a L UNIT 1: Sustainable Development Pronunciation Most recurring sounds (plural morpheme /iz/ , /-8/, /-2/ and past morpheme /-t/, /-d/, Fid/) In English, the suffix -s' is used to mark plural in nouns, singular forms of verbs, poss essiveness or contracted forms. However, it is pronounced differently. Follow the exa mples. Example: buses /-iz/ texts /-s/ bags /-2/ Pronunciation tips: © If words end in /s/,/{/, /d3/, /2/,/ J/,/3/ sounds the ‘_s' is pronounced as Jil /, /v/ sounds the's’ © If words end in /b/, /d/,/g/, MM/, /rn/, /n/, /n/, Me, /D/, / is pronounced as /-z/ «If words end in /f/, /k/ /p/,/V, /8/ sounds the ast morpheme /-d/: In English, regular verbs take the suffix /-(e)d/ to mark s pronounced as /-s/ *P past tense « Pastmorphemes added to regular verbs ~d, or-ed are pronounced as /-t/, / -d/ or /id/ Pronunciation Tips: There are three simple rules that help to pronounce past morphe mes correctly. If the verb base ends with a voiceless sound, /p/,/ f/,/ k/,/ s/,/ sh/, /ch/,/ th / then the ending -ed sounds like "t". If the verb base ends in a voiced sound,/ b/, /v/, /g/,/2/,/j/, /th/, /V/,/m,/ /n/, /t / then the ending -ed sounds like “d”. «If the verb base ends in a “t’ or “d” sound then the ending sounds like “id” o ru Public Speech | : Ia L I. Steps in public speech: Step I: select a topic Step Il: prepare your speech Step Ill: Practice Step IV: presentation Organization of the speech There are three parts of a public speech (introduction, body and conclusion) i Introduction — is the beginning of the speech where you have to introdu ce yourself, the topic that you will speak on and gather the audience's in terest. Body ~ is the main part of the speech that contains all supporting detai Is and facts about your topic. Here it is important to use connecting wor ds (for example, though, on the other hand, similarly, first, in conclusion, ‘to summarize, etc. ) to present your points in a logical order and maintai ni coherence. Conclusion - Summarize your main points and restate the purpose of th e speech. Vocabulary Skills Guessing Meanings from Context Context is a word, a group of words, or sentences that surround unknown words. A Context Clue is a hint from the rest of the sentence or paragraph that helps you to u nderstand the meaning of the unknown word. | Ia L Types of Context Clues There are different types of context clues such as; Definition, Restatement, Example, Contrast, Cause and Effect & Inference. i. Definition Awriter may help readers understand an unfamiliar word by giving the definition of a word directly. Itmay be signaled by one of these expressions: is/are, is/ are called, is/are defined a s, is/are described as, is/are known as, mean/which mean, etc. For example: 1. Semantics is the study of meaning in language while pragmatics is the stu dy of how people use language in social situations. 2. Ahighly refined extract of seaweed is called carrageenan. In addition to the expressions above, some punctuation can be used as a definition c lue too. For example: © Comma (,) Many heavy smokers develop emphysema, a serious lung disease which makes breat hing very difficult. * Parentheses () Paella (@ Spanish fried rice mixed with small pieces of vegetables, fish, and chicken) i s better served hot as breakfast. © Dash (-) Carbon dating -a scientific method to determine the age of old objects -is generally a ccepted to be accurate. ii. Restatement | Ia L Some unknown words are probably restated by using another word which is more fa miliar to us. The signal words are as follows: or, in other words, that is (to say), i.e. et c. For example, 1. Apseudonym ora penname is used to hide the identity of a writer. 2. Most members of the camel family are found in arid habitats; in other wor ds, they are found in dry areas. iii, Example Some examples are given to help readers understand the meaning of the unknown w ords. The examples usually follow the expressions like: such/such as, like, especially, for example, for instance, including, ete. For example, 1. At night we sometimes saw some nocturnal animals, such as owls and bat s 2. Fabrics, like cotton, silk or polyester, can be bought at many stores. iv. Contrast Writers often clarify their discussion by showing how one thing differs from another or by telling what something is not. The signals that help locate co. nitrasting expressions are: but, however, although, whereas, not, on the other hand, yet, etc. For example: 1. Gudeta loves reading novels but Bridget despises it 2. My sister thought the rock concert was scintillating, but | thought it was ve ry dull. v. Cause and Effect Writers may also use cause and effect relationships to help readers fi | : Ia L nd the meaning of unknown words even though the meaning is not di rectly given. The expressions which indicate cause and effect relation ships of situations or events are: because, consequently, so, therefore, etc. For example: After ayear in Scotland, she ran out of money; therefore, she had to look for a job. At the party, | saw Susan sitting by herself. Probably it was because she did not feel li ke mingling with the other guests. vi. Inference Sometimes