I.

Differences between Common Plant Diseases:-

1. Comparison of the characters of four smuts of sorghum found in India

S.No. Grain smut Loose smut Long smut Head smut

1. Sphacelotheca sorghi Sphacelotheca cruenta Tolyposporium Sphacelotheca reiliana
ehrenbergii
2. All or most grains All or most grains Only about 2 per cent Entire head smutted into
smutted. smutted. of grains are a single sorus.
infected .

3. Sori are small, 5-15 x Sori are small , 3-18 x Sori are long ,40 mm Sori are 7.5-10 cm x
3-5 mm 6-8 mm x 6-8 mm 2.5–5 cm
4. Short columella Long columella Columella absent, Columella absent but a
present present but 8-10 vascular network of vascular
strands present tissues present
5. In singles round to In singles spherical or Always in balls, Loosely bound intoballs,
oval, olive – brown, elliptical, dark brown, globose or angular, spherical or angular, dull
smooth walled, 5-9μin spore walls pitted, 5-10 brownish green, brown, minutely
diameter. μin diameter. warty spore wall, 12 - papillate 10- 16μ in
16μ in diameter diameter
6. Viability of spores Viability of spores Viability of spores Viability of spores up to
over 10 years. about 4 years. about 2 years. 2 years.
7. In culture, yeast – In colonies withsporidia In colonies with In colonies germ tubes
like growth with and resting spores 40 x masses of sporidia. and sporidia.
sporidia. 50 in diameter.

8. Externally seed-borne Externally seed-borne Air-borne Soil-borne and seed-

borne

2. Difference between Foot Rot and Stem Rot of Rice

S.No. Foot Rot of Rice Stem Rot of Rice
1. Also known as Bakane disease or Also known as Sclerotial disease
Fusarium blight
1
2. Caused by Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon Caused by Sclerotium oryzae Catt.
3. Perfect stage is Gibberella fujikuroi Perfect stage is Leptosphaeria salvinii Catt.
(Saw.) Wr. belongs to Ascomycota belongs to Ascomycota
4. Disease occurs at seedling stage. Disease occurs during the later stages of
plant growth.
5. The most conspicuous symptom of this The main symptom of the disease is the
disease is the appearance of stray, tall, excessive production of late tillers at thebase
lanky tillers which are abnormally of the stem, which becomes discoloured and
elongated and develop into flower earlier rotten in severe cases.
than the healthy plants.

6. When an infected culm is split open and When the affected plants are cut open and
examined, a whitish cottony mycelium examined, the interior of the culm may be
can be seen in the nodal regions. filled with grey fungal mycelium.

7. The mycelium of the fungus is yellow to The mycelium consists of profusely

rosy white in color and present both inter- branched white to grayish hyphae present
and intra-cellularly in the host tissue, but both inter- and intra-cellularly in the host
concentrated in the xylem vessel. tissue

8. Fusarium produces sporodochia (hyphal- Sporodochia is absent.

cushion) in which microconidia,
microconidia and chlamydospores are
embedded.
9. Overwintering spores are thick walled Overwintering spores are sclerotia.
chlamydospores.
10. The fungus is mainly externally seed- Fungus survives in soil and stubble during
borne but to some extent soil-borne. off-season.
11. Nitrogenous manuring aggravates the Application of nitrogen and phosphorus
disease. fertilizers to soil, either individually or in
combination, increases the disease
2
 intensity.

3. Difference between Loose smut and Flag smut of Wheat

S.No. Loose Smut of Wheat Flag Smut of Wheat

1. Caused by Ustilago nuda tritici Schaf. Caused by Urocystis agropyri (Preuss)
Schroet.
2. Loose smut symptoms do not become Flag smut affects mainly the leaf, but
apparent until ear emergence. invades the stem and ear occasionally.
3. The entire inflorescence is commonly Grey to grayish black sori occurs on leaf
affected and appears as a mass of olive- blade and sheath. The sorus contains black
black spores, initially covered by a thin powdery mass of spores.
gray membrane. Once the membrane
ruptures, the head appears powdery.
4. The fungus is internally seed-borne and The disease is seed and soil borne. Smut
remains viable for a long time under spores are viable for more than 10 years.
storage conditions.
5.

4. Difference between Tundu and Ear cockle of Wheat

S.No. Tundu Disease of Wheat Ear Cockle of Wheat

1. It is caused by Rathayibacter tritici It is caused by the nematode Anguina
(=Clavibacter) (=Corynebacterium)tritici tritici.
along with the nematode Anguina
tritici.
2. The early symptoms of tundu disease are It is indicated by dying plants, wrinkledand
wrinkling of lower and twisting of the twisted leaves of young plants, reduced and
middle leaves generally evident when irregular heads (ears) having the typical
the crop is reaching maturity. This is cockles (light to dark brown, round galls
followed by curling and twisting of instead of healthy grains) but
spikes. these are to be verified after making the
3
 slides and slides and seen under a
microscope.

3. A bright yellow sticky slime exudes No slime exudes is present due to absence
mainly from the ear and envelops it. In of bacterium. The cockles remain filled
addition, the slime trickles down to with nematode larvae. When they are
glumes, stem, and leaf sheaths and soaked in water and then macerated, one
envelop them. The slimy substance can see larvae coming out from them. pe
becomes deeper yellow, hard, and dry in
dry weather resulting in retardation of
plant growth and distortion of stem and
ear.
4. Management:
⚫ Affected plants should be uprooted and burnt.
⚫ Healthy seeds should be selected and sown. Selection of healthy seeds from a cockle
contaminated lot can be made with the help of sieve. The latter retains normal seeds
and allows small cockles to pass through. Healthy seeds and cockles (galls) can be
better separated by immersing in water or normal salt solution (brine). The cockles
come up on the surface and can be collected and destroyed.
⚫ In nematode-infested fields, wheat cultivation should be replaced by barley and oats
to reduce soil inoculum. It happens so as the barley and oats are not infected by this
disease.
⚫ Early sown crops usually escape infection hence early sowing should be preferred.
⚫ Nematicides such as D-D Mixture (20-40 gallons/acre), Nemagon (1-2
gallons/acre), Hexanema (10-20 kg/acre), and Nemaphos (10% granular; applied
at the rate of 5-10 gallons/acre) have been tested to control disease. Nemaphos
proved to be most effective.
⚫ Varieties like Sonara 63, NP 908, and 227 are preferable against this disease as
they show certain degree of resistance.

5. Difference between the three major Rusts of Wheat

S.No. Black Rust Brown Rust Yellow Rust

1. Alaso know as stem rust. Also known as leaf rust. Also known as stripe rust.

4
2. Caused by Puccinia Caused by Puccinia Caused by Puccinia
graminis tritici recondita striiformis
3. Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) Several plants have been Stripe rust is not known to
and Mahonia is the primary identified as alternate hosts have any alternate hosts.
alternate host for the stem for leaf rust, includingmeadow
rust fungus. rue (Thalictrum), rueanemone,
and Clematis.
4. Appear in plains during Appears in the month of Appear during December-
February - April (Late Rust). January. January (Early Rust).

5. Stem rust occurs primarilyon Leaf rust is generally foundon Stripe rust occur in stripes
stems but can also be found leaves but may also infect on leaves and heads.
on leaves, sheaths, glumes, glumes and awns.
awns and even
seed.
6.. Stem rust produces reddish- Leaf rust produces circular to Stripe rust produces yellow
brown oblong pustules with oval orange-colored pustules. linear pustules that run
frayed margins on leaves parallel with leaf veins.
and stems.

7. It is favored by temperatures It is favored by temperatures is favored by temperatures

of 75-85°F. of 60-70°F. of 50-60°F.
8. Uredia are large, elongated Uredia are small, oval or Uredia are very small oval
and coalescing. round and never in long rows. and arranged in rows or
strips.
9. Urediospores are oval 25-30 Uredospores are spherical 16- Uredospores are spherical to
x 17-20 um in diameter and 20 um in diameter and wall is ovate, 23-35 x 20-35 um in
contain 4 germ pores. echinulate with 7-10 germ diameter and contain 6-16
pores. germ pores.
10. Telia are black and found on Telia are very rare; if present Telia are dull black and
all green parts with very low they are distributed mainly on arranged in rows.
frequency of leaf blades. undersurface of leaves.
11. Teliospores are bicelled 40- Teliospores are bicelled and Teliospores are dark brown,
60 x 15-20 um in diameter flatted at the top. Do not burst flattened at the top, bicelled
and dark brown tip of the through the epidermis. 35-63 x 12-24 um in
upper cell is pointed or diameter. Do not burst
5
 rounded. Burst rather early. through the epidermis.

6. Comparison of the characters of the three bunt fungi

S.No. Tilletia caries Tilletia foetida Neovossia indica

1. Usually all the grains in an ear are affected and transformed The infection usually, but not
into bunt balls. always, is confined to few grains
in the spike, and the arrangement
is somewhat irregular.

2. The plants ripen earlier than the healthy ones and the earsare As the grains mature, the outer
dark green in color. The glumes are pushed apart by the spore glumes spread out and the inner
balls (sori) which are formed instead kernels. glumes expand, exposing the
bunted grains. The bunt balls are
at first enclosed by thepericarp,
but when it burst the
masses of spores are exposed.
3. When the spores are released there is a characteristic fishy odour in the field due to presence of
a volatile compound called ‘trimethylamine’ in the spore mass.
4. Spores are reticulate, rough Spores are reticulate, The spores are smooth walled,
walled, measuring 15-20 μ in smooth walled, measuring measuring 22-49μin diameter.
diameter. 15 -25 μ in diameter.

5. No resting period. Produce primary sporidia, which unite to Requires a long resting period.
form H shaped structures. Sporidia produced in large
numbers (60 -120) on short ,
stout basidium . The primary
sporidia and flexible, like T.
caries and T. foetida. The
secondary sporidia are sickle
shaped.
6. Externally seed-borne, usually infects all the spikelets in an Soil-borne and air-borne,
ear. usually affecting only a few
spikelets in an ear.
7. Heterothallic with 20 races Heterothallic with 10 races No races reported and sexuality
found. found. not studied.
8. Management: Management:
⚫ Seed treatment with sulphur, copper carbonate and ⚫ Air-borne spores cannot be
organic mercurial. manage through seed
⚫ Panogen @ 2ml/kg seed and 2% Ceresan give complete treatment.
control of the disease. ⚫ There is no effective
⚫ Systemic fungicides such as benomyl offer excellent chemical treatment known
6
 control. for controlling this bunt
other than use of resistant
varieties.

7. Comparison of Loose Smut, Common Bunt and Karnal Bunt of Wheat

S.No. Loose Smut Common Bunt Karnal Bunt

1. Grain and head replaced with Grain contents replaced Grain is filled with a dark mass
loose mass of black spores. with a dark mass of spores, of spores, but seed coat is intact
but seed coat is intact. and infection usually is atone
end of the seed.
2. No smell to spores. Spores have a rotting fishy Spores have a rotting, fishy
smell. smell.
3. Spores from smutted heads Spores from bunted heads Karnal bunt spores survive in
infect developing seed in survive in the soil or are soil or are carried on seed.
healthy heads. Planting in- carried on infested seed. Infection occurs when wheat
fected seed the next fall results These spores infectseedlings flowers, resulting in partially or
in plants that produce loose in the fall resulting in fully bunted grain.
smutted heads the next bunted heads
spring. the next spring.
4.

5. Loose smut and common bunt can be controlled with seed Control of Karnal bunt isdifficult
treatments. An additional practice that may help to control because infection occurs when
common bunt is to plant wheat early when soils are warm wheat is flowering. Air-borne
(>25oC or >77oF) because infection by common bunt is spores cannot be manage
favored in cool soils. through seed treatment. So, there
is no effective chemical
treatment known for controlling
this bunt other than
use of resistant varieties.

7
8. Difference between Karnal bunt and Black point of Wheat

S.No. Karnal Bunt of Wheat Black Point of Wheat

1. Karnal bunt of wheat caused by Neovossia Black point of wheat is caused by
indica. Alternaria triticina and Dreschlera
sorokiniana.
2. Infected crop emit fishy smell due to No such smell present.
presence of trimethylamine.
3. Discharge of spores take place. Discharge of spores donot take place.
4. The disease appears when the grains have The Pericarps of maturing wheat kernels
developed. In this disease, some grains turn dark to black with the discoloration
inthe spike are partially or whollyconverted restricted to the germ end of kernel.
into black powdery masses. The embryo
tissue is generally not destroyed. Not all the
ears in a stool carry the disease and even in
the same ear only few grains
(five to six only) are smutted.
5.

6. No proper management is reported unless of Treating the seed before sowing with
use of resistant varities and disease-free Thiram or Vitavax@2.5gm/kg seed.
seeds.

9. Difference between Septoria Leaf Blotch of Wheat and Stagonospora Glume Blotch of
Wheat

S.No. Septoria Leaf Blotch of Wheat Stagonospora Glume Blotch of Wheat

1. Also known as speckled leaf spot. Also known as yellow leaf spot.
2. Septoria leaf blotch is caused by Septoria Stagonospora Glume blotch is caused by
tritici (telomorph/sexual stage Stagonospora nodorum (telomorph/sexual
Mycosphaerella graminicola) stage Phaeosphaeria nodorum).
3. Leaf blotch primarily affects leaves. Glume blotch affects leaves, glumes and
nodes.
4. Lesions start in the lower leaves asirregular Lesions start in the lower leaves as irregular
water soaked chlorotic flecks developing water soaked chlorotic flecks developing
into linear or rectangular (leaf blotch) into lens-shaped (glume blotch)spots, often
spots, often with dark-brown borders. with dark-brown borders.

