---
English Language and Communication Skills: Level 4 (B23‐AEC‐411)
Unit I: Vocabulary Building
1. Word Formation (Overview)
Word formation is the process of creating new words from existing ones.
Common methods include:
1. Affixation (adding prefixes and suffixes)
Prefix: placed at the beginning of a root.
Examples:
unhappy = “not happy”
rewrite = “write again”
Suffix: placed at the end of a root.
Examples:
kindness = “state or quality of being kind”
readable = “capable of being read”
2. Compounding
Combining two or more existing words to form a new word.
Examples:
tooth + brush → toothbrush
black + board → blackboard
3. Conversion (also called zero‐derivation)
Changing the grammatical class of a word without adding an affix.
Examples:
“email” (noun) → to “email” (verb)
“paper” (noun) → to “paper” (verb: “to paper the walls”)
4. Clipping
Shortening a longer word by dropping one or more syllables.
Examples:
advertisement → ad
influenza → flu
5. Blending
Merging parts of two (or more) words to make a new one.
Examples:
smoke + fog → smog
breakfast + lunch → brunch
6. Acronyms & Initialisms
Acronym: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase and pronounced as a single word.
Examples:
NASA (“National Aeronautics and Space Administration”)
SCUBA (“Self‐Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus”)
Initialism: Also formed from initials, but pronounced letter by letter.
Examples:
BBC (“British Broadcasting Corporation”)
FBI (“Federal Bureau of Investigation”)
---
2. Understanding Root Words, Prefixes & Suffixes
Root Words: The central part of a word that carries its core meaning.
Examples:
bio = “life” → biology (study of life), biography (written account of life)
scrib/ script = “write” → describe, manuscript
Common Prefixes (just a few high‐frequency ones):
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|-------|-----------------|---------------------------|
| un- | not | unhappy, unfair |
| re- | again | rewrite, return |
| dis- | opposite | dislike, disown |
| pre- | before | preview, predict |
| mis- | wrongly/incorrectly | misplace, mistake |
Common Suffixes (again, a few key ones):
| Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
|-------|------------------------|---------------------------|
| -ful | full of | helpful, joyful |
| -less | without | hopeless, tireless |
| -nness | state/quality of | kindness, darkness |
| -able | capable of/able to | readable, lovable |
| -tion | act/process of | creation, celebration |
Why this matters:
If you see a word like **“unbelievable,”** you can parse it as:
un- (not) + believe (root) + -able (capable of)
–> “not capable of being believed.”
Mastering even 20–30 high‐frequency prefixes/suffixes lets you decode dozens of unfamiliar
words in reading passages.
---
Unit II: Types of Sentences & Sentence Transformations
1. Four Types of Sentences
1. Declarative (Statement)
Makes a straightforward statement or fact.
Example: The sun rises in the east.
2. Interrogative (Question)
Asks something directly; ends with a question mark.
Example: Does the sun rise in the east?
3. Imperative (Command/Request)
Gives a command, instruction, or request. The subject (you) is often implied.
Examples:
“Close the window.”
“Please pass me the salt.”
4. Exclamatory (Strong Emotion)
Expresses strong feeling or emotion; ends with an exclamation mark.
Example: What a beautiful sunrise!
---
2. Sentence Transformation Techniques
You will often be asked to transform a sentence from one form to another without changing its
core meaning. The main types are:
a) Assertive ↔ Negative
Assertive: She is intelligent.
Negative: She is not unintelligent.
(Notice how “not unintelligent” is a double‐negation technique; often in exams you simply insert
“not,” but sometimes they want you to use a “negative opposite” like “unintelligent.”)
b) Active → Passive
Active: He writes a letter.
Passive: “A letter is written by him.”
Steps to convert:
1. Identify the object (“a letter”).
2. Make it the new subject.
3. Change the verb form (add “is/am/are” + past participle: “write” → “written”).
4. Optionally add “by + original subject” (“by him”).
c) Passive → Active
Passive: A letter was written by her.
Active: “She wrote a letter.”
Reverse the steps:
1. Identify “by her” as the true subject.
2. Make it the new subject.
3. Change the verb back to simple past “wrote.”
4. The original subject (“a letter”) becomes the direct object.
d) Direct → Indirect (Reported) Speech
Direct: He said, “I am busy.”
Indirect: He said that he was busy.
Rules of thumb:
1. Remove the quotation marks.
2. Change the tense back (present → past; past → past perfect, etc.).
Present simple → Past simple: “I am busy” → “he was busy.”
Present perfect → Past perfect: “I have finished” → “he had finished.”
3. Adjust pronouns and time expressions as needed:
“now” → “then,” “today” → “that day,” “yesterday” → “the day before,” etc.
e) Simple → Compound/Complex (Sentence Expansion)
Simple: He ran to catch the train.
Complex: He ran because he wanted to catch the train.
Add a subordinate clause (because‐clause) to show reason.
Compound: He ran, and he caught the train on time.
Join two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
f) Degrees of Comparison (when asked)
Positive (Basic): She is good.
Comparative: She is better than him.
Superlative: She is the best in the class.
Some exams ask you to rewrite:
She is the best singer. → No other singer is as good as she is.
---
Unit III: Public Speaking & Persuasion Techniques
1. Public Speaking Basics
When you speak in public (to a small group or a large audience), consider these four pillars:
1. Voice Modulation
Vary pitch, volume, and pace to maintain interest.
Avoid speaking in a monotone.
2. Eye Contact
Look at your listeners (don’t stare at notes the entire time).
Scanning the room every few seconds helps keep everyone engaged.
3. Gestures & Body Language
Use your hands to emphasize key points—don’t cross arms or slump.