context clues are not so clearly recognizable because they do not have cl ear signals. We must infer to determine the meaning of an unknown word by its retati onship to familiar words. For example: My neighbor is so affluent that he can afford an expensive sports car every year. Here the "so + adjective + that clause” is a reason + result So affluent must mean ric h Cohesive Devises of Contrasting and Comparing i. Although, even though, in spite of and despite are all used to link two contr asting ideas. They can all be used at the beginning or in the middle of the s entence. Example: Despite the rain, we enjoyed the festival. We enjoyed the festival despite the rain The main difference between although, even though, in spite of and despite is that th ey are used with different structures. ii. in spite of / despite After in spite of and despite, we use a noun, gerund Cin g form of a verb) or a pronoun | IExample: They never made much money, in spite of their success. In spite of the pain in his leg, he completed the marathon Despite having a headache, | had a great birthday. The train was cancelled. In spite of that, we arrived on time. Grammar Skills Conjunctions Conjunctions are word or group of words that are used to relate/join/ combine ideas/ sentence that have similar ideas or contrast ideas. There are four types of conjunctions in English language, namely: Common Mistakes in Sentence Constructions or Erroneous Sentences Erroneous Sentences or Common mistakes in sentence construction, which can leadt © erroneous sentences. Each type is followed by examples and tips for correction 1. Fragmented Sentences + Definition: A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks a subjec +, verb, or complete thought + Examples: Fragment: Because he was tired. o Correction: He went to bed early because he was tired.+ Tip: Ensure every sentence has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete idea 2. Run-On Sentences * Definition: A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses ar e joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions, + Examples: Run-on: She loves coffee she drinks it every morning. © Correction: She loves coffee, so she drinks it every morning. + Tip; Use commas with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, so) or break into se parate sentences. 3. Comma Splices + Definition: A comma splice is a type of run-on sentence where two independen t clauses are joined with just a comma + Examples: 0 Comma splice: /e' raining outside, | forgot my umbrella 0 Cortection: /'s raining outside. | forgot my umbrella. of It's raining outsi de, and I forgot my umbrella + Tip: Replace the comma with a period, semicolon, or add a conjunction 4, Subject-Verb Agreement Errors + Definition: These errors occur when the subject and verb do not agree in numb er (singular/plural), + Examples: © Incorrect: The list of items are on the table. © Correct: The list of items is on the table. + Tip: Identify the main subject and ensure the verb matches in number. 5. Misplaced Modifiers | Ia L + Definition: A misplaced modifier is a word or phrase that is placed too far from the word it modifies, causing confusion + Examples: Misplaced: She almost drove her kids to the store every day. © Correct: She drove her kids to the store almost every day. + Tip: Place modifiers as close as possibleto the word they describe 6. Dangling Modifiers + Definition: A dangling modifier lacks a clear subject to modify within the sente nee. + Examples: o Dangling: Waking down the street the flowers were beautiful. o Correct: Walking down the street, she noticed the flowers were beautifu L + Tip: Ensure the modifier clearly refers to the correct subject. 7. Faulty Parallelism + Definition: Occurs when parts of a sentence arenot in the same grammatical f om, distupting readability. + Examples: 0 Incorrect: She likes cooking, to read, and jogging. 0 Correct She likes cooking, reading, and jogging. + Tip: Use the same grammatical structure for items ina list or paired elements. 8. Incorrect Pronoun Usage + Definition: Mistakes happen when pronouns do not agree in number or clarity with their antecedents. + Examples: o Incorrect: Everyone should bring their books. | : Ia L 0 Correct: Everyone should bring his or her book. + Tip: Match the pronoun in number and clarity with the antecedent. 9. Incorrect Tense or Verb Form * Definition: Errors in verb tense or form can cause confusion about the timing 0 r continuity of actions. + Examples: © Incorrect: She has went to the store. o Correct: She has gone to the store. + Tip: Pay attention to tense consistency, especially in narratives or timelines. 10. Lack of Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement + Definition: This occurs when a pronoun doesn't agree with the noun it refers to in number or gender. Examples: 0 Incorrect: Each of the players must bring their own equipment. o Correct: Each of the players must bring his or her own equipment. + Tip: Ensure singular antecedents have singular pronouns and plural anteceden ts have plural pronouns. 