8
 5. Cool temperatures (59° to 68°F) and wet, Glume blotch can occur very early in the
cloudy weather favor S. tritici, and as season, but is favored by warmer
temperatures rise in spring, spread of temperature (68° to 81°F) prevalent at
Septoria blotch decreases. heading.

10. Difference between Southern and Northern Corn Leaf Blight

S.No. Northern Corn Leaf Blight Southern Corn Leaf Blight

1. It is caused by Setosphaeria turcica; the It is caused by Bipolaris maydis (also known
asexual stage name is Exserohilum as Cochliobolus heterostrophus in its
turcicum. It has also been known as teleomorph state).
Helminthosporium turcicum. There are
many races or strains of the fungus.
2. It is recognized by long, elliptical lesions The symptoms of SCLB are leaf lesions
that are typically cigar-shaped. Lesions ranging from minute specks to spots of one-
may be as large as 3/4 inch in width and 2 half inch wide and one and one-halfinches in
inches in length. Lesions first appear on the length. They are oblong, parallel- sided, and
lower leaves. The disease progresses tan to grayish in color. A purplish to brown
upward until, in severe cases, nearly all of border may appear on thelesions depending
the leaves are infected. on the genetic background of the plant. Early
and severe infections in susceptible plants
predisposes them to stalk rots.

3. Northern corn leaf blight (NCLB) is Southern corn leaf blight (SCLB) is favored
favored by moderate temperatures (65 -85 by warm temperatures (68-90 F) and high
F) high humidity and heavy dews during humidities.
9
 the growing season.
4. NCLB overwinters in corn debris. The fungus overwinters in corn debris as
Conidia (spores) can be windblown over spores or mycelium. Spores are spread by
long distances. Water splashing can also wind or splashing water to growing plants.
cause lower leaf infections and result in After infection and colonization,
seedling blighting where continuous corn sporulation from these primary lesions
is planted. serves as the source for secondary spread
and infections as long as weather
conditions are favorable for disease
development and living tissues are present.
The disease cycle may repeat every few
days under ideal conditions.
5. Although the spores are easily Crop rotation is especially suggested where
disseminated by winds, rotating to no-till is used or where heavy crop residues
soybeans or another non-host crop helps are found. Since this fungus overwinters on
reduce disease levels. Foliar fungicides debris, the planting of corn into such
are also helpful in seed production fields residues may result in earlier infection and
where susceptible inbreds are planted. poor seedling performance. Foliar
Applications should be made as for SCLB fungicides are useful in seed production
during the pollination period. Maintaining fields. For optimal control, it is important
high balanced fertility based upon a soil to control foliar disease during the period
test is also helpful. Do not apply from 14 days before tasseling to 21 days
excessive nitrogen since this may increase after tasseling.
infection levels.

11. Chief characters of three of the major leaf diseases of sorghum

S.No. Three Major Leaf Diseases of Sorghum

Leaf Stripe Leaf Spot Anthracnose
1. Cuased by Drechslera Cuased by Cercospora Cuased by Colletotrichum
turcicum sorghi graminicolum
2. Spots are long, spindle – Spots are rectangular, or Spots are elliptical to
shaped, several cm long and irregular, bound by veins, red spindle-shaped, with
about 1 cm broad, straw or dark brown coloured, 5-15 whitish centre and coloured
coloured at the centre. mm x 3-5 mmdepressed. margin, dark dots at the
centre, 2-4 x 1-2 mm.

10
 3. Conidiophore arising single or Clusters of conidiophores Acervuli with setae arising
in groups, through stomata. arising through stomata. through epidermis.
4. Conidiophores are long, Conidiophores are long, Conidiophores are short
septate, olivaceous, 150-250 x septate brown , 40-120 x 2.5 and single celled and
7-9 μ. -7.5 μ. colourless.
5. Conidia are spindle – shaped, Conidia are hyaline, septate, Conidia are hyaline, single
olivaceous brown, 3-8 septate, 2- 13 celled obclavate, 30- celled, falcate, vacuolate,
45-132 x 15-25 μ. 132 x 3-8 μ. 21-32 x 3-7μ.
6. Air- borne and to some extent Air-borne and through Seed–borne and air - borne.
seed-borne. collaternal hosts.

12. Difference between Blast of Rice and Blight of Rice

S.No. Rich Man’s Disease of Rice Poor Man’s Disease of Rice

1. It is a fungal disease. It is a bacterial disease.
2. Caused by Pyricularia oryzae Caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae
3. The symptoms first appear as small bluish Symptoms appear in form of translucent
flecks on the leaf. spots on leaf blade and leaf sheath.
4. Symptoms occur continuously but not in The symptoms are distinguishable to three
distinct phases. phases.
5. Brown to black spots develops on rachis The phases are blighting, kresek and pale
of inflorescence and ears. yellow leaf phase.
6. Neck of the panicle shows black necrotic These result in rolling, drooping and
areas (neck plast) and bends down. withering of leaves leading to death of the
plant.
7.

13. Difference between Sheath Rot of Rice and Sheath Blight of Rice

11
S.No. Sheath Rot of Rice Sheath Blight of Rice
1. Caused by Sarocladium oryzae Caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn.
2. Also known as Acrocylindrium oryzae Perfect stage is Thanatephorus cucumeris
(Sawada). (Shirai) Tu & Kimbrough belongs to
Basidiomycota
3. Initial symptoms are noticed only on the Initial symptoms are noticed on leaf
upper most leaf sheath enclosing young sheaths near water level.
panicles.

4. The flag leaf sheath show oblong or On the leaf sheath oval or elliptical
irregular grayish brown spots which enlarge irregular greenish grey spots are formed.As
and develop grey centre along with brown the spots enlarge, the centre becomes
margins covering major portions of grayish white with an irregular blackish
the leaf sheath. brown or purple brown border.
5. The panicles rot and abundant whitish The infection extends to the inner sheaths
powdery fungal growth is seen inside the resulting in death of the entire plant.
leaf sheath.
6. Sclerotia absent. It produces large number of spherical
brown sclerotia.
7. Temperature range 25-30˚C is favourable Temperature range 30-32˚C is favourable
for disease occurrence. for disease occurrence.
8. The disease spreads mainly through air- The pathogen can survive as sclerotia or
borne conidia and also seed-borne. mycelium in dry soil for about 20 months
but for 5-8 months in moist soil.

14. Difference between Kernel Smut and False Smut of Rice

S.No. Kernel smut of rice False smut of rice

1. Kernel smut of rice normally is a minor False smut is more severe in the years of
12
 disease high rainfall. The farmers consider its
incidence as an omen of Good Harvest.
2. Kernel smut of rice cause damage to the False smut causes chalkiness of grains
endosperm of the rice grain being replaced which leads to reduction in grain weight.
by masses of black fungal spores .This It also reduces seed germination. The
causes poor milling, gray colored milled weight will be reduced as follows: 1000
grain and significant discoloration during grain weight by 48%; Chaffyness by 40%;
the parboiling process. Rice lots can be Seed germination by 25%.
docked for kernel smut when they are sold.
3.

4. The disease is caused by the fungus The disease is caused by the fungus
Neovossia horrida belong to Ustilaginoidea virens belong to division
Basidiomycota. Ascomycota.
5. The fungus over-winters in the soil andseed • Some of the green spore balls
as spores. The pathogen is spread by develop one to four sclerotia in the
windborne spores that are produced from center. These sclerotia overwinter
the over-wintering teliospores in the field and produce stalked
stromata the following summer or
autumn.
• In temperate regions, the fungus
survives the winter by means of
sclerotia as well as
chlamydospores.
• It is believed that the primary
infections are initiated mainly bythe
ascospores produced from the
sclerotia.
• Chlamydospores play an important
role in secondary infection, which
is a major part of the disease cycle.

13
 6. Germinating spores infect immature Plants infected with false smut have
developing grain and replace the individual rice grain transformed into a
endosperm with dark black spores. Signsof mass of spore balls. These spore balls are
the fungus appear just before maturity as a initially orange, and then turn into greenish
black mass of spores oozing from the seam black when these mature.
between the hulls

7. Management: Management:
⚫ Use moderate rates of Nitrogen ⚫ Use moderate rates of Nitrogen.
⚫ Grow resistant varieties. ⚫ Grow resistant varieties.
⚫ Applications of propiconazole- ⚫Propiconazole at 1.0 ml/litre at boot
containing fungicides at the boot leaf and milky stages will be more
growth stage can reduce the amount of useful to prevent the fungal infection.
infection. ⚫At tillering and preflowering stages,
spray Hexaconazole @ 1ml/lit.
.
15. Difference between Udbatta and Stackburn disease of Rice

S.No. Udbatta Disease of Rice Stackburn Disease of Rice

1. Caused by Ephelis oryzae Syd. Caused by Trichoconiella padwickii
(Ganguly) Jain. Jain (1975) created the
14
 new genus Trichoconiella, disagreeing
with its placement in Alternaria because no
longitudinal or oblique septa were observed
in the conidia, and the conidiophores are
straight, little differentiated from the
hyphae, and non- proliferating, with a
single conidiogenous
site, unlike those typical of Alternaria.
2. Perfect stage is Balansia oryzae-sativae No perfect stage is yet reported.
Hashioka belongs to Ascomycota
3. Symptoms appear at the time of panicle Leaves and ripening grains are affected.
emergence.
4. The entire ear head is converted into a On leaves circular to oval spots with dark
straight compact cylindrical black spike brown margins are formed. The center of
like structure since the infected panicle is the spot turns light brown or white with
matted together by the fungal mycelium. numerous minute dots.

5. Pycnidiospores are present. Muriform conidia (having both

longitudinal and transverse septa) are
elongated with a long beak at the tip, 3 to 5
septate, thick walled and constricted at the
septa.
6. Hot water treatment at 50-54˚ C for 10 Hot water treatment at 54˚ C for 15
minutes is effective. minutes is effective.

16. Difference between the two particles of Rice Tungro Disease

S.No. Rice Tungro Disease

Tungro means 'degenerated growth' and was first observed in Philippines.
Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus Rice Tungro Spherical Virus
15
 1. Rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) is Rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) is a
a plant pararetrovirus of the family plant pathogenic virus of the family
Caulimoviridae and genus Tungrovirus. Sequiviridae and genus Waikavirus.
2. It contains double stranded DNA of 8.3 It has a polyadenylated single-stranded
kb. RNA of about 12 kb.
3. RTBV particles are rod-shaped and 100- RTSV particles are isometric, spherical and
300 nm in length and 30-35 nm in width. 30 nm in diameter.

4. The tungro virus is known to have at least RTSV causes mild symptoms by itself; in
two strains - S and M. The 'S' strain in the presence of bacilliform virus (RTBV),
these varieties produces conspicuous symptoms are intensified.
interveinal chlorosis, giving an
appearance of yellow stripe and
sometimes irregular chlorotic specks on
younger leaves. On the other hand, the
'M' strain produces only mottling.

5. RTBV cannot be transmitted by green leafhopper, Nephotettix virescens unless RTSV is

present.

17. Difference between Rice Grassy Stunt Disease and Rice Ragged Stunt Disease

16
S.No. Rice Grassy Stunt disease Rice Ragged Stunt disease
1. Caused by Rice Grassy Stunt Tenuivirus. Caused by Rice Ragged Stunt Virus

2. Flexuous, filamentous 950-1350nm long x Spherical virus (Figivirus), 65 nm

6nm wide, ssRNA genome. diameter, dsRNA genome.
3. Plants are markedly stunted with excessive Formation of ragged leaves with irregular
tillering and an erect growth habit giving margins, vein swelling, enations on leaf
grassy appearance. veins may be formed along with stunting
of plants.

4. May produce a few small panicles which Incomplete emergence of panicles.

bear dark brown unfilled grains.
5. Disease spreads by the brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens, in a persistent manner.
6. Virus having a latent period of 5 to 28 Virus having a latent period of 3 to 35 days
days in the vector. in the vector.

18. Difference between Bacterial Leaf Blight and Bacterial Leaf Streak of Rice

S.No. Bacterial Leaf Blight of Rice Bacterial Leaf Streak of Rice

1. Caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.
oryzae. oryzicola
2. The disease is usually noticed at the time Fine translucent streaks are formed on the
of heading but it can occur earlier also. veins and the lesions enlarge lengthwise
and infect larger veins and turn brown.

17
3. Seedlings in the nursery show circular, On the surface of the lesions, bacterial ooze
yellow spots in the margin, which enlarge, out and form small yellow band-like
coalesce leading to drying of foliage. exudates under humid conditions.

4. “Kresek” symptom (wilting syndrome) is In severe cases the leaves dry up.
seen in seedlings, 1-2 weeks after
transplanting. The bacteria become
systemic and cause death of entire
seedling.

19. Difference between Covered and Loose Smut of Barley

S.No. Covered Smut of Barley Loose Smut of Barley

1. Caused by Ustilago hordei (Pers.) Caused by Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Rostr.
Langerh
2. Infected plants do not demonstrate Infected plants do not demonstrate
symptoms until heading. symptoms until spike emerges from the
host.
3. Sori are covered with a thick membrane, Sori are covered with a fragile membrane
which resist easy rupturing. which breaks easily at the time the spike
emerges from the host, exposing a powdery
mass of spores.

