Atmosphere

Chapter 13
Section 1
Climate

and Climate
Section 2
The Ozone Shield
Section 3
Climate Change

Why It Matters

Change
Hurricanes need warm water
and low atmospheric pressure
to form and grow. These
conditions are most often
found in the low latitudes of
the tropics. So hurricanes tend
to form in the tropics near the
equator.
An almanac is a type of
calendar that includes weather
forecasts for every day of
the year. Why would this
information be useful?

CASESTUDY
Learn how ice cores provide
information about Earth’s
climate history in the case study
Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past
Climates on page 330.

Online
ENVironmental Science
HMDScience.com

Go online to access additional

resources, including labs,
worksheets, multimedia, and
©NASA

resources in Spanish.

326
 Section 1
Climate Objectives

Explain the difference between

weather and climate.
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a particular place at a particular moment.
Climate is the long-term prevailing weather conditions at a particular place. In the Identify four factors that
U.S., local climate is the average of weather conditions over the past 30 years. determine climate.
To understand the difference between weather and climate, consider Seattle,
Washington, and Phoenix, Arizona. These two cities may have the same weather Explain why different parts of
on a particular day. For example, it may be raining, warm, or windy in both places. Earth have different climates.
But their climates are quite different. Seattle’s climate is cool and moist, whereas
Phoenix’s climate is hot and dry. Explain what causes the
seasons.

What Factors Determine Climate?

Climate is determined by a variety of factors. These factors include
latitude, global air circulation patterns, oceanic circulation patterns,
Key Terms
topography, solar activity, and volcanic activity. The most important of climate
these factors is distance from the equator. For example, the two locations latitude
shown in Figure 1.1 have different climates mostly because they are at El Niño
dif­ferent distances from the equator. La Niña

Figure 1.1

Climate Differences At left is Trunk Bay on the island of St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands,
which is located near the equator. At right is Paradise Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula.
(l) ©David Coleman/Alamy Images; (r) ©Krys Bailey/Alamy Images

Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change 327

ECOFACT Latitude
Coral Reefs The distance from the equator measured in degrees north or south of
Coral reefs need sunlight to grow. the equator is called latitude. The equator is located at 0° latitude. The
They require water that is clear, warm, most northerly latitude is the North Pole, at 90° north, whereas the most
and has a fairly stable temperature. southerly latitude is the South Pole, at 90° south.
For these reasons, coral reefs occur
in shallow waters of tropical oceans
between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° Low Latitudes
north latitude) and the Tropic of Latitude influences climate because the amount of solar energy an area
Capricorn (23.5° south latitude). Water of Earth receives depends on its latitude. More solar energy falls on areas
between these latitudes has an annual that are near the equator than on areas that are closer to the poles, as
average temperature of about 21°C,
shown in Figure 1.2. The incoming solar energy is concentrated on a
which corals need to survive.
relatively small surface area at the equator.
In regions near the equator, night and day are both about 12 hours
long throughout the year. In addition, temperatures are high year-round
in areas close to sea level.

High Latitudes
The amount of energy arriving at the surface is lower in regions closer to
the poles than it is near the equator. In the northern and southern lati-
tudes, sunlight hits Earth at an oblique angle and spreads over a larger
surface area than it does at the equator. Yearly average temperatures near
the poles are therefore lower than they are at the equator. The hours of
daylight also vary. At 45° north and south latitude, there is as much as 16
hours of daylight each day in summer and as little as 8 hours of sunlight
each day in winter. Near the poles, the sun sets for only a few hours each
day in summer and rises for only a few hours each day in winter.

Figure 1.2

Latitude Near the equator, sunlight hits Earth vertically. The sunlight is concentrated on a
smaller surface area at the equator. Away from the equator, sunlight hits Earth at an oblique
angle and spreads over a larger surface area.

critical thinking
Explain Why do the North Pole and the South Pole experience 24 hours of
daylight at different times of the year?