11. Ambiguous Pronouns + Definition: Pronouns can be ambiguous when it's unclear which noun they refe Fo, + Examples: Ambiguous: John told Bill that he should leave. © Clear: John told Bill, “Vou should Jeave.” + Tip: Replace ambiguous pronouns with the actual noun to clarify the subject 12, Redundancy and Wordiness/Choppy | , I+ Definition: Using unnecessary words or repeating information can make sente nees unclear. + Examples: Redundant: He returned back to the office. Clear: He returned to the office. + Tip: Use concise language, and avoid repeating ideas or words unnecessarily. UNIT TWO: TIME MANAGEMENT Analogies help clarify relationships between ideas by comparing two sets of things th at have similar relationships. Understanding types of analogies is useful in improving reasoning, enhancing language skills, and mastering problem-solving. Here's a detaile d breakdown of the types of analogies: 1. Synonym Analogies + Definition: Synonym analogies pair words that have similar or identical meani ngs. + Explanation: in these analogies, both terms in the pair share the same or closel y related meanings, highlighting sirmilarities + Example: Happy : Joyfulas Sad : Gloomy + Usage: Synonym analogies are used to test vocabulary and recognize subtle d ifferences between similar words.J 2. Antonym Analogies Definition: Antonym analogies link words that have opposite meanings Explanation: These analogies emphasize contrast, helping leamers understan d how two words represent opposing concepts. Example: Hot: Coldas Love : Hate Usage: Antony analogies test understanding of opposites and help clarify di stinctions in meaning. 3. Cause and Effect Analogies Definition: Cause and effect analogies show a relationship where one word is t he cause and the other is its effect. Explanation: These analogies highlight causal relationships, demonstrating ho w one event or action results in another. Example: Fire : Burn as Rain : Flood Usage: Recognizing cause and effect is important for reasoning skills and und erstanding sequences of events 4, Part to Whole Analogies Definition: Part to whole analogies relate a part of something to the whole it b elongs to. Explanation: These analogies emphasize the concept of inclusion, where a sm aller part contributes to a larger entity. Example: Finger: Hand as Petal : Flower Usage: Part to whole analogies are help ful for understanding how component s relate to systems or structures. 5. Whole to Part Analogies Definition: Whole to part analogies show a relationship where the first term is a whole and the second tem is a part of it Explanation: This is the reverse of part-to-whole analogies and focuses on bre aking down larger items into components. 1a L + Example: Tree: Leafas Car: Tire + Usage: Whole to part analogies are useful in showing how systems or entities are composed of individual parts 6. Function Analogies + Definition: Function analogies relate a tool or object to its purpose or function. + Explanation: These analogies focus on what something is used for or its prim aty purpose. + Example: Pen: Write as Knife : Cut + Usage: Function analogies are commonly used to show understanding of the purpose behind objects or actions 7. Location Analogies «Definition: Location analogies link an item to its typical place or setting + Explanation: These analogies clarify where certain things are usually found or located + Example: Fish : Wateras Bird : Sky + Usage: Location analogies enhance spatial awareness and help visualize ass. ociations between objects and environments. 8. Degree or Intensity Analogies + Definition: These analogies compare things based on their degree, strength, or intensity. + Explanation: By showing variations in scale or intensity, these analogies help c larify nuanced differences between similar concepts. + Example: Warm : Hotas Breeze : Gale + Usage: These analogies aid in understanding subtle distinctions in qualities or levels of intensity. 9. Type or Kind Analogies + Definition: Type or kind analogies relate a specific item to a broader category i | 2 IJ L tbelongsto. Explanation: This analogy type demonstrates how particular items fit into gen eral categories. Example: Eagle: Birdas Rose : Flower Usage: These analogies help with categorization and understanding hierarchic al relationships. 10. Characteristic Analogies Definition: Characteristic analogies relate an object or subject to a defining fea ‘ture or attribute. Explanation: These analogies highlight a distinctive quality that inherently bel ongs to the subject Example: Snow. Cofdas Sun: Bright Usage: Usef ul for describing attributes, these analogies improve descriptive an d comparative skills. 11. Performer and Action Analogies Definition: This type links a person or animal to an action they commonly perf om. Explanation: By associating a subject with a typical activity, these analogies d emonstrate roles or habitual actions. Example: Chef : Cookas Teacher: Teach Usage: Performer and action analogies are helpful in understanding roles and typical behaviors associated with specific figures. 