrounds the fluid-filled structure known as stroma that contains a
stack of sacs called a granum. There are some organized flattened membranous sacs
called the thylakoids. Each granum is connected to the other with the help of flat
membranous tubules known as stroma lamellae.

chromoplasts are the type of plastids that are responsible for pigment synthesis and
storage. They give different colors to the fruit, flowers, and aging leaves like yellow,
orange, or red colors.
However, the leucoplast is colorless plastids that are generally present in unexposed
areas of plants. It plays an important role in the storage of starch, lipid, and proteins
and is divided into three different parts- amyloplast that stores starch, Elaioplast that
stores lipids in fats, proteinoplast stores proteins.

Nucleus
The nucleus is a double membrane structure found in all eukaryotic cells except
RBCs (red blood cells). It contains the majority of the genetic material that transfers
from parents to offspring during cell division. In the nucleus, the DNA is packed in
the form of chromosomes with histones proteins, it controls the function and growth

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of the cell. The gene is a fragment of DNA that codes for a protein.
There are two types of chromosomes found- Euchromatin and heterochromatin
where euchromatin is a less compact structure and can be transcribed into mRNA.
while Heterochromatin is a compact structure and hence cannot be transcribed into
mRNA.
The Nuclear membrane is a double-layered system that is impermeable to large
molecules. The outer layer is combined with the Endoplasmic reticulum. The
presence of nuclear pores in the membrane regulates the movement of solutes in
and out of the nucleus. A perinuclear is a space that presents between these two
layers.
The nucleolus is the solid and spherical structure that is present inside the nucleus
of eukaryotic cells. It is involved in the assembly of ribosomes during protein
synthesis. It disappears during the cell division and reappears after the cell division.

Fig. 10. Structure of nucleus

Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound cell organelles that are mainly found in all
eukaryotic cells. They contain oxidative enzymes that help in various metabolic
activities. The major function of peroxisomes is the breakdown of fatty acids.
Peroxisomes can be derived from the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the cell.
Proteins found in peroxisomes are matrix soluble proteins and membrane proteins
known as peroxins.

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Cytoskeleton:
It is made up of a network of proteinaceous filaments in the cytoplasm that provides
mechanical support to the cells. The cytoskeleton maintains the shape of the cell
and helps in cell motility. It also organizes the organelles and facilitates the
movement of solutes across the cell.

Cilia and Flagella:

They are the hairy outgrowths that help in the locomotion of the organisms. Cilia are
the short structure that helps in attachment while flagella are relatively long
structures in the form of a whip and it helps in movement of the organism. They are

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covered by a plasma membrane and possess a core made from numerous
microtubules running parallel to the long axis. This core is called an axoneme which
shows a 9+2 arrangement. Here 9 is the number of pairs of radially arranged
microtubule doublets and 2 is the central pair of microtubules.

Centrosomes and centrioles:

Centrioles are a pair of cylindrical structures that compose the centrosome.
Centrioles are perpendicular to each other and present in the cytoplasm where they
help in organizing microtubules. It is made up of nine symmetrically arranged
peripheral triplet fibrils of tubulin protein. The proteinaceous part that presents in
the center of the centriole is called a hub; it is connected by spokes to the peripheral
fibrils. The centrioles form the network of threads across the cell during cell division.
Apart from this, they also form the base of flagella.

Structure of a prokaryotic cell:

Prokaryotic cells are small, single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
Prokaryotes mainly include bacteria, mycoplasma, cyanobacteria, and PPLOs. The
prokaryotes are much smaller and more rapidly dividing than eukaryotes. They
have generally been divided asexually by binary fission and conjugation. They vary
in shape and size but their basic organization remains the same. In prokaryotes, a
cell wall surrounds the cell except for mycoplasma. In the case of bacteria, they
also contain an extra circular DNA called plasmids. They lack all cell organelles
except for ribosomes where protein synthesis takes place.

In motile bacterial cells, they possess one or more flagella. A flagellum is a long
structure in the form of a whip that is made up of basic parts: filament, hook, and
the basal body. A pilus can also help the bacteria in conjugation while Pili and
fimbriae help in attachment to substrate or host.

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