328 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

Global Air Circulation ECOFACT
Three important properties of air illustrate how air circulation affects Deserts to METEOROLOGY
Connect
climate. First, cold air sinks because it is denser than warm air. As cold Air that is warmed at the equator rises
air sinks, it compresses and warms. Second, warm air rises. It expands and flows northward and southward
and cools at it rises. Third, warm air can hold more water vapor than cold to 30° north and south latitude, where
air can. Therefore, when warm air cools, the water vapor it contains may it sinks. The sinking air is compressed
condense into liquid water to form rain, snow, or fog. and its temperature increases. As the
temperature of the air increases, the
Solar energy warms the ground, which warms the air above it. Cooler, air is able to hold a larger quantity
denser air sinks and pushes the warm air up. The cold air increases the of water vapor. Evaporation from the
pressure on Earth’s surface. Air moves from areas of high pressure to land surface is so great beneath these
areas of low pressure. This movement of air is called wind. As Earth sinking warm air masses that little
rotates, different latitudes receive different amounts of solar energy, water returns to Earth in the form of
which results in the pattern of global air circulation shown in Figure 1.3. precipitation. Thus, most of Earth’s
This circulation pattern determines Earth’s precipitation pattern. For deserts lie at 30° north and south
example, the intense solar energy striking Earth’s surface at the equator latitude.
causes the surface as well as the air above the equator to become very
warm. The warm air can hold large amounts of water that evaporate from
the equatorial oceans and land. As the warm air rises, however, it cools,
which reduces some of its ability to hold water. Thus, areas near the Connect to METEOROLOGY
equator receive large amounts of rain.
Tornadoes in the United
States
Figure 1.3 Tornadoes occur almost exclusively
in the United States and southern
Global Air Circulation Three belts of prevailing winds occur in each hemisphere.
Canada. Cold, dry air from the north
The warming and cooling of air produces pressure belts every 30° of latitude.
and warm, moist air from the south
90°N
often collide on the flat region of the
Great Plains. When this happens, a
low pressure area is formed and air
Easterlies
60°N masses spiral around it, creating
Westerlies funnel clouds.

30°N

Trade winds

0° Equator

Trade winds

30°S

Westerlies
60°S
Easterlies

90°S Cool air

Warm air

Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change 329

QUICKLAB Areas of High and Low Pressures
Investigate Prevailing Winds Cool air normally sinks, creating areas of high pressure. Cool air over
Procedure the equator cannot sink because hot air is rising below the cool air. As a
1. Insert a push-pin through the result, warm, less-dense air at the equator forms an area of lower pres-
center of a 10 in paper plate. sure. So, the cool air rises and is forced away from the equator toward the
2. Push the pointed end of the pin into North and South Poles. At about 30° north latitude and 30° south latitude,
the eraser end of a pencil. some of this cool air sinks back down to Earth’s surface. The air becomes
3. Spin the plate in a warmer as it descends. The warm, dry air moves across the surface of
counterclockwise direction. Earth and causes water to evaporate from the land below, which creates
4. While the plate is spinning, try to dry conditions.
draw a straight line from the center Air descending at 30° north latitude and 30° south latitude either
of the plate to the outer edge.
moves toward the equator or toward the poles. Air moving toward the
Analysis poles warms while it is near Earth’s surface. At about 60° north latitude
Relate what you observed to the and 60° south latitude, this air collides with cold air traveling from the
movement of winds and the rotation of poles. The warm air is pushed up. When this rising air reaches the top of
Earth. the troposphere, a small amount of the air returns back to the circulation
pattern between 60° and 30° north latitude and 60° and 30° south latitude.
However, most of this uplifted air is forced toward the poles. Cold, dry air
descends at the poles, which are essentially very cold deserts.

CASESTUDY

Ice Cores: Reconstructing

Past Climates
Imagine having at your fingertips
a record of Earth’s climate that
extends back several thousand
years. Today, ice cores are providing
scientists an indirect glimpse of
Earth’s climate history. These ice
cores have been drilled out of ice
sheets thousands of meters thick in
Canada, Greenland, and Antarctica.
How do scientists reconstruct
the climate history of our planet from ice cores? As snow falls to Earth, With the help of ice cores,
the snow carries substances that are in the air at the time. If snow falls scientists are beginning to
in a cold climate where it does not melt, the snow turns to ice because reconstruct Earth’s climate
of the weight of the snow above it. The substances contained in snow, history over hundreds of
thousands of years.
©Natural Resources Canada

such as soot, dust, volcanic ash, and chemical compounds, are buried
year after year, one layer on top of another. Air between snowflakes
and grains becomes trapped in bubbles when the snow is compacted.
These bubbles of air can provide information about the composition of
the atmosphere over time.