18
 4. Spores are released mostly at the time of Spores dispersed easily by wind leaving
threshing and get attached to the seed. behind the bare rachis.
5. Each spore germinates to produce athree- Spore germinates to produce septate
septate promycelium which bears a promycelia, which produce infection
sporidium from each cell; the sporidia hyphae, instead of sporidia.
multiply by budding.
6. Pathogen is externally seed-borne. Pathogen is internally seed-borne.
7. Treating the seeds with organo- Treating the seeds with hot water or with
mercurials @ 2.5gm/kg seeds before solar heat will be effective.
sowing.

20. Difference between Stem and Crown rust of oat

S.No. Stem Rust of Oat Crown Rust of Oat

1. Caused by the fungus Puccinia graminis Caused by the fungus Puccinia coronata f.
f. sp. avenae. sp. avenae.
2. Symptoms include dusty, raised reddish- The characteristic symptom is the
brown, oblong spots on the stems, but can development of small, scattered, oval-to-
appears on leaves. oblong, bright orange-yellow pustules
(uredinia) on the upper and lower surfaces of
leaves. The powdery spore masses in the
pustules are readily dislodged.
3. Size of the pustules are large. Size of the pustules are small.
4. When developed, spots will rupture Crown rust is distinguished from stem rust
through the surface, releasing spores into of oats by the lack of conspicuous, jagged
the air. The surface of the tissue appears fragments of oat epidermis adhering to the
ragged and torn. sides and ends of the pustules.
5. It is prevalent in the Nilgiris and at least 4 It is prevalent in North India and 3 different
different races have been collected from races have been identified from there.
that area.

19
 6.

21. Difference between White Rust and Red Rust

S.No. White rust Red rust

1. Caused by Albugo candida, it is a Caused by Cephaleuros parasiticus, it is a
pseudofungus or fungal like organism. red algae.
2. The disease is commonly occurs on The disease is common on tea.
crucifers.
3. It is an obligate pathogen. It is a non obligate pathogen.
4. The disease has both systemic and local The pathogen has local infection on leaves.
infection.
5.

22. Difference between Koleroga of Coffee and Arecanut

S.No. Koleroga of Coffee Koleroga of Arecanut
1. Also known as Black rot. Also known as Mahali disease and Fruit rot.
2. Caused by Corticium koleroga Cke. Caused by Phytophthora palmivora Butl.
3. Pathogen belongs Basidiomycota. Pathogen belongs Oomycota.
4. The disease commonly affects the leaves The disease commonly affects the fruits.
and berries.
5. Fungus initiates the disease by producing Fruit dropping is the first sign of disease
a membranous grayish-white coating on occurrence.

20
 the leaves and fruits, which peels off
easily.
6. The affected leaves and berries turn black The fallen nuts are discoloured and covered
and are held together, sometimes hanging with a whitish felt of fungal mycelium.
in a mass of blackened shoots.

7 The fungus (higher fungi) produces The fungus (lower fungi) produces
septate/acoenocytic mycelium aseptate/coenocytic mycelium
8. A basidium has four pointed sterigmata on
Coenocytic hyphae produce non-septate
which four hyaline, thin-walled
sporangiophore on which papillate, pear-
basidiospores are borne. shaped, hyaline and thin-walled sporangia
appear.
9. No resting spores Thick walled oospores are present as a
result of oogonia (♀) and antheridia (♂).
10. The mycelium lives saprophytically on Primary infection caused by oospores by
organic matter in the soil causing releasing biflagellate zoospores.
primary infection.
11. Secondary spread is through Secondary spread is through sporangia.
basidiospores.
12. Periodic spraying with 1% Bordeaux Use of Metalaxyl and Ridomil along with
mixture. 1% Bordeaux mixture is recommended soon
after fruit set.
21
23. Difference between Brown Leaf Spot and Grey Leaf Spot of Coconut

S.No. Brown Leaf Spot of Coconut Grey Leaf Spot of Coconut

1. Caused by Pseudoepicoccum cocos Caused by Pestalotiopsis palmarum
2. Pseudoepicoccum cocos is recorded Pestalotiopsis palmarum is reported from
from American Samoa, Australia, Cook American Samoa, Cook Islands, Federated
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Polynesia,
Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, Marshall Kiribati, Marshall Islands, New Caledonia,
Islands, Niue, Palau,Samoa, Solomon Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa,
Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and
Vanuatu, and Wallis & Futuna. Vanuatu.
3. Oval spots develop on the upper surface The spots are up to 15 mm long, slightly
of older leaves, up to 10 mm long and 4 larger than those of brown leaf spot, grey
mm wide, with grey centres surrounded with a thin dark brown border. Sometimes,
by relatively wide dark brown margins. the spots join together and are surrounded by
On the lower surface, the margins of the yellow haloes. Fungal fruiting structures are
spots are less distinct, but it is here that visible as tiny black dots within the spots,
black powdery spore masses develop. especially on the upper surface of the leaves.
The spores are very small and round,and
can only be seen with a microscope.

4. The disease affects all varieties of This disease causes a blight of coconuts and
coconuts, usually on the older leaves. related palms. When older leaves are severely
Young plants of Malayan Dwarfs and its blighted this indicates unfavourablegrowing
hybrids are said to be more affected than conditions.
other varieties (in Samoa), especially
when these are grown in high rainfall
areas.

24. Difference between Tanjore Wilt and Kerala Wilt of Coconut

S.No. Tanjore Wilt of Coconut Kerala Wilt of Coconut

1. It is also known as Basal Stem End Rot or It is also known as Root Wilt.
Ganoderma Wilt.
2. It is a fungal disease caused by a It is a phytoplasmal disease.
medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidem
22
 and Ganoderma applanatum.
3. No insect vector involved. Transmitted by two species of bug -
Stephanitis typica and Proutista moesta.
4. Initial symptoms start with yellowing and Reduction of leaf size.
drooping of the outer whorl of leaves.
5. This is followed by exudation of reddish The characteristic symptom is the
brown liquid through cracks at the base of flaccidity of leaflets (abnormal bending or
the trunk and oozing spread upwards. ribbing of leaflets).
Decaying of tissues at bleeding point and
rotting of the basal portion of the stem.

6. The bark turns brittle and often gets peeled Tapering of terminal portion of the trunk.
off in flakes, leaving open cracks and
crevices. The internal tissues are
discoloured, disintegrated and emitting a
bad smell.
7. Bracket formation at the base of the trunk Flowering is delayed and also yield is
during rainy season. Ultimately the palm considerably reduced.
dies off.

23
 8. Management: Management:

⚫ Remove and destroy all affected ⚫ Removal of infected plant parts.

palms. ⚫ Grow green manure crops - cowpea,
⚫ Green manure crops must be raised sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea), Mimosa
and ploughed in situ before invisa, Calapagonium mucanoides,
flowering. Pueraria phaseoloides etc. may be
⚫ Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens (200 sown in coconut basins during April-
g/palm/year) along with Trichoderma May and incorporated during
viride (200 g/palm/year). September-October.
⚫ Apply FYM (50 kg) and neem cake ⚫ Irrigate coconut palms with at least 250
(5 kg) once in 6 months along with litre water in a week.
fertilizers. ⚫ Adopt suitable inter/mixed cropping in
⚫ Root feeding with Tridemorph (2 ml) coconut gardens.
or Hexaconazole (1 ml) or ⚫ Provide adequate drainage facilities.
Aureofungin-sol (2 g) with Copper ⚫ Grow green manure crops like
Sulphate (1 g) in 100 ml water. sunhemp, sesbania, cowpea etc.
⚫ Soil drenching with Bordeaux mixture ⚫ Spray of dimethoate @0.25.
(1%) around the trunk in a radius of
1.5 m.

25. Difference between black pod rot and charcoal pod rot of cocoa
S.No. Black Pod Rot of Cocoa Charcoal Pod Rot of Cocoa
1. Caused by Phytophthora palmivora Butl. Caused by Botryodiplodia (=Lasiodiplodia)
theobromae Pak.
2. The infected pod turns brown at the point Initially pale yellow spots originating
of entry. mainly from the stalk end appear at the tip
of the pod.
3. Infection of pod enlarges concentrically As the infection spreads, the spots coalesce
and evenly to involve the whole pod into large lesion having chocolate brown
surface. The infected area becomes dark color.
and the whole pod turns dark brown to
black.

24
 4. During high humid season, many Severely infected pods become black in color
sporangia are formed over the affected and present a sooty covering all over because
area, which coat the fruit surface. of the sporulation of the fungus.
5. After infection of the pods, the pathogen
Infected young pods are mummified and
grows down the stalk and invades the shriveled later dry up and mostly remain
flowers. attached to the plant.
6. The fungus (lower fungi) produces The fungus (higher fungi) produces
aseptate/coenocytic mycelium. septate/acoenocytic mycelium.
7. The flower cushions harbor the primary It is a wound parasite and penetrates tissues
inoculum. through wound made by other causes.
8. No insect is involved. Mealy bug (Planococcus antonii) and tea
mosquitoes (Helopeltis antonii) cause injury
to cocoa pods which facilitate infection by
the pathogen.
9. Secondary spread is through sporangia. Secondary spread is through conidia.
10. Use of Metalaxyl and Ridomil along Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.3 %
with 1% Bordeaux mixture is Difolatan is recommended.
recommended soon after fruit set.

26. Difference between Frogeye Leaf Spot and Leaf Blight of Soybean

S.No. Frogeye Leaf Spot of Soybean Leaf Blight of Soybean

1. Caused by Cercospora sojina Caused by Cercospora kikuchii
2. Causes small angular spots with gray Starts as a mottled purple-to-orange
centers and distinct purple to reddish discoloration that becomes orange orbronze.
brown margins. In older spots, dark The leaves become leathery intexture.
fungal structures form in the center of the
spot and the spots look like frog eyes.

3. This disease is found in the mid and Usually occurs on topmost three to four
upper canopy during warm and humid trifoliate leaves and on the upper surface of
weather. It usually occurs in mid to late the leaf in warm, wet weather. It usually
season. occurs in mid to late season.
4. Management: Management:
⚫ Frogeye Leaf Spot is more severe in ⚫ Rotation of soybeans with crops other
continuously cropped soybean than legumes can help reduce
fields. Cercospora in future soybean crops.
25
 ⚫ Use of resistant varieties. ⚫ Tillage can reduce soybean residue on
⚫ Fields with a history of frogeye which Cercospora pathogens survive,
should be watched carefully and if but this option must be weighed against
disease develops application of a the cost of tillage and the loss of the soil
strobilurin fungicide at the R3 conservation benefits of the residue.
growth stage (pod set) are ⚫ Foliar fungicides can control both the
considered the most effective. foliar and seed phases of this disease,but
such treatments are rarely recommended
by extension plant pathologists.

27. Difference between Bacterial Blight and Bacterial Pustule of Soybean

S.No. Bacterial Blight of Soybean Bacterial Pustule of Soybean

1. Caused by Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. Caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv.
glycinea glycinea
2. Causes small, angular, yellow-to-brown Causes small, yellow-green spots with
spots surrounded by yellow halos. The angular reddish-brown centers. The spots
angular spots enlarge and join together may join together to form large, irregular
producing large, irregular dead areas. dead areas that rupture and tear away during
The centers of old dead areas tear away windy, rainy weather. Pustules may be seen
so infected leaves have a ragged on the underside of the leaf surface.
appearance.

3. This disease is seen on the leaves at the This disease is seen on the leaves at the top of
top of the plant. It is very common and the plant. Favorable conditions are high
usually one of the first to appear on temperatures and higher-than-average
young plants. It is common after heavy rainfall.
rains and if temperatures remain cool.
4. Management: Management:
⚫ Rotate away from soybean for one ⚫ Crop rotation can be an effective method
year or more to a non-host crop such to avoid inoculum from a previously
as corn, sorghum, alfalfa, clover, or infected crop.
cereal grains. ⚫ Resistant varieties should be considered
⚫ Additional management practices for planting fields.
include completely covering ⚫ Incorporating crop residue by tillage
soybean plant residue after harvest will reduce the amount of inoculum
by clean plowing where feasible. available in the spring to infect plants;
Also, avoid cultivation when foliage howeer, there are moisture and erosion
is wet. issues to be considered.
⚫ Some copper-based bactericides are
26
 labeled for control of bacterial blight
on soybean; however, application
needs to occur early in
the disease cycle to be effective.

28. Difference between Leaf Blotch of Turmeric and Leaf Spot of Turmeric

S.No. Leaf Blotch of Turmeric Leaf Spot of Turmeric

1. Caused by Taphrina maculans Caused by Colletotrichum capsici
2. This disease usually appears on lower The disease appears usually during August
leaves in October and November. and September, when there is high and
continuous humidity in the atmosphere.
3. The individual spots are small 1-2 mm in Oblong brown spots with grey centres are
width and are mostly rectangular in shape. found on leaves. The spots are about 4-5 cm
The disease is characterized by the in length and 2-3 cm in width. In advanced
appearance of several spots on both the stages of disease black dots representing
surfaces of leaves, being generally fungal acervuli occur in concentric rings on
numerous on the upper surface. They are spot. The grey centers become thin and gets
arranged in rows along the veins. The spots teared. Severely affected leaves dry and
coalesce freely and form irregularlesions. wilt. They are surrounded by yellow halos.
They first appear as pale yellow Indefinitenumber of spots may be found on
discolorations and then become dirty a single leaf and as the disease advances;
yellow in colour. The infected leaves spots enlarge and cover a major portion of
disort and has reddish brown appearance. leaf blade.