12. Tool and User Analogies Definition: These analogies connect a tool to the person or entity that typically uses it. Explanation: They emphasize the relationship between the user and the tool de signed for a particular purpose. Example: Painter : Brush as Carpenter : Hammer rca L + Usage: These analogies illustrate specific relationships between professions a nd their tools, enhancing understanding of occupational associations. 13. Object and Material Analogies + Definition: Object and material analogies connect an object with the material it is typically made from. + Explanation: These analogies help clarify the composition or origin of objects + Example; Table : Wood as Shirt : Cotton + Usage: Useful in understanding materials, these analogies improve knowledge of how common items are composed 14. Symbol and Representation Analogies + Definition: Symbol and representation analogies relate a symbol or icon to wh at it stands for or represents. + Explanation: They show how certain symbols hold meanings or represent idea 8. + Example: Dove: Peace as Heart: Love + Usage: Understanding symbols is essential for interpreting abstract ideas and recognizing cultural or universal meanings. These types of analogies are essential for developing reasoning and cognitive skills. By recognizing therelationships between terms, learners can improve both verbal and analytical thinking skills, making analogies a valuable tool in language, logic, and pro blem-solving activities. Phrasal verbs Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with one or more particles (prepositions or a dverbs) that create a new meaning, often quite different from the original verbs. They a re widely used in English, especially in informal contexts, and can be tricky to learn be cause their meanings are often idiomatic. Here's a breakdown of common types and examples of phrasal verbs, along with brief explanations. | 7 IJ 1. Types of Phrasal Verbs Transitive Phrasal Verbs: These require a direct object o Example: She put off the meeting. (The meeting is the object.) + Intransitive Phrasal Verbs: These do not take a direct object o Example: He woke up early. (No object needed.) + Separable Phrasal Verbs: The object can gobetween the verb and the particle. o Example: She looked up the word. ot She looked the word up. + Inseparable Phrasal Verbs: The object must come after the complete phrasal verb o Example: He ran into his friend. (Not ran his friend into.) 2. Common Phrasal Verbs with Examples A. Phrasal Verbs for Everyday Actions + Getup: To tise from bed. Jusually getup at 7.a.m. + Wake up: To stop sleeping 0 She woke up when her alarm went off. + Sitdown: To take a seat © Please sit down and make yourself comfortable. B. Phrasal Verbs for Relationships and Socializing + Get along (with): To have a friendly relationship. 0 They get afong well with each other.J + Break up: To end a relationship. They decided to break up after five years together. + Makeup: To reconcile after a fight. 0 They had a fight, but they made up later. C. Phrasal Verbs for Work and Study + Putoff: To postpone or delay. o He put off doing his homework until the last minute. + Take up: To start a new activity. She took up painting as a hobby. + Look over: To review or examine. 0 She looked over her notes before the exam D. Phrasal Verbs for Movement + Comeback: To retum toa place. 0 He will come back from vacation next week. + Run into: To meet sorneone unexpectedly. 0 /raninto an old friend at the supermarket. * Goaway: To leavea place. © They told him to go away and come back later. E. Phrasal Verbs for Handling Situations + Deal with: To manage or handle. She knows how to deal with stressful situations. + Figure out: To solve or understand something 0 They finally figured out the answer to the problem.J + Carry on: To continue doing something 0 He decided to carry on despite the challenges. F. Phrasal Verbs for Communication + Bring up: To mention or introduce topic. She brought up the topic of vacation during the meeting. + Speak up: To talk louder. o Please speak up;!can't hear you. + Call off: To cancel o They called off the event due to rain. G. Phrasal Verbs for Changes and Transformations «Grow up: To mature or become an adult. She grew up ina small town. + Turn into: To transform into something else 0 The caterpillar turned into a butterfly. + Give up: To quit or stop trying. He didn't give up even when things got tough. H. Phrasal Verbs for Managing Things + Setup: To arrange or establish 0 They set up the meeting room before the conference. + Pick up: To collect or lift © Canyou piek up the kids from school? + Take over: To assume control. 