330 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Prevailing Winds Figure 1.4
Winds that blow predominantly in one direction throughout
Prevailing Winds The red areas indicate fires
the year are called prevailing winds. Because of the rota-
around Sydney, Australia, at about 32° south. The
tion of Earth, these winds do not blow directly northward or smoke is blown by the prevailing westerly winds.
southward. Instead these winds are deflected to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere. They are deflected to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Belts of prevailing winds blow most of the time in both
hemispheres between 30° north and south latitudes and the
equator. These belts of wind are called the trade winds. The
trade winds blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemi-
sphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.
Prevailing winds known as the westerlies are produced
between 30° and 60° north latitudes and 30° and 60° south
latitudes. In the Northern Hemisphere, these westerlies
are southwest winds. In the Southern Hemisphere, these
westerlies are northwest winds, as shown in Figure 1.4. The
polar easterlies blow from the poles to 60° north and south
latitudes.

Whether scientists work on

ice cores in the field or in the
laboratory, all ice cores must
be handled in such a way
that the cores do not become
contaminated by atmospheric
pollutants.

Scientists can date ice cores based on differences that

exist between snow layers that are deposited in the winter
and in the summer. Knowing these differences allows
Critical Thinking
(tr) ©GSFC/NASA; (cr) ©Getty Images; (cl) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

scientists to count and place dates with the annual layers

of ice.
Scientists can discover important events in Earth’s
climate history by studying ice cores. For example, volcanoes Critical Thinking
produce large quantities of dust, so a history of volcanic 1. Evaluate Viewpoints How might information
activity is preserved in ice cores. A record of concentrations about past carbon dioxide concentrations on
of carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, has also Earth contribute to scientists’ understanding of
been preserved in air bubbles trapped in the ice. These ice present carbon dioxide concentrations?
cores provide evidence that greenhouse gas concentrations 2. Apply What information, besides what is
have changed in the past. Evidence of increases in global mentioned in this Case Study, might scientists
temperature of several Celsius degrees over several decades learn about Earth’s climatic history from ice
has been discovered in ice cores from thousands of years cores?
ago by analyzing isotopes in the ice.

Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change 331

 Figure 1.5

El Niño Southern
Oscillation The El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) is a periodic change
in the location of warm and cold water
masses in the Pacific Ocean. The phase
of ENSO in which the eastern Pacific
surface water is warm is called El Niño,
and the phase in which it is cool is
called La Niña.

ECOFACT

Oceanic Circulation Patterns

Ocean currents have a great effect on climate because water holds large
amounts of energy as heat. The movement of surface ocean currents is
caused mostly by winds and the rotation of Earth. These surface currents
redistribute warm and cool masses of water around the planet. Some
surface currents warm or cool coastal areas year-round. Surface currents
affect the climate in many parts of the world. Here, we will only discuss
surface currents that change their pattern of circulation over time.
ECOFACT
Temperature Inversions
The changes in ocean surface
El Niño—Southern Oscillation
temperatures associated with El El Niño (el NEEN yoh) refers to conditions where the waters near the equator
Niño and La Niña impact climate on in the Pacific Ocean are warmer than normal. During an El Niño, the strong
a global scale. Shifts in temperature winds that usually push warm water to the western Pacific Ocean and allow
gradients can also be important on a cool water to push up from below in the eastern Pacific Ocean weaken.
local scale. For example, a temperature This moves warm water into the equatorial Pacific. During El Niño, there is
inversion exists when air temperature increased rainfall in the southern half of the United States and in equatorial
increases with height above Earth’s South America. In 1982, up to 100 inches of rain fell during a six month
surface. Inversions often form during period in Ecuador and northern Peru. What had been a coastal desert
the summer when large domes of high was transformed temporarily into a grassland. El Niño causes drought in
pressure tend to dominate weather Indonesia and Australia.
conditions. Such inversions can cause
During La Niña (lah NEEN yah), the water in the eastern Pacific Ocean
long-lasting air pollution because they
is cooler than usual. El Niño and La Niña are opposite phases of the El
keep the air near the surface from rising
Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. El Niño is the warm phase of the
©NASA

and mixing with cleaner air above.

cycle, and La Niña is the cold phase, as illustrated in Figure 1.5.