4. The fungus is mainly air borne andprimary The fungus is carried on the scales of
infection occurs on lower leaves with the rhizomes which are the source of primary
inoculum surviving in driedleaves of host, infection during sowing.
left over in the field.
5. The ascospores discharged from The secondary spread is by wind and water
successively maturing asci infect fresh borne conidia.
leaves without dormancy, thus causing
secondary infection.
6. Destruction and burning of diseased The infected and dried leaves should be
27
 leaves would prevent the further spread of collected and burnt in order to reduce the
the disease. In fIeld trials, spraying with inoculum source in the field. Select seed
Dithane - Z 78 (0.2%) gave best control of material from disease free areas. Treat seed
the disease followed by Dithane-M45, material with mancozeb @ 3g/litre of water
Blitox 50, Bavistin and Cuman L. or carbendazim @ 1 g/litre of water, for 30
minutes and shade dry before sowing.

29. Difference between Scab and Wart of Potato

S.No. Scab of Potato Wart of Potato
1. Potato scab is caused by a spore forming Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.)
bacterium, Streptomyces scabies Lambert Percival is a chytrid fungus.
and Loria.
2. Symptoms of common potato scab are The diagnostic symptoms of wart disease are
quite variable and are manifested on the galls produced on several underground plant
surface of the potato tuber. The disease parts i.e. tubers, buds of stems, and stolons
forms several types of cork-like lesions except roots of the plant. These are
including surface. Damaged tubers have characterized by warty, tuberous and dirty
rough, cracked skin, with scab-like spots. cauliflower-like outgrowths on infected
parts.

3. Favoured by alkaline soil. Favoured by acidic soil.

4. Disease is most prevalent in dry soil or in Disease is most prevalent in wet soil or in
water deficiency. high relative humidity.
5. Streptomyces scabies is severe in pH The disease has been found to occur in
ranging from 5.2-8.0 plants growing in soils ranging from pH
3.9 to pH 8.5.
6. Management: Management:

1. Long rotations of three to five years, 1. Entry of diseased material into healthy
preferably with legumes, butexcluding areas should be prevented.
beets, carrots, parsnips and fleshy- 2. The diseased potato tubers should be
rooted crucifers, are useful in reducing discarded.
the severity of the disease. 3. Soil treatment may control the disease
2. Irrigate field regularly and maintain to a large extent. These include steam
moisture at field capacity. sterilization and application of
3. The lowering of soil pH to between mercuric chloride—copper sulphate
5.0 and 5.2 with applications of and 5 percent formaline. But these are
28
 sulphur has proved useful in reducing very costly.
the level of scab in some soils of high 4. Cultivation of disease resistant varieties
pH. continuously for 8-10 years is the only
4. Use acid-producing fertilizers and use effective control measure.
ammonium sulphate as a source of
nitrogen.

30. Difference between Common Scab and Powdery Scab of Potato

S.No. Common Scab of Potato Powdery Scab of Potato

1. Potato scab is caused by a spore forming It is caused by the protozoan Spongospora
bacterium, Streptomyces scabies Lambert subterranea f. sp. subterranea and is
and Loria. widespread in potato growing countries.
2. Symptoms of common potato scab are Symptoms of powdery scab include small
quite variable and are manifested on the lesions in the early stages of the disease,
surface of the potato tuber. The disease progressing to raised pustules containing a
forms several types of cork-like lesions powdery mass. The powdery pustules
including surface. Damaged tubers have contain resting spores that release
rough, cracked skin, with scab-like spots. anisokont zoospores to infect the root hairs
of potatoes or tomatoes. Powdery scab is a
cosmetic defect on tubers, which can result
in the rejection of these potatoes. Potatoes
which have been infected can be peeled to
remove the infected skin and the remaining
inside of the potato can be cooked and
eaten.
3.

4. Disease is most prevalent in dry soil or in Disease is most prevalent during cool and
water deficiency. wet weather conditions.
5. Management: Management:

⚫ Long rotations of three to five years, ⚫ Using certified clean seeds and planting
preferably with legumes, butexcluding in fields that have been historically
beets, carrots, parsnips and fleshy- healthy is the best form of control.
rooted crucifers, are useful in reducing ⚫ Since infection is promoted by cool soil
the severity of the disease. temperatures and high soil moisture,
⚫ Irrigate field regularly and maintain delayed planting can also help reduce
moisture at field capacity. negative effects of the
⚫ The lowering of soil pH to between

29
 5.0 and 5.2 with applications of pathogen.
sulphur has proved useful in reducing ⚫ Several cultivars of resistant potatoes
the level of scab in some soils of high include Granola, Nicola, Ditta, and
pH. Gladiator.
⚫ Use acid-producing fertilizers and use ⚫ Researchers have investigated the use
ammonium sulphate as a source of of beta-aminobutyric acid (BABA) in
nitrogen. promoting potato resistance.
⚫ Currently has no effective chemical
controls.

31. Difference between Black Scurf of Potato and Black Shank of Tobacco
S. No. Black Scurf of Potato Black Shank of Tobacco
1. Caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn. Caused by Phytophthora parasitica var.
nicotianae (Breda de Haan) Tucker
2. Telomorph - Thanatephorus cucumeris Pathogen show both asexual and sexual
(Shirai) Tu & Kimbrough belongs to stage by itself (Oomycota).
Basidiomycota.
3. Symptoms can be observed on above and Black shank affects tobacco plants at all
below ground plant parts. growth stages.
4. Symptoms observed above ground early The most common symptom of the disease
in the season include necrosis at the tips is a root and crown rot, but the pathogen may
of the sprouts (which may eventually also infect leaves if they come in contact with
cause the emerging plant to die) and infested soil during rainyperiods.
sunken lesions on stolons, roots, and
stems.
5. Later in the season, sclerotia areproduced Colonization of root tissues in susceptible
in the tubers creating a signcalled black varieties proceeds rapidly and ultimately
scurf which is simply, sclerotized reaches the stem, resulting in the
mycelium. characteristic black shank symptom and
plant death.

30
 6. Stems with cankers can become girdled, Signs of the pathogen are infrequently
resulting in stunted plants. Leaves of observed on plant stems and around leaf
infected plants develop a purplish and lesions, but hyphae often are readily
chlorotic coloration. observed in pith tissues upon splitting of the
stem.
7. The fungus (higher fungi) produces The fungus (lower fungi) produces
septate/acoenocytic mycelium aseptate/coenocytic mycelium
8. Thick walled sclerotia and ascospores is Primary infection caused by oospores by
the source of primary infection. releasing biflagellate zoospores.
9. Secondary spread is through conidia. Secondary spread is through sporangia.
10. A neutral to acid soil (pH 7 or less) are Soil pH values between 5.5 and 6.0 provide
thought to favour development of favorable growing conditions for tobacco
Rhizoctonia diseases of potato, so high without providing highly conducive
pH check the infection. conditions for P. nicotianae.

32. Difference between Black leg of potato and crucifer

S.No. Black Leg of Potato Black Leg of Crucifers

1. Bacterial Disease Fungal Disease
2. Caused by Pectobacterium atrosepticum Caused by Phoma lingam an anamorphic
(older synonym: Erwinia carotovorasubsp. fungi having perfect stage Leptosphaeria
astroseptica) maculans
3. It is a gram-negative, non-sporulating, Anamophic stage produces two types of
facultative anaerobe that is also associated pycnidia (which produce asexual spores
with soft rot of potatoes. known as pycnidiospores) can be found;one
on infected, live plants (thinner-walled
pycnidium with a neck) and the other on
crop residues (thicker-walled pycnidium
with a narrow ostiole). Whereas,
telomorphic stage produces pseudothecia
release ascospores.
4. Early blackleg - symptoms develop in the Pale, irregular spots develop on cotyledons,
growing season soon after the plants leaves, stems or petioles, later becoming
emerge. They are characterized by somewhat circular to oval, ashy-gray
stunted, yellowish foliage that has a stiff, colored with scattered tiny, black pycnidia.
upright habit. Stem cankers develop after the fungus
Late blackleg - black discoloration of grows systemically. Vascular tissues may
previously healthy stems, accompanied by turn black in color prior to development of
a rapid wilting, and sometimes yellowing, external black leg symptoms. Plants
of the leaves. produced from infected seeds that survive
the seedling stage are stunted and often
develop a rot of the stem at or just below
the soil line, which moves upwards and can
cause plant death.

31
 5. An important insect vector is the seed corn No insect vector involved.
maggot (Hylemya platura and H.
florilega), which spread the bacteria from
diseased to healthy tissues. Another insect
vector is the fruit fly (Drosophila
melanogaster).

33. Difference between pink rot of potato and red rot of sugarcane

S.No. Pink Rot Red rot

1. Disease of Potato Disease of Sugarcane
2. Caused by Phytophthora erythrosepica, Caused by Colletotrichum falcatum having
an Oomycetes fungus. Glomerella tucumansis Spegazzini as a
perfect stage belongs Ascomycota.
3. Produces thick-walled sexual spores Fungus produces acervuli as a fruiting
called oospores which releases motile body.
biflagellate zoospores.
4. The name “pink rot” describes the pink The tissues are reddened throughout the
color that develops in infected tuber tissue basal portion, especially the vascular
when tubers are cut and exposed to air for bundles, which are intensely red; there may
15 to 30 minutes. Disease symptoms, be crosswise white patches interrupting the
mostly characterized by stunning and reddened tissues. Since reddening is a
wilting, appear on the potato vines late in common symptom of other diseases of
the growing season causing leaf sugarcane, the white patches is important
yellowing, drying and defoliation. diagnostic characteristic of red rot.

32
 5.

34. Difference between red rot and sett rot of sugarcane

S.No. Red Rot of Sugarcane Sett Rot of Sugarcane

1. It is known as red rot only. It is also known as Pineapple disease.

2. Caused by Colletotrichum falcatum Caused by Ceratocystis paradoxa (Dade)

Went. Moreau
3. Perfect stage is Glomerella tucumansis The pathogen itself belongs to Ascomycota.
Spegazzini belongs Ascomycota.
4. The first symptom of red rot in the field The disease primarily affects the sugarcane
is discolouration of the young leaves. setts.
5. The margins and tips of the leaves wither When diseased setts are planted they rot
from the tip to the leaf base until whole before germination, or the shoots die after
crown withers and the plant dies, reaching a height of about 15-25 cm and if
within 4 to 8 days. survive are highly stunted having chlorosis.
6. The tissues are reddened throughout the If the affected shoots and setts are examined,
basal portion, especially the vascular the central portion of the shoot is seen
bundles, which are intensely red; there discoloured red and the contents of the sett
may be crosswise white patches rotting.
interrupting the reddened tissues.

33
7. Since reddening is a common symptom of A characteristic pineapple smell isassociated
other diseases of sugarcane, the white with the rotting and hence thename.
patches is important diagnostic
characteristic of red rot.
8. Fungus produces acervuli as a fruiting Fungus produces perithecia as a fruiting
body. body.

9. The primary infection, however, appears The fungus is soil-borne, entering the setts
to be mainly from infected setts. through the cut ends and spread rapidly
through the parenchymatous tissues and
causes sett rot.
10. Secondary spread in the field is through Secondary spread is through micro- and
irrigation water, cultivation tools and by macro-conidia.
wind-borne conidia.

35. Difference between Red rot and Red stripe of sugarcane

S.No. Red Rot of Sugarcane Red Stripe of Sugarcane

1. It is a fungal disease. It is a bacterial disease.
2. Caused by Colletotrichum falcatum Caused by Pseudomonas rubrilineans (Lee
Went. et al.) Stapp.
3. Perfect stage is Glomerella tucumansis Pseudomonas is a Gram-negative bacterium.
Spegazzini belongs Ascomycota.
4. The first symptom of red rot in the field The disease primarily appeared as chlorotic
is discolouration of the young leaves. lesions on the leaves.
5. The margins and tips of the leaves wither Chlorotic leasions of the leaves carrying dark
from the tip to the leaf base until whole red stripes 0.5-1.0mm in breadth and several
crown withers and the plant dies, within mm in length, either distributed all over the
4 to 8 days. blade, or concentrated in the
middle.
34
 6. The tissues are reddened throughout the In the affected canes, cavities develop in the
basal portion, especially the vascular pith region, and the vascular bundles are
bundles, which are intensely red; there distinct because of the dark red
may be crosswise white patches discolouration.
interrupting the reddened tissues.
7. Since reddening is a common symptom of Whitish flakes occur on the lower surface of
other diseases of sugarcane, the white the leaf, corresponding to the red lesions on
patches is important diagnostic the upper surface. These flakes are the dry
characteristic of red rot. bacterial ooze.
8. The primary infection, however, appears The disease spreads in the field by wind and
to be mainly from infected setts having rain and by several other physical &
acervuli. Secondary spread in the field is biological agents. It is rarely transmitted by
through irrigation water, cultivation tools cuttings.
and by wind-borne conidia.