0 He took over the project after the manager left.a L 3. Tips for Learning Phrasal Verbs + Context Matters: Phrasal verbs often have multiple meanings depending on c ontext. Practice understanding each in context to get a clearer grasp of meanin a. + Use in Sentences: Create sentences with each phrasal verb to reinforce their m eanings and remember them more effectively. + Group by Verb or Theme: Organize phrasal verbs by their main verb or by the me (e.g, work, travel) to make learning more manageable. + Practice Often: Regular usage in conversation and writing will make them feel more natural and easier to recall Phrasal verbs add richness and nuance to English and are important for sounding natural in both spoken and written language. Understanding and practicing them i Nn context is the best way to master their usage. Unit 3: Evidence on Road Traffic Accidents Misplaced Participles/ Misplaced Modifiers * Participles are verbs ending in -ing (present participle) or —ed/ past form (p ast participle) functioning as modifiers (adjectives/adverbs) When past participles (usually -ed) are used like adjectives or adverbs. Example: What an interesting art | ‘e Ia L Filled with horror at what he had just seen, he sat in his chair. « Participles after a noun define and identify in thesame way as relative clau ses. Example: 1 met a woman riding a horse. (= who was riding...) * Participles can be used as adverbs. They can describe: "Two actions happening at the same time. Example: She sat by the fire reading a book. "Two actions that happen one after another. Example: Opening his case, he took outa gun. © Ifitisimportant to show that the first action is completed before the secon d action begins, weuse the perfect participle. Example: Having finished lunch, we set off on our journey. Having had a shower, she got dressed. ” two actions that happen one because of another. Example: Being mean, he never bought anyone a Christmas present. Not knowing what to do, I waited patiently. A participial phrase should come immediately bef ore or after the noun it refers. If any structure comes between the participle and the noun it refers to, it becomes a confuse dor misplaced participle Example: a. Having had a shower, she got dressed. The participial phrase ‘Having had a shower refers to the subject ‘She’ If you putt the other way: She got dressed having had shower. (naw it is not clear what the participial phrase refers to) b. Being mean, he never bought anyone a Christmas present. (Clea) Being mean, Christmas present was never been bought for anyone. (Misplaced/confusea) Tenses for Narration Past Simple and Present Perfect are used to talk about the past. | . IJ. L The Past Simple refers to finished past. Present Perfect links the past with t he present. Example: Mengistu Lemma wrote wonderful plays. He is dead. I have written two books. I'm alive so, Iwill write more. There is no present result in Past Simple: the Present Perfect tense refers to present effect of past action Example: | hurt my back. (But it's better now.) | have hurt my back. (And it still hurts.) “The Past Simple refers to definite past used together with definite time adv etbs, last night, two weeks ago, on Monday, at 8:00. With the present perfec t indefinite adverbs (recently, before, since, never, for some time) areused Example: Last night. | saw him two weeks ago. | didn’t see him for a week Ihave not seen him recently/ for years UNIT 4: Natural Resource Management | » ISyllables and stress Syllables and stress are key elements in English pronunciation. They play an essentia Iralein making speech clear and understandable, and understanding them helps imp rove spoken English and reading skills. Here's a breakdown of syllables and stress, wi thdefinitions, types, and rules. 1. Syllables Definition + Asyllable is a unit of sound in a word that usually contains a vowel sound. Wo rds can have one or multiple syllables, and each syllable forms a beat when sp oken. ‘Types of Syllables 1. Monosyllabic Words: Words with only one syllable. Example: cat, book, dog 2. Polysyllabic Words: Words with two or more syllables. o Example: table, fan-ta-sy, in-forma-tion Identifying Syllables + To identify the syllables in a word, clap or tap as you say the word slowly. Eac h clap or tap corresponds to one syllable. + Example: For the word banana (ba-na-na), you would clap three times. 2. Stress Definition «Stress refersto the emphasis placed on a particular syllable in a word or on a word in a sentence. In stressed syllables, vowels are pronounced more strongl y, and they may sound longer or louder. Types of Stress 4J + Word Stress: Emphasis ona specific syllable within a word. + Sentence Stress: Emphasis on particular words within a sentence, usually to c onvey meaning or emotion. Rules for Word Stress + One-syllable words are typically not stressed. Examples: cat, sun + Two-syllable nouns and adjectives often have the first syllable stressed 9 TA-ble, MO-ther + Two-syllable verbs and prepositions often have the second syllable stressed. 0 be-LIEVE, a-RISE + Words with three or more syllables: Stress often falls on the first or second sy llable, depending on the word's origin and structure. 0 FAN-ta-sy, com-PU-ter, IN-forma-tion Rules for Sentence Stress + Content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) are usually stress ed, asthey carry the main meaning o Example: She went to the market + Function words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs) are usually u nstressed. o Example: /am going to the store. Primary and Secondary Stress + Primary Stress: The main emphasis in a word. Example: ex-AlM-ple (primary stress on the second syllable) + Secondary Stress: A lighter stress that may appear in longer words. Example: ED-u-CA-tion (primary stress on "CA" secondary stress on "ED %