332 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land

 Figure 1.6

Rain Shadow Effect Moist ocean air moves up the

coastal side of a mountain range. The air cools and
releases its moisture as rain or snow. Air then
becomes drier as it crosses the range. When
the dry air descends on the inland side of
the mountains, the air warms and draws
up moisture from the surface.

Topography
Mount Kilimanjaro, a 5,896 m extinct volcano in Tanzania, is about Figure 1.7
3° south of the equator, but snow covers its peak year-round. Kilimanjaro
illustrates the important effect of height above sea level (elevation) on Sun Cycle The sun has an 11-
climate. Temperatures fall by about 6°C (about 11°F) for every 1,000 m year cycle in which it goes from a
maximum of activity to a minimum
increase in elevation.
and back to maximum.
Mountains and mountain ranges also influence the distribution of
precipitation. For example, consider the Sierra Nevada mountains of
California. Warm air from the Pacific Ocean blows east, hits the moun-
tains, and rises. As the air rises, it cools, which causes it to rain on the
western side of the mountains. By the time the air reaches the eastern
side of the mountains, it is dry. This effect is known as a rain shadow,
as shown in Figure 1.6.

Other Influences on Earth’s Climate

Both the sun and volcanic eruptions influence Earth’s climate. At a
solar maximum, shown in Figure 1.7, the sun emits an increased amount
of ultraviolet (UV) radiation. UV radiation produces more ozone,
©Lunar and Planetary Institute/NASA

warming the stratosphere. The increased radiation can also warm the
lower atmosphere and surface of Earth a little. Check for Understanding
In large-scale volcanic eruptions, sulfur dioxide gas can reach the Relate How do large-scale volcanic
upper atmosphere. The sulfur dioxide gas reacts with smaller amounts eruptions influence Earth’s climate?
of water vapor and dust in the stratosphere. This reaction forms a
bright layer of haze that reflects enough sunlight to cause the global
temperature to decrease.

Chapter 13: Atmosphere and Climate Change 333

 Figure 1.8

Earth’s Seasons Because of Earth’s

tilt, the angle at which the sun’s rays
strike Earth changes as Earth orbits the
sun. This change in angle accounts for
seasonal climate differences around
the world. The seasons for the Northern
Connect
Hemisphere MATH
toare shown here.

Connect to MATH Seasonal Changes in Climate

Precipitation Extremes
You know that temperature and precipitation change with the seasons.
on Earth
But do you know what causes the seasons? As shown in Figure 1.8, the
Cherrapunji, India, which is located
in eastern India near the border of seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s axis (about 23.5° relative to the plane
Bangladesh, is the wettest spot on of its orbit). Because of this tilt, the angle at which the sun’s rays strike
Earth. Cherrapunji has an annual Earth changes as Earth moves around the sun.
average precipitation of 1,065 cm. During summer in the Northern Hemisphere, the Northern Hemi-
Arica, Chile, is located in extreme sphere tilts toward the sun and receives direct sunlight. The number of
northern Chile near the Peruvian hours of daylight is greatest in the summer. Therefore, the amount of time
border. Arica is the driest spot on available for the sun to warm Earth becomes greater. During summer in
Earth and has an annual average the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern Hemisphere tilts away from the
precipitation of 0.8 mm. What is the sun and receives less direct sunlight. During summer in the Southern
difference in millimeters between Hemisphere, the situation is reversed. The Southern Hemisphere is tilted
the annual average precipitation in toward the sun, whereas the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away.
Cherrapunji and the annual average
precipitation in Arica?

Section 1 Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain the difference between weather and 5. Relating Concepts At the equator, there
climate. are no summers or winters, only wet and dry
seasons. Write a paragraph that explains why
2. Identify four factors that determine climate.
this is the case.
3. Explain why different parts of Earth have
6. Analyzing Processes If Earth were not tilted
different climates.
in its orbit, how would the climates and seasons
4. Explain what causes the seasons. be affected at the equator and between 30° north
and south latitudes?

334 Unit 4: Water, Air, and Land