36. Difference between Pokkah boeng of sugarcane and Bakane of rice

S.No. Pokkah Boeng Disease Bakane Disease

1. Pokkah Boeng is a Javanese term Word Bakanae disease is derived from
denoting a “malformation or distorted Japanese language which mean “foolish
top”. seedling”.
2. It is a disease of sugarcane. It is a disease of rice.
3. Both disease caused by Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon having perfect stage is
Gibberella fujikuroi (Saw.) Wr. belongs to Ascomycota
4. The characteristics symptoms of Pokkah The most conspicuous symptom of this
Boeng disease are the appearance of disease resulting in hyper or hypo-
chlorotic patches (Chlorotic Phase) elongation of stem, pale green flag leaf,
towards the base of the young leaves, in yellowish green leaves, limited and dried
acute cases disease (Acute Phase) shows leaves at later stages of infection, lesions on
distortion of stalk with external and roots of infected plants, development of
internal cut like lesions and rotting of rigid or sinewy adventitious roots on first or

35
 apical part of stalk (Knife-cut Phase). second nodes and death of infected plants
Under field conditions, the disease may before maturity. When an infected culm is
develop many variations from thegeneral split open and examined, a whitish cottony
symptoms, but the final result is usually a mycelium can be seen in the nodal regions.
malformed or damaged top and stalk. The
base of affected leaves is oftennarrower as
compared to normal leaves.

5. Basically it is an air-borne disease andIt is a seed as well as soil borne disease which
primarily transmitted through the air- perpetuates from remains of infected plants
circulation and secondary infection takes
from one season to next. Healthy seed sown
place through the infected setts, irrigation
in infected soil results in the
water, splashed rains and soil.
infected seedlings.
6. The severe incidence of the disease Disease occurred best at a temperature of
occurred in the range of temperature 25°C-35°C.
between 20°C-32°C.
7. Spraying of different fungicides like Various fungicides are used worldwide for
Bavistin (1 gm/lit. of water) or Blitox the control of the disease among these
(0.2%) or Copper oxychloride or 0.3% Deconil, Dithane-M, Derosil are the best
Dithane M-45 (3 gm/L of water) are the fungicides for disease control.
effective for reducing the Pokkah Boeng
disease.

37. Difference between Ratoon stunting and GSD of Sugarcane

S.No. Ratoon stunting GSD of Sugarcane

1. It is caused by a fastidious xylem limited It is a mycoplasmal disease.
Gram-positive bacterium Leifsonia xyli
(formerly Clavibacter xyli pv. xyli).
2. The affected plants are stunted, the The disease is characterized by proliferation
stunting being most severe in stubble and of vegetative buds from the base of the cane
ratoon crops. giving rise to crowded bunch of tillers
bearing narrow leaves having chlorosis.

36
 3. The setts taken from diseased plants Cane formation rarely takes place in
germinate poorly and the few shoots that affected clumps and if formed, the canes are
emerge grow very slowly. thin with short internodes.
4. The pathogen over seasons in infected The disease is transmitted by aphids
sugarcane plants and propagative (Rhopalosiphum maidis, Melanaphis
materials such as seed cane. The sacchari and Melanaphis ideosacchari) and
bacterium is also spread by cuttingknives leafhopper (Proutista moesta) in non-
and by cultivation and harvesting persistant manner. It may also transmitted
equipment. mechanically by sap through knives.

38. Difference between the quick and slow decline of Pear

S.No. Pear Decline

Two types of decline symptoms are recognized: quick decline and slow decline. The
degree to which decline symptoms are expressed is governed by the sensitivity of the
rootstock and cultural practices, especially the level of psyllid control achieved.
Quick Decline Slow Decline
1. Where the phloem at the bud union is Terminal growth of the plant is reduced or
sufficiently damaged to starve the roots may cease completely.
during the growing season, fruits cease to
develop and both fruits and leaves wilt
rapidly.
2. This may be followed by some leaf Leaves are few, small, leathery and light-
scorching and leaf death. green, with slightly up-rolled margins; they
become abnormally red in autumn and drop
prematurely.
3. Trees generally die within a few weeks. There is a progressive weakening of the
tree, which may fluctuate in severity.
4. A typical diagnostic symptom of pear decline is a dark phloem ring immediately below
the graft union in bark sections from infected trees, visible by microscopic examination
of stained transverse sections.
37
39. Difference between Leaf Scorch, Leaf Spot and Leaf Blight of Strawberry

Strawberry

S.No. Leaf Scorch Leaf Spot Leaf Blight

1. Caused by the fungus Caused by the fungus, Caused by the fungus,
Diplocarpon earlianum. Mycosphaerella fragariae. Phomopsis obscurans.
2. Symptoms of leaf scorch Symptoms of leaf spot first Symptoms of leaf blight
consist of numerous small, appear as circular, deep infections begin as one to
irregular, purplish spots or purple spots on the upper leaf several circular reddish-
“blotches” that develop on the surface. These spots enlarge purple spots on a leaflet.Spots
upper surface of leaves. The and the centers turn grayish to enlarge to V-shaped lesions
centers of the blotches become white on older leaves and light with a light brown inner zone
brownish. Blotches may brown on young leaves. A and dark brown outer zone.
coalesce until they nearlycover definite reddish purple to Lesions follow major veins
the leaflet, which then appears rusty brown border surrounds progressing inward. The
purplish to reddish to brown. the spots. On fruit, superficial whole leaflet may turn brown.
Lesions may also develop on black spots may form under In severe cases, stolons, fruit
flowers and fruits. Affected moist weather conditions.The trusses and petioles may
petals may wither anddrop from spots form on ripe berries become infected which may
plant. Lesions may girdle around groups of seeds. The girdleand kill the stem.
peduncles causing death of spots are about ¼ inch in
fruit. diameter, and there are
usually only one or two spots
per fruit. However, some
fruits may be more severely
infected.

38
 3. The fungus overwinters as The fungus overwinters on The fungus overwinters as
spores in lesions on leaves. The infected leaves. The fungus mycelium or fruiting
fungus infects the plant and produces spore forming structures on the old leaves
produces more spores in spots structures in the spring on that remain attached to the
on the upper and lower leaf both surfaces of dead leaves. plant. Spores are spread by
surface that spread the disease These structures produce rain splash early in the spring.
during early summer. These spores abundantly in Leaf blight is most destructive
spores are spread by splashing midsummer. In the presence to older leaves in the late
rain. Middle-aged leaves are of free water, these spores can summer. Petioles,calyxes and
most susceptible. Lesions also germinate and infect the plant fruit may also be infected
develop on stems, petioles and within 24 hours. Older and earlier in the season.
runners. middle-aged leaves are
infected more easily than
young ones.
4. Leaf spot and leaf scorch are controlled most effectively by the There are no varieties with
use of resistant varieties. The following varieties are reported reported resistance to leaf
to be resistant to both leaf spot and leaf scorch: Allstar, Canoga, blight.
Cardinal, Delite, Earliglow, Honeoye, Jewell, Lester, Midway
and Redchief. The ever bearing varieties, Tribute and Tristar, are
reported to be tolerant to leaf spot and leaf scorch.
5. Management is common for all three spot diseases:-

⚫ Avoid overhead irrigation if possible.

⚫ Remove the older and infected leaves from runner plants before setting.
⚫ Take care in spacing runner plants in matted-row culture.
⚫ Plant in light, well-drained soil in a location exposed to all-day sun and good air
circulation.
⚫ Control weeds in the planting. Weeds reduce air circulation and increase drying time for
leaves. (Leaves stay wet longer in weedy plantings.)
⚫ Removing infected leaves after harvest (during renovation) is helpful in reducing inoculum
and controlling all the leaf diseases.
⚫ Spray the Bordeaux mixture @1%.
⚫ Spray of Copper oxychloride or Dyfolation or Chlorothalonil @0.2 %.

40. Difference between Apple Scab and Pear Scab

Scab
Fruit tree scab is characterized by a large number of small raised marks or scab on the fruit.
S.No. Apple Peach

39
1. Caused by Venturia inaequalis Caused by Cladosporium carpophilum
Anamorph: Spilocaea pomi
2. Symptoms Symptoms
⚫ Scab usually noticed on leaves and ⚫ Scab first appears as small, round,
fruits, but can also infect flower and green to black spots on the fruit about
stem. six or seven weeks after petal fall.
⚫ Affected leaves become twisted or ⚫ These circular spots later become black
puckered and have black and circular and velvety.
spots on their upper surface.
⚫ When the disease is severe, the lesions
often run together, resulting in fruit
cracking or abnormal fruitdevelopment.

⚫ On the under surface of leaves, the

spots are velvety and may coalesce to
cover the whole leaf surface.
⚫ Severely affected leaves may turn
yellow and drop. ⚫ The disease can also affect twigs and
⚫ The lesions later become sunken and leaves.
brown. ⚫ Shoot and twig infections result in
⚫ Infected fruit become distorted and circular to oval lesions with brown
may crack. centers and slightly raised purple
margins.

3. The pathogen survives in the soil debris. It overwinters in twig lesions or on bark
The perfect stage occurs as overwintering surface. This fungus becomes active during
stage on fallen leaves. Primary infection in shuck-split (just after petal fall) and during
40
 spring is caused by both ascospores and the subsequent weeks.
conidia. Drought in early spring checks
development of perithecia on the ground
and the disease develops later than usual.
4. Favorable Conditions: Favorable Conditions:
According to Mill’s Rule given by ⚫ Conidia are produced in large numbers
Mill’s in 1944 for the prediction of apple under high humidity.
scab - ⚫ Spores are most abundant two to six
⚫ Number of hours of leaf wetness and weeks after the shuck split stage of
⚫ The prevailing temperature (mean development.
temp. 25℃)
5. Management Management
⚫ Collection and destruction of fallen ⚫ Pruning the tree canopy promotes
leaves and pruned materials in winter good air circulation and allows light to
to prevent the sexual cycle. penetrate which can help control scab.
⚫ Spray Tridemorph @0.1% before ⚫ Apply protectant fungicides diligently.
flowering. ⚫ The most effective materials are
⚫ Spray Mancozeb @0.25 % at bearing Abound, Adament, captan,
stage. chlorothalonil, Gem, and Topsin M.
⚫ Spray 5% urea prior to leaf fall in Begin sprays at shuck split and repeat
autumn and 2% before bud break to every 10 to 14 days until 40 days before
hasten the decomposition of leaves. harvest.

41. Difference between Stem Gall of Coriander and Jute

S.No. Stem Gall of Coriander Stem Gall of Jute

1. Caused by an ascomycete fungus named Caused a chytrid fungi named Physoderma
Protomyces macrosporus. corchori.
2. The disease is evident in the form of tumour- Disease appears by producing galls on the lower
like swellings (galls) on stem, leafstalks, leaf portion of the stem, above the ground level.
peduncles, leaf veins, and fruits.

3. These tumours are at first glassy but later Galls are small and greenish in colour but later
rupture and turn to be rough. turn dark brown, big in size and crack at
maturity.
4. Hyphae are intercellular, closely septate and Sporangia are smooth and dark brown in
broad; branching is irregular, scattered cells
41
 in the hyphae swell, form ellipsoidal or colour.
globose bodies, which later develop in to
chlamydospores.

5. The mycelium of the fungus is only found in Galls containg resting sporangia, which are
the tumours although the resting spores of the globose to sub-spherical with a circular
fungus cause systemic infection. depression on one side where the operculum is
situated.

42. Difference between three bacterial blights of bean

S.No. Common Blight Halo Blight Bacterial Brown Spot

1. Xanthomonas campestris pv. Pseudomonas syringae pv. Pseudomonas syringae pv.
phaseoli phaseolicola syringae
2. Prevalent in warms. Prevalent in cool weather. Prevalent in cool weather.
3. The infected area,which is A wider halo-like zone of The infected area.which is
surrounded by narrow zoneof yellowish tissue 10mm or surrounded by narrow zone
bright yellow tissue turns more in width forms outside of blight yellow tissue turns
brown & becomes necrotic. the water soaked area,giving brown and becomes
the leaves a yellowish necrotic.
appearance.

4. Bacterial exudates is yellow Bacterial exudates is light Bacterial exudates is light

coloured. cream or silver coloured. cream or silver coloured.

43. Difference between early blight, late blight and leaf spot of tomato/potato

S.No. Early Blight Late Blight Leaf Spot

1. Alternaria solani Phytophthora infestans Septoria lycopersici
One or two spots per leaf, Spots start out pale green, Numerous brown spots
2.
approximately ¼ to ½ inch usually near the edges of tips appear on the leaves,
42
 in diameter. Spots have tan of foliage, and turn brown to approximately 1/16 to 1/8
centers with concentricrings purplish-black. In humid inch in diameter. The spots
in them and yellow halos conditions, a fuzzy mold lack a yellow halo, and,upon
around the edges. appears on the undersides of close inspection, have black
leaves. specks in the center.

Brown, leathery spots appear

Fruit is not affected, though
Dark, sunken spots will on the top and sides of the
sunscald on the fruit can be
3. appear on the stem end of green fruit. In humid
a problem due to foliage loss.
fruits. conditions, white mold also
forms.
Black and brown spots
appear and spread. Entire
Dark, sunken cankers at or
4. vines can be killed very No stem damage.
above the soil line.
quickly in periods of high
humidity.
High humidity, and High humidity, temperatures High humidity, temperatures
5. temperatures above 75 between 60 and 80 degrees between 60 and 80 degrees
degrees F. F. F.
Remove lower leaves after Remove infected foliage as
Pull and destroy the plant,
first fruit sets, remove it appears, clean tools before
select resistant varieties next
6. affected leaves as they moving to another plant.
year, and plant tomatoes in a
appear, plant tomatoes in a Plant tomatoes in a different
different area of the garden.
different area next year. area of the garden next year.