Stand up straight. Move naturally when you transition topics, but avoid pacing aimlessly.
4. Structure of the Speech
Introduction: Hook (question, anecdote, startling fact) + Preview of main points.
Body: 2–4 main points, each supported by examples or data.
Conclusion: Summarize key points + strong closing (call‐to‐action, thought‐provoking
statement).
---
2. Persuasion Techniques
Persuasion is convincing someone of your argument. In English exams, you may be asked to
define or illustrate these three classical appeals:
1. Ethos (Appeal to Credibility/Character)
Establish your authority, expertise, or moral character.
Example line: “As a doctor who has studied this for 20 years, I can assure you…”
2. Pathos (Appeal to Emotions)
Tug at the listener’s feelings—empathy, fear, anger, joy, etc.
Example line: “Imagine a child going hungry tonight—what would you do?”
3. Logos (Appeal to Logic or Reason)
Use facts, statistics, logical arguments, or cause‐and‐effect.
Example line: “According to the latest study, 70% of participants saw improvement within 6
months.”
> Tip: The strongest speeches often combine all three—Ethos to get initial trust, Pathos to
connect emotionally, and Logos to seal the logical argument.
---
3. Aspects of Conversation (Public & Interpersonal)
A question might ask: “Explain how to start, maintain, and control a conversation.” Here’s a
breakdown:
1. Starting a Conversation
Greet politely: “Hello, how are you?” or “Good morning, everyone.”
Bridge to topic: “I was reading an article about renewable energy yesterday…”
2. Maintaining/Carrying On
Ask Open‐Ended Questions: “What do you think about this idea?” (Not just “Yes/No.”)
Use Active Listening: Nodding, “That’s interesting because…,” “Could you elaborate on that?”
3. Controlling/Redirecting
Refocus: “Let’s get back to our main point, which is….”
Clarify: “So just to be sure, you’re saying that…”
Summarize: “In short, what we’ve agreed on so far is…”
---
Unit IV: Coherence & Unity in a Paragraph
1. Coherence
Definition: Coherence is the smooth, logical flow of ideas so that the reader can easily follow the
writer’s train of thought.
How to achieve coherence:
1. Use Transition Words/Phrases consistently (see table below).
2. Keep the same tense and voice throughout.
3. Arrange ideas in a logical order—chronological, cause‐and‐effect, or order of importance.
Common Transition Words & Phrases
Purpose Examples
Addition moreover, in addition, also
Contrast however, but, on the other hand
Cause/Effect therefore, hence, consequently
Sequence first, next, finally, subsequently
Example for example, such as, namely, e.g.
> Example of a Coherent Passage (short):
Topic Sentence: Learning vocabulary systematically improves comprehension.
Supporting:
Firstly, knowing common prefixes (un‐, re‐, dis‐) helps you guess unknown words.
Secondly, practicing root words—like “bio” meaning “life”—lets you decode terms in science and
medicine.
Furthermore, suffixes (-ful, -ness) reveal part of speech and nuance of meaning.
Conclusion: Therefore, a step‐by‐step approach to word‐building boosts both reading speed
and accuracy.
---
2. Unity
Definition: Unity means every sentence in a paragraph supports the single main idea (often
expressed in the topic sentence).
Pitfall: Including a sentence about an entirely different point will break unity.
Paragraph Structure (the “3‐part” model)
1. Topic Sentence
One clear line stating the main idea.
2. Supporting Sentences
Provide explanations, examples, facts, or data—all relevant to the topic sentence.
3. Concluding Sentence
Sums up the main point, restates the topic in a new way, or offers a transition to the next
paragraph.
---
3. Contextual Vocabulary
Definition: Using the surrounding text (“context clues”) to infer the meaning of an unfamiliar
word.
Types of Context Clues:
1. Definition Clue: The author directly defines the word nearby.
Example: “Arboreal animals—those that live in trees—are found in rainforests.”
2. Synonym/Restatement: A synonym is given in the same or next clause.
Example: “He was elated, overjoyed by the news.”
3. Antonym/Contrast: The opposite meaning is stated (often with “but,” “however”).
Example: “Despite his apathy, he completed the task.” (“Apathy” = “lack of interest” → opposite
of “completed the task.”)
4. Example Clue: One or more examples illustrate the meaning.
Example: “Celestial bodies—such as stars, planets, and comets—are studied in astronomy.”
> Why it matters: In a comprehension passage, you won’t have a dictionary. Being able to guess
most unknown words by context saves time and improves your score.
---
Expected Questions
Below are eight (8) typical questions you should be ready to answer in your exam. They cover
every unit and ensure you’ve mastered both theory and application:
1. Define root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Provide two examples of each and explain how they
help form new words.
2. List and explain the four types of sentences (declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory), with one original example for each type.
3. (a) Convert the following active‐voice sentence into passive voice:
“She teaches the students every day.”
(b) Change this direct speech into indirect speech:
He said, “I will finish the project by tomorrow.”
4. Describe any two persuasive speaking techniques (Ethos, Pathos, Logos). For each, give a
sentence that illustrates how you would use it in a short speech.
5. Write a paragraph (5–7 sentences) on “The importance of reading newspapers,” ensuring
coherence and unity. Use at least three different transition words or phrases.
6. Explain what contextual vocabulary is and illustrate with two short examples (one using a
definition clue, another using a contrast clue).
7. Differentiate between Ethos, Pathos, and Logos. Provide one real‐life sentence for each that
you might use if you were giving a persuasive talk on environmental conservation.
8. Give four transition words (two for addition, two for contrast) and show, in two short
sentences, how each one can be used to maintain coherence in writing.
---