44. Difference between Tomato Virus X, Y and S

S.No. Tomato Virus X Tomato Virus Y Tomato Virus S

All the three are ssRNA positive-strand viruses
1. Potato virus X (PVX) is a Potato virus Y (PVY) is a Potato virus S (PVS) is a
plant pathogenic virus of plant pathogenic virus of the plant pathogenic virus of
the family family Potyviridae. the family Betaflexiviridae
Alphaflexiviridae and the and the order Tymovirales.
order Tymovirales.
2. It is the type species of the It is the type species of the It is the type species of the
genus Potexvirus. genus Potyvirus. genus Carlavirus.
3. More virulent strains can It is one of the most Yield reduction caused by
43
 reduce yields of intolerant important plant viruses PVS infection is usuallylow,
cultivars by up to 50%. affecting potato production. at worst 10 to 20%, except in
Infection of a potato field the case of mixed infections
with PVY may ultimately with otherviruses.
result in 10-100% loss in
yield.
4. There are no insect or PVY infection of potato PVS causes mild or no
fungal vectors for this plants results in a variety of symptoms in most potato
virus. This virus causes symptoms depending on the varieties. It is common in
mild or no symptoms in viral strain. The mildest of potatoes in many regions
most potato varieties, but these symptoms is and does not cause
when Potato virus Y is production loss, but the most significant yield losses.
present, synergy between detrimental is 'potato tuber Field-grown potatoes are
these two viruses causes necrotic ringspot disease' not routinely screened for
severe symptoms of (PTNRD). Necrotic this virus because it is not
interveinal mosaic and ringspots render potatoes considered economically
necrosis on leaves, unmarketable and can important.
mottling with stunting. therefore result in a
Vegetative gowing stage significant loss of income.
of plants mainly affected
by this virus
5. PVX is found mainly in PVY may be transmitted to It is very easily transmitted
potatoes and is only potato plants through both by contact between
transmitted mechanically. grafting, plant sap diseased and healthy plants
inoculation and through (e.g. with farm implements)
aphid transmission. Thegreen and by aphids in a non-
peach aphid (Myzus persicae) persistent mode. The most
has been found to be most frequently mentioned
effective in its role as viral vector aphids are Myzus
vector, but others such as persicae, Aphis nasturtiiand
Aphis fabae, Aphis gossypii, Aphis frangulae.
Aphis nasturtii,
Macrosiphum euphorbiae,
Myzus (Nectarosiphon)
certus, Myzus (Phorodon)
humuli and Rhopalosiphum
insertum are also strongly
associated with viral
transmission.
6. PVX infects mainly PVY infects many Host range is narrow.
Brassica rapa, potato economically important Susceptible species belong
(Solanum tuberosum), plant species. These include mainly to the Solanaceae
tobacco (Nicotiana potato (Solanum tuberosum), and Chenopodiaceae.
tabacum). tobacco (Nicotiana
tabacum), tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum) and pepper
(Capsicum spp.)
7. Resistance: It is important to use certified or foundation disease-free seed tubers.
Resistance is the best line of defense against the potato viruses and is available for PVX,

44
 PVY and PVS.

Aphid transmitted viruses (PVY and PVS): Plant early to avoid heavy aphid
populations. Chemical control is not always completely effective when viruses are
transmitted in a non-persistent manner, as the aphids can infect many plants before the
insecticide is able to kill them. An oil spray can be used to prevent aphids from
transmitting the virus while they feed.

Tuber transmitted viruses (PVX and PVS): There are no chemical control measures for
these viruses. Avoid unnecessary handling of plants. Avoid contact between disease- free
tubers and those that are potentially carrying the disease. The disease can also be spread
by handling the plants and by tools such as planters and knives. Make sure that hand tools
are cleaned frequently while working, and that equipment is cleaned thoroughly between
different areas. For PVS infection, plants must be infected early in the season for the
disease to occur, since most cultivars are naturally resistant as mature plants.

45. Difference between fungal blight and bacterial blight

S.No. Fungal Blight Bacterial Blight

1. Fungal lesions usually aren’t surrounded Yellow haloing around lesions on leaves is
by yellow halos. Some lesions will have a one sign of bacterial disease (though there
characteristic “bulls eye” appearance. are several fungi that can cause similar
symptoms).

2. They may manifest as round, oval, or Bacterial lesions tend to be limited by veins
irregular necrotic areas. in the leaves.
3. Under a dissecting microscope or strong We also suspect bacteria when we find
hand-lens, fungal fruiting bodies (which sticky exudate or stringy ooze in diseased
contain spores) may be observed. tissue.

46. Difference between Downy Mildew and Powdery Mildew

S.No. Downy Mildew Powdery Mildew

45
1. Downy mildew isn't caused by a fungus Powdery mildew is caused by fungus
but is part of the mold family. belongs to Ascomycota.
2. Downy mildew is less common but can be Powdery mildew is the most common
very damaging to plants. type of mildew.
3. It is commonly found on the undersides of It most prevalent on the top sides of
leaves and isn't as easy to identify. The leaves, it can also appear on both the top
colour of spores are yellow to off brown and and bottom sides of leaves.
growth of the spores are restricted by vein.

4. It is known as false mildew. It is known as true mildew because they

form a mealy, superficial powdery white
stratum on the surfaces of leaves in a
number of plants.
5. It is a chlorosis symptom. It is a necrosis symptom.
6. It is a monsoon or cool wet weather It is a cold weather or cool dry weather
disease. disease.
7. Mycelium is aseptate or coenocytic. Mycelium is septate or acoenocytic.
8. They produce various types of haustoria They produce two principle types of
such as images shaped or branched, short haustoria: the globular. formed by most
ovate, vesicular etc. Erysiphaceae, and the digitate, formedby
Erysiphe graminis. Although the
haustoria are intracellular. they lie
outside the host protoplast and are
separated from it by plasma membrane
so that the protoplast of the fungal
parasite does not come in direct contact
with the host cytoplasm.
9. Downy mildews are endophyte and They are ectophyte and biotrophic. None
biotrophic (obligate) parasites, complete of the Erysiphales has been cultured
their entire life cycle on the living host, and axenically so far. However, somesuccess
cannot be grown in laboratory culture from has been obtained with growing them on
spore to spore. However, some powdery leaf disease in water or in nutrient
mildew fungi are being grown in tissue solution in Petri dishes, and in growing
culture. Erysiphe cichoracearum on tumor tissue
and isolated epidermis and mesophyll
tissue.
10. Sexual stage produces oospores. Sexual stage produces ascospores.
11. Conidiophores or sporangiophores are well Conidiophores are simple.
branched and tree-like, with determinate
growth. At the tip of each branch of
conidiophore is present a single conidium.
12. Asexual reproduction either by zoospores Asexual reproduction by conidia.
or by germtube.
13. Not easier to manage. Due to their superficial position on the
hosts. the powdery mildews can be easier
to manage than most other
parasitic fungi.
14. Examples: Examples:
All the ten genera known to cause downy Powdery mildew of pea is caused by
mildew diseases in various crops. Downy Erysiphe polygony, powdery mildew of
46
 mildew (DM) of grape vine is caused by apple is caused by Podosphaera
Plasmopara viticola, DM of bajra is caused leucotricha, etc.
by Sclerospora graminicola, DM of
cucurbits are cause by Pseudoperonospora
cubensis etc.

47. Difference between Anthracnose and Charcoal rot

S.No. Anthracnose Charcoal Rot

1. Generally caused by Colletotrichum spp. Caused by fungus Macrophomina
but some other mitosporic fungi like phaseolina
Coryneum, Cylindrosporium,
Marssonina, Melanconium and
Sphaceloma are also responsible to cause
anthracnose.
2. Perfect stages belong to four Perfect stage is Thanatephorus cucumeris
ascomycetous fungi, Diplocarpon, (Shirai) Tu & Kimbrough belongs to
Elsinoe, Glomerella and Gnomonia. Basidiomycota
3. No sclerotial stage is present Sclerotial stage is Rhizoctonia bataticola
(Taub.) Buthl.
4. Mitosporic fungi causing anthracnose Macrophomina belongs to Order-
belongs to Order-Melanconiales of Class- Sphaeropsidales of Class-Coelomycetes.
Coelomycetes.
5. Perfect stage belongs to Class- Perfect stage belongs to Class-
Sordariomycetes of Ascomycota Dothideomycetes of Ascomycota
6. The symptoms are most visible on leaves Symptoms of charcoal rot, also known as
and ripe fruits. At first, anthracnose dry-weather wilt and summer wilt, appear
generally appears on leaves as small and during hot, dry weather when unfavorable
irregular yellow, brown, dark-brown, or environmental conditions stress the plant. In
black spots. The spots can expand and infested fields, diseased plants are wilted and
merge to cover the whole affected area. dead pre-maturely similar to those ofsudden
The color of the infected part darkens as it death syndrome (SDS). Discoloration in
ages. cortex tissues of taproot and lower stems is
typical. When stems are split, piths of
diseased plants have brownstem rot (BSR)-
like browning in the lower part of the stem.
In some plants, however, no pith browning
can be found.

47
 7. Anamorphic fruiting body is acervuli. Anamorphic fruiting body is pycnidia.
8. Telomorphic fruiting body is Telomorphic fruiting body is basidiocarp.
perithecium.
9. Fungus is externally seed-borne. Fungus is seed as well as soil borne.
10. The fungus is carried on the seeds and Pathogen lives saprophytically on organic
causes primary infection of the matter in soil cause primary infection and
seedlings. Secondary spread occurs due secondary spread through air-borne
to air-borne conidia. pycniospores.

48. Difference between Fusarium and Verticillium wilt

S.No. Fusarium Wilt Verticilium Wilt

1. Perfect stage is Gibberella. Perfect stage not yet known.
2. Numerous species were reported. Only few species were reported.
3. Sporodochia- a special hyphae cushion Sporodochia are absent.
like structure is found.
4. Microconidia, macroconidia and Conidia and micro sclerotia are found.
chlamydospores are embedded in
sporodochia.
5. Warm weather disease. Cold weather disease.
6. Disease incidence higher in high acidic Disease incidence higher in alkaline soil.
soil.
7. Prevalent in sandy soil. Prevalent in heavy soil.
8. Nematodes like root knot, reniform, sting No external agency required.
and burrowing nematodes predispose
plant roots for wilting.
9. Sometimes transmitted internally through No external seed transmission.
seed.
10. Primary spread is through Primary spread through micro sclerotia.
chlamydospores.
11. Chlorosis and defoliation of leaves. Interveinal chlorosis (tiger claw shaped)
and withering of leaves.

48
49. Difference between Fungal wilt and Bacterial wilt

S.No. Fungal Wilt Bacterial Wilt

1. Disease symptoms progress from older to Disease symptoms progress from younger
younger leaves. to older leaves.
2. No symptom in young growing leaves Young emerging buds can be distorted,
and suckers (in case of banana). necrotic and eventually die.
3. No exudation in exposed surfaces. Bacterial ooze can be observed on
exposed cut surfaces like roots, stem,
pseudostem (banana), rachis, flowers,
fruits, rhizome etc.
4. Generally no development of symptoms Internally fruit rot and necrosis developed.
in fruits.
5. For Example:- For Example:-
⚫ Ceratocystis – wilt of oak tree. ⚫ Clavibacter/Cornybacterium -
⚫ Ophiostoma - wilt of elm tree (Dutch bacterial wilt in potatoes and
elm disease). tomatoes.
⚫ Fusarium - causes vascular wilt of ⚫ Curobacterium - bacterial wilt of
vegetables, flowers, pulses, cereals, beans.
herbaceous, perennial, ornamental ⚫ Erwinia - bacterial wilt of cucurbits,
and cash crops etc. fire blight of pome fruits (apple and
⚫ Verticillium - causes vascular wilt in pear) and soft rot of potatoes.
vegetables, field crops. ⚫ Pontoea stewartii - stewart’s wilt of
corn.
⚫ Ralstonia solanacearum - other
bacterial wilt of solanacea.
⚫ Xanthomonas - black rot/black vein of
crucifers.

50. Difference between Rust and Smut

S.No. Rust Smut

1. It is caused by the fungus of the class It is caused by the fungus of the class
Uredinomycetes of phylum Basidiomycota. Ustilaginales of phylum Basidiomycota.
2. The name given because of the rusty The name given because of the black
appearance. powdery appearance of infected host
plant.
3. Rusts are intercellular. Smuts are intercellular as well as
intracellular.
4. The teliospores (encysted probasidium) is The teliospores (smut spores) are usually
terminal and germinates to give a intercalary and the basidiospores are
promycelium (metabasidium) bearing produced either terminally or laterally
basidiospores on sterigmata from which but are sessile, (i.e., not borne on
they are forcibly discharged (active). sterigmata) and are not forcibly
discharged (passive) from the
metabasidium.
49
 5. The teleutospores are binucleate. The teleutospores are uninucleate or
binucleate.
6. Generally they complete their life cycle with They are autoeciuos i.e., complete their
two different hosts i.e., heteroeciuos but life cycle with one host.
some are autoeciuos also.
7. Clamp connection on secondary mycelium Clamp connections are common.
is rare.
8. Alternation of generation is distinct. Alternation of generation is indistinct.
9. Heteroecism is commonly present. Heteroecism is absent.
10. Polymorphism is absent. Polymorphism is absent.
11. Sex organs are specialized. Sex organs are absent.
12. Basidiocarps are absent. Basidiocarps rare.
13. Perfect spore is terminal Perfect spore is intercalary.
14. Sporidial number is definite (4). Sporidial number is indefinite.
15. Basidiosperm are globular and formed on Basidiosperm are sickle shaped or
short sterigmata. elongated or elliptical or hyphae like
sessile.
16. Basidium bears 4 basidiospores. Numerous basidiospores are produced
from basidium.
17. Teliospores borne from the terminal cells Teliospores borne from intercalary cells
and germinate to produce pro-mycelium. and basidiospores are produced
terminally.
18. Genera like Puccinia, Uromyces, Genera like Ustilago, Urocystis,
Hemilieia, Gymnosporangium etc. under Moesziomyces etc. under order
order Uredinales Ustilaginales.
19.

51. Difference between Black and Yellow Sigatoka of Banana

S.No. Yellow Sigatoka Black Sigatoka

50
1. It was first recorded in Indonesian island First reported in Fiji 1964. It is absent in
of java in 1902. Its prevalent in India. India.
2. Caused by Pseudocercospora musae Caused by Pseudocercospora fijiensis
3. Perfect stage – Mycospherella musicola Perfect stage- Mycospherella fijiensis
4. The earliest symptom that can be seen on The first symptom of black sigatoka disease
the 3rd and 4th open leaf. Tiny, light yellow is tiny, chlorotic spots that appear on the
specs (1-2mm long) appear on the upper bottom surface of the 3rd and 4th open leaf.
leaf blade, parallel to the secondary The spots grow into thin brown streaks that
veins. These specks later develop into are limited by leaf veins, sometimes streaks
narrow, brown or dark greenspots with a with a purple tinge and visible on the top
spindle shaped. These lesions expand surface. The lesions then enlarges,
further parallel to the veins and form becoming fusiform or ellipticaland darken
oblong rusty red streaks with water soaked to give the characteristic black streaking of
centres and yellow halo (4-12mm in the leaves but lacks yellow halo. Adjacent
length). The centres of the streaks tissues blackened and watersoaked.
gradually turn grey brown to brown, a sign
of necrosis. Along the leaf margins, they
coalesce to form larger, black or brown
necrotic lesions surrounded by patches of
yellow areas. The cracking of leaves gives
them a raffed appearance.

5. More common in cooler environments. More common in warmer environments.

6. Inoculum consists of both conidia (water- Windborne ascospores are the major
dispersed) and ascospores (wind- inoculum.
dispersed).
7. Conidia first appear in the mature spot Conidia first appear in early streak stage.
stage.
8. Produce more than 30,000 condia per Produce about 1200 condia per spot.
spot.
9. Conidia not dislodged by wind. Conidia both water- and wind-dispersed.
10. Mature ascospores produced 4 weeks Mature ascospores produced 2 weeks after
after the appearance of streaks. the appearance of streaks.
51
52. Difference between Early and Late Tikka of Groundnut

S.No. Early Tikka Disease Late Tikka Disease

1. Caused by Cercospora arachidicola. Caused by Cercospora personata.
2. Less destructive. Most aggressive.
3. Spots are light brown, oval to elongate Dark brown to black spots without having
with yellow halo on stem, petioles and yellow halo.
pegs along with leaves.

4. Early leaf spot generally appear on the Spots generally appear underside of leaves.
leaves upper surface.
5. Surface of spots are smooth. Surface of spots are rough.
6. Severe disease attack leads to shedding Shedding of leaflets are also common but
of leaflets resulting in senescence of it generally appears along with the rust of
crop. groundnut.
7. Fruiting bodies arranged randomly. Fruiting bodies arranged in concentric
rings.
8. Mycelium in intracellular. Mycelium in intercellular.
9. No haustoria. Haustoria is branched.
10. Conidiophores having 1-2 septa. Conidiophores aseptate.
11. Conidia having 1-11 septa. Conidia having 3-4 septa.

52
53. Difference between Scab and Canker

S.No. Scab Canker

1. Symptoms include dark, olive-green, Symptoms include round-to-irregular
purple or black lesions on the leaves, often sunken, swollen, flattened, cracked,
irregular in shape and sometimes becoming discoloured, or dead areas on the leaves,
sooty as large numbers of spores are stems (canes), twigs, limbs, trunk or
produced. Leaf yellowing and premature fruits.
defoliation. Dieback of heavily infected
shoots. Blackening and abortion of flower
buds.
2. Scabs are localized hyperplasia of the Cankers are hypertrophy growth.
surface tissues.
3.. Their causes include such a wide range of Their causes include such a wide range
organisms as fungi and bacteria. of organisms as fungi, bacteria,
mycoplasmas and viruses.
4.

54. Difference between Wilt and Rot

S.No. Wilt Rot

1. Loss of turgidity (usually in leaves), leaf Disintegration of tissue as a result of the
collapse and leaf fall are the symptoms of action of invading organisms, usually
wilt diseases. bacteria or fungi are known as rot diseases.

2. Typical wilt symptoms are caused by Typical rots are caused by pathogens
pathogens, which colonize the vascular which secrete cell wall degrading
system. Infection of the collar and root enzymes.
cortex may cause a characteristic wilt
syndrome.
3. Wilt diseases are caused by several fungal, Rots are caused by several bacterial and
bacterial genera such as Fusarium, fungal genera such as Erwinia,
Verticillium, Pythium, Erwinia, Ralstonia, Colletotrichum, Phytophthora, etc.
etc.
4. Examples are bacterial wilt of potato Examples are red rot of sugarcane
caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. (Colletotrichum falcatum), charcol rot of
soybean.
53
 5.

55. Difference between Dieback and Ripe rot

S.No. Anthracnose of Chilli

Caused by Colletotrichum capsici produces two peculiar symptoms.
Dieback Ripe Rot
1. Symptoms appear usually after the rains Symptoms evident when there is
have stopped and there is prolonged continuous rain or high humidity.
deposition of dew on the plants.
2. The tender twigs or branches from the apical The ripened fruits primarily develop
part of the plant show necrosis beginning at small, black, circular lesions. These
their tip and advancing towards their bases. lesions elongate further in the direction of
The die-backed twigs or branches become long axis and become more or less
water-soaked to brown primarily turn to elliptical. In the later stage, the lesions get
greyish- white or straw- coloured in the later generally diffused and their central area
stage. Hairy fungal growth with large turns to be lighter black or straw-
number of black, coloured.
pinhead fruiting bodies scattered randomly.
3. Finally, the infected twig(s) generally The fruits with many spots drop off
wither away. Inflorescence infection results prematurely, resulting heavy loss inyield.
in premature flower and fruit dropping. Seeds are also infected.
4.

56. Difference between Phyllody and Green Ear

54
S.No. Phyllody Green Ear
1. Phyllody is the abnormal development of This is due to transformation of floral parts
floral parts into leafy structures. into twisted leafy structures, giving the ear
an appearance of green leafy mass. Hence,
the common name of the disease- ‘Green
ear’.
2. It is generally caused by phytoplasma or It is generally caused by downy mildew
virus infections. fungi.
3. Phyllody causes the affected plant to The development of inflorescence is
become partially or entirely sterile, as it is completely suppressed and in its place is
unable to normally produce flowers. formed a small bunch of leafy structures.
The bristles of spikelet have become
contorted and hypertrophied.
4. Examples are Sesamum phyllody, phyllody Example is green ear symptoms of bajra
of marigold, etc. is caused by Sclerospora graminnicola.
5.

57. Difference between Crown gall and Club root

S.No. Crown Gall Club Root

1. It is caused by the bacterium It is caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae,
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (synonym which was once considered a slime mold
Rhizobium radiobacter) which is a Gram- but is now put in the group Phytomyxea.
negative bacterium.
2. They include especially grape, members of Clubroot is a common disease ofcabbages,
the rose family (Rosaceae), shade and nut broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
trees, many shrubs and vines, andperennial radishes, turnips, stocks, wallflowers and
garden plants. other plants belonging to
the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae).
3. Symptoms include roundish rough- Developing plants may not show any
surfaced galls (woody tumourlikegrowths), symptoms but as the plants get older they
several centimetres or more in will start to show symptoms of chlorosis
diameter, usually at or near the soil line, on or yellowing, wilting during hot days, and
55
 a graft site or bud union, or on roots and exhibit stunted growth. Below ground, the
lower stems. The galls are at first cream- roots experience cell proliferation due to
coloured or greenish and later turn brown or increased auxin or growth hormone
black. As the disease progresses, plants lose production from the plant as well as the
vigour and may eventually die. pathogen. This causes the formation of
galls that can grow big enough to restrict
the xylem tissue inhibiting efficient water
uptake by the plant. Galls appear like clubs
or spindles on the roots. Eventually the
roots will rot and the plant will die.

4. Management: Management:
⚫ Crown gall can be avoided by using ⚫ The primary step for management
nursery stock free of suspicious bumps and long-term control is exclusion of
near the crown, former soil line, orgraft the disease.
union. ⚫ Good sanitation practice is important
⚫ Practicing five-year rotation or with regard to the use of tools and
avoiding replanting for that period. machinery in order to prevent the
⚫ Removing severely infected plants introduction of the pathogen to a
(including as many roots as possible). disease-free field.
⚫ Protecting against injury, keeping ⚫ Keeping the soil at a slightly basic pH
down weeds, controlling root-chewing of 7.1–7.2 by the addition of
insects and nematodes. agricultural lime as well as the
⚫ Cutting away large galls on trees and integration of crop rotation will
disinfecting wounds. reduce the occurrence of cabbage
clubroot in already infected fields.
⚫ Fumigation using metam sodium in a
field containing diseased cabbages is
yet another way to decrease the
buildup of the pathogen.

58. Difference between Leaf Blight and Leaf Spot

S.No. Leaf Blight Leaf Spot

1. Leaf blight is a plant disease symptom The leaf spots are of various size and
characterized by general and rapid killing shape as zonate, target board, angular,
of leaves. frog/bird eye, tar spots, etc.
2. This gives a burnt appearance. Leaf spot is a self limiting lesion on a
leaf.
3. Examples are early (Alternaria solani) and Examples are angular leaf spot of
late blight (Phytophthora infestans) of cucumber (Pseudomonas syringae pv.
56
 tomato and potato; bacterial leaf blight lacrymans), leaf spot of brinjal
(Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) of rice, (Alternaria melongenae), leaf spot of
etc. maize (Diplodia macrospora).
4.

59. Difference between Leaf Blotch and Leaf Scorch

S.No. Leaf Blotch Leaf Scorch

1. Leaf blotch is a complex of common fungal It is a disease affecting many crops,
diseases of small grains (e.g., wheat, ranging from ornamental trees (elm,
barley, oats and rye), and many maple, oak) and shrubs, to crop species
grasses. including blueberry and almond.
2. These include Septoria and Stagnospora Caused mainly by the xylem-plugging
species. bacterium Xylella fastidiosa.
3. Symptoms of leaf blotch diseases usually An irregular browning leaf margin which
first appear between the veins of lower may or may not be bordered by a pale halo.
leaves as chlorotic (i.e., yellow), water- Symptoms re-occur every year, spreading
soaked flecks that enlarge to become dry, throughout the tree crown, eventually
yellow, then red-brown, blocky to oval killing the host plant.
lesions, sometimes surrounded by yellow
haloes. Some leaf blotch fungi can infect
glumes in seed heads as well as leaves.
Rows of tiny black specks (reproductive
structures of leaf blotch fungi) are often
visible in mature lesions.

57
 4. No vector invovled. Xylem-feeding leafhoppers can transmit
the disease bacteria.
5. Successful management of leaf blotch can There are no known effective treatments
be accomplished through an integrated for bacterial leaf scorch, consequently,
approach that combines use of resistant removal of affected plants is
varieties, pathogen-free seed, crop recommended.
rotation, proper crop debris management,
volunteer wheat eradication, and fungicide
treatments.

60. Difference between Bacterial Leaf Scorch and Physiological Leaf Scorch

S.No. Bacterial Leaf Scorch Physiological Leaf Scorch

1. It is a bacterial disease affecting many Plants that are prone to leaf scorch include
crops, ranging from ornamental trees (elm, Japanese maple, Norway maple, sugar
maple, oak) and shrubs, to crop species maple, beech, ash, oak, linden, birch,
including blueberry and almond. alpine currant, horse chestnut, white pine,
rhododendron, viburnum, and flowering
dogwood.
2. Caused mainly by the xylem-plugging It is a non-infectious, physiological
bacterium Xylella fastidiosa. condition caused by unfavorable
environmental situations. It is not caused
by fungus, bacteria, or virus.
3. An irregular browning leaf margin which Scorch symptoms may differ between
may or may not be bordered by a palehalo. plant species, but it typically appears in
Symptoms re-occur every year, spreading July and August as a yellowing between
throughout the tree crown, eventually leaf veins and along leaf margins, and a
killing the host plant. browning on the tips of leaves. Browning
of dead tissue often appears without any
previous yellowing, extending into the leaf
between the veins. Entire leaves may curl
and wither when leaf scorch issevere.

58
4. Xylem-feeding leafhoppers can transmit No vector invovled.
the disease bacteria.
5. There are no known effective treatmentsfor Proper treatment depends upon the
bacterial leaf scorch, consequently, removal reason for scorch symptoms; however,
of affected plants isrecommended. good cultural practices that improve
general plant health and promote good
root growth will reduce the chances of
physiological leaf scorch.

59
61. Difference between the five major diseases of Citrus

S.No. Citrus Canker Citrus Greening Citrus Stubborn Citrus Tristeza Virus Citrus Exocortis
1. Caused by Xanthomonas Caused by Candidatus Caused by Spipoplasma Caused by closterovirus of Caused by citrus
axonopodis pv. citri liberobacter asiaticus (in citri. Closteroviridae. exocortis viroid (CEVd)
Asia) and Candidatus
liberobacter africanus (in
Africa).
2. It is a rod shaped, gram It is a fastidious phloem It is a mollicute It is a thread-like particle This viroid is an
negative, bacterium with limited, gram negative bacterium mainly 2000nm long by 12nm in infectious molecule of
polar flagellum belongs to bacterium belongs to family present in phloem of the diameter with one positive RNA found in vascular
family Xanthomonadaceae of rhizobiaceae of phylum affected plant. ssRNA of 20kb and a coat tissues as well as in
phylum Proteobacteria. Proteobacteria. protein c molecular wt. mesophyll cells. But
25000. RNA codes for 10- accumulates to higher
12 proteins. concentrations in the
nucleoplasm. CEVd
belongs to family
Posiviroidae.
3. Characteristic lesion son It is distinguished by the A tree with citrus The three most common Symptoms usually
leaves, stems, fruits with common symptoms of stubborn disease will groupings of symptoms develop on trees grown
raised, brown, water-soaked yellowing of the veins and have fruits of differing are decline (quick & on susceptible rootstocks
margins, usually with a adjacent tissues (citrus vein sizes, shapes and slow), stem pitting and when they are around 4
yellow halo or ring effect phloem degeneration), typically lighter, seedling yellows. This years of age. They are
around the lesions. Older followed by blotchy mottling smaller fruits than decline includes chlorotic usually characterized by
lesions have a corky of the entire leaf, premature healthy ones. Affected leaves and general the scaling of the bark,
appearance, still in many defoliation, die back of fruits will often drop dieback of the infected an extensive chlorosis of
cases retaining the halo effect. twigs, decay of feeder prior to maturity and tree. Decline maybe slow, the canopy and a severe
Younger leaves are rootlets and lateral roots, often have a lasting several months to stunting of the tree. Bark
considered to be more decline in vigour, ultimately characteristic acorn-like years after the first scaling refers to the
susceptible. followed by the death of the shape, which is easily symptom or it may be grafting union. Trees
entire plant. Affected trees seen by cutting the fruit quick, resulting in host grown on the rootstock
have stunted growth, bear in half. Colouration of death just days after the of Poncirus trifoliate
multiple off-season flowers the fruit is also affected. first symptom are noticed. (trifoliate orange) are

60
 and produce small, irregular The blossom end Stem pitting in the wood most severly affected.
shaped fruits with a thick, remains green while the under the bark is also a
pale peel that remains green at stem end is coloured in characteristic symptom of
the bottom and tastes very affected fruits. the disease. Seedling
bitter. yellow includes yellowing
of foliage and general die
back.

4. Damage caused by leaf minor The disease is transmitted by

Transmitted by budding Transmitted by budding or Transmitted by cross
larvae – Phyllocnistriscitrella. Asian citrus psyllid-
and grafting and by grafting and by several contamination following
Can be sites for infection to Diaphorina citri several leaf hoppers specied of aphids in semi- mechanical damage to
occur because bacterium such as – Circulifer
African citrus psyllid- Trioza persistent manner. The plants as a result of
enters through stomata and erytreae tenellus most efficient aphid horticultural practices.
wounds on leaves or other Scaphytopius nitrides, vector in Toxoptera There are no reported
green parts. Neoaliturus citicidae. insect vectors.
haematoceps
5. Prune infected twigs before Use pathogen free bud wood Citrus stubborn disease Avoid susceptible root Use of viroid-free bud
the onset of monsoon. for propagation. can be spread through stocks. wood.
Control leaf miner when Control psyllids with grafting, so it is Control aphid by using Grafting tools should be
young flush is produced. insecticides. important to ensure that insecticides. disinfected after pruning
Streptomycin sulphate @500- Spray of Tetracycline @500 the mother tree is free branches from diseased
1000 ppm or Phytomycin ppm fortnightly. of Spiroplasma citri trees.
@2500 ppm or Copper before propagation.
oxychloride @0.2% at One effective measure
fortnight intervals. against the beet
leafhopper is planting
trap plants, such as

61
 sugar beets.
Trees under 6 years old
that have citrusstubborn
disease should be
completely removed, as
they will never be
productive

62. Difference between the five blights of Tea

Blights of Tea
Blight is a disease of plants marked by the formation of lesions, withering, and death of parts.
S.No. Blister Blight Brown Blight Grey Blight Thread Blight Copper Blight
1. Caused by Exobasidium Caused by Glomerella Caused by Pestalotia Caused by Corticium Caused by Guignardia
vexans cingulata theae koleroga camelliae
2. Symptoms Symptoms Symptoms Symptoms Symptoms

⚫ Small, pinhole-size ⚫ Appear first as small ⚫ The first symptom of ⚫ Infection are visible ⚫ The first symptom
spots are initially yellowish-brown spots this disease is the in the form of white of the disease is
seen on young on the upper surface of production of a threads or strandsof appearance of
leaves less than a the leaf, which spread minute, brownish fungal tissue which yellowish brown
month old. as they penetrate into spots on the older pass along the spots on the older
⚫ As the leaves the tissue, later leaves, which soon petiole and stem, leaves, which turn
develop, the spots appearing on the lower turn grey. covering the branch copper coloured.
become transparent, surface. ⚫ The spots are mostly and lower leaf ⚫ Spots on the upper
larger, and light ⚫ In time the colour ofthe irregular and several surface with a web, surface of the leaves
brown. spot deepens to become of them coalesce to the mycelium binds are irregular in
⚫ After about 7 days, chocolate brown. form irregular grey the shootstogether. shape.
the lower leaf ⚫ The spots enlarge to patches, which blight ⚫ In humid weather ⚫ As the spots spread
surface develops about 2 to 3 cm in the leaf; hence, the the whitish colony to cover large areas,
blister-like diameter and they are name grey blight. mycelial growth the affected tissues
symptoms, with characterized by the ⚫ Concentric rings of spreads very fast to dry and crack.
dark green, water- light to deep colour ⚫ The diseased leaves

62
 soaked zones presence of concentric lines are prominent cover the leafblade, become brittle and
surrounding the rings of margins in the in the spots. petiole and basal fall-off.
blisters. spot area. ⚫ The fruiting bodiesof portions of the ⚫ Since, the older
⚫ Following release of ⚫ The affected tissue the fungus appear as shoot. leaves only are
the fungal spores,the dies and the central dark dots in the older ⚫ The fungus obtains affected by the
blister becomes portion drops off. spots on the upper its nutrients by pathogen, the
white and velvety. ⚫ Severe infection cause surface of theleaf. penetrating into the damage caused is
⚫ Subsequently the defoliation, resulting in crevices and the not very severe.
blister turns brown, considerable damage. other openings inthe ⚫ It is also common
and young infected host tissue, which on the twigs,
stems become bent turn brown from causing minute
and distorted and depletion. cankerous growth,
may break off ordie. later producinglarge
galls.
⚫ These lesions may
girdle the stem,
causing wilting of
the branch and die-
back of shoot.

3. The fungus producing The fungus produces the Dots represent the Fungus having effused Spots having minute
cylindrical, hyaline, perithecium having asci acervuli containing the fruiting bodies, the dark dots which are the
thin-walled basidia inside bearing ascospores spindle-shaped four spore bearing surface perithecia.
which bear ovate to and the asexual stage septate conidia borne on typically being smoothto
oblong, hyaline produces the acervuli short conidiophores. granular or spiny.
basidiospores. containg conidia borne on
conidiophores.

63
II. Difference between Pathogens:-

(a) Fungi
1. Difference between Lower and Higher Fungi

S.No. Oomycota True Fungi

1. Cell wall made up of cellulose and β- Cell wall made up of chitin.
glucans.
2. Oomycota usually do not have cell walls Mycelium is septate or acoenocytic.
between adjacent cells i.e., they are
coenocytic or aseptate.
3. Oomycota are diploid i.e., have 2 copies True fungi are haploid (have one copy of
of each chromosomes in one nucleus per each chromosome in one nucleus per cells)
cell. or dikaryotic (two nuclei per cell, each with
a haploid set of chromosomes).
4. The mitochondria of oomycota have The mitochondria of true fungi have plate
tubular cristae (internal compartments of like or flattered cristae.
mitochondria).
5. Oomycota have distinctive sexual True fungi do not have oospores, instead
reproduction with oospores formed by their sexual reproduction involves
fertilization of antheridia and oogonia. zygospores, ascospores or basidiospores.

6. Motile biflagellate zoospores are present. No flagellate zoospores are present.

7. Hydroxyprotein wall protein present. Hydroxyprotein wall is absent.
8. Lysine biosynthesis is like plants i.e., use Lysine biosynthesis is like animals i.e., use
diamino pimelic acid pathway. amioadipic acid pathway.

2. Difference between Yeast and Fungi

S.No. Yeast Fungi

1. Yeast is a microscopic fungus, which Fungi is a unicellular or multi cellular, spore
comprises a single, oval – shaped cell, – producing organisms, feeding on organic
reproducing through budding. matter.
2. Very common in the environment. Found in damp, dark or steam – filled
areas.
3. Oval in shape, and is colorless and Have a fuzzy appearance, and colors can be
smooth. green, orange, black, brown, purple and
pink.
4. Converts carbohydrates to alcohol during Secrete hydrolytic enzymes to external
fermentation. food sources and absorb nutrients through
the cell wall.
5. Reproduces through budding. Reproduce through either sexual or
asexual spores.
6. Used in baking industry and in the Used in the production of cheese and
production of ethanol. antibiotics.
64
 7. Causes vaginal infection in humans. Cause disease like ringworm and athlete’s
foot.
8. Belongs to the phylum Ascomycota and Consist of six phyla: Chytridiomycota,
Basidiomycota. Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota
and Glomeromycota.
9. Examples are Saccharomyces cerevisiae Examples are Mucor, Penicillium,
(baking yeast) and Cryptococcus Rhizopus and Aspergillus
neoforman

3. Difference between Myxomycota and Eumycota

S.No. Myxomycota Eumycota

1. These are fungi-like microorganism or These are true fungi.
pseudofungi.
2. They grouped under Kingdom - Protozoa. These grouped under Kingdom - Fungi.
3. Produce a plasmodium or plasmodium like Achlorophyllous, eukaryotic, cell walled
structure. and nutrition absorptive.
4. It ingest food via the process of This process is very different from
phagocytosis. absorption, the mode of nutrition observed
in Fungi.
5. Lack of cell wall in the assimilative stage Produce mycelium the walls of which
and lack of mycelium and yeast stages. contains glucans and chitin.
6. Chloroplast is present. They lack chloroplast.
7. Examples are Physarum, Plasmodium, Examples are too many like Alternaria,
Fuligo, Mucilago. Cercospora, Fusarium, etc.

4. Difference between Protists and Fungi

S.No. Protists Fungi

1. Protists are mostly unicellular Fungi are mostly multicellular
2. Some contain a cell wall while some Contain a cell wall made up of chitin
don’t
3. Are either autotrophs, heterotrophs, Heterotrophs
parasites or saprotrophs
4. A sexual reproduction occurs via binary A sexual reproduction occurs via spores ;
fission; sexual reproduction occurs via sexual reproduction occurs via mating
production of gametes
5. No septa are found Septa, separating fungal hyphae into
compartments are found
6. Protozoans, algae and molds are the three There are seven phyla of fungi
types
7. Examples include green algae, slime Examples include yeast, Pichia,
molds, Euglena and Amoeba Basidiomycota and Eumycota

5. Difference between Zoospores and Zygospores

S.No. Zoospores Zygospores

65
 1. Zoospore is naked spore produced within a Zygospore is thick walled resting spore.
sporangium.
2. Zoospore is motile having one, two or Zygospore is the product of sexual
more flagella. reproduction by fusion of contents of two
similar gametangia.
3. It is found in some phycomycetes fungi It is found in a group of phycomycetes,
and green brown algae. zygomycetes fungi and all orders of green
algae.
4. It is haploid. It is diploid.

6. Difference between Sporangiophore and Conidiophore

S.No. Sporangiophore Conidiophore
1. They are produced by Oomycota and They are produced by Ascomycota (earlier in
Zygomycota. Deuteromycota)
2. Sporangiophores are specialized aerial Conidiophores are erect, septate hyphae which
hyphae that bear specialized sacs called bear non-motile spores called conidiaat its tip.
sporangia which contain non-motile
sporangiospores.
3. Sporangiospores are enclosed in a Conidia are not enclosed in an enclosure.
specialized enclosure called sporangia.

4. Examples are Pythium, Phytophthora, all Examples are Alternaria, Aspergillus,

downy mildews, Rhizopus. Penicillium, Cercospora, etc.

7. Difference between Sporangia and Conidia

S.No. Sporangia Conidia
1. A sporangium (pl., sporangia) is an Conidia are asexual reproductive structures.
enclosure in which sporangiospores are
formed.
2. Sporangia are produced in Oomycota and Conidia are produced in Ascomycota and in a
Zygomycota. few Basidiomycota.
3. Sporangia in some fungi are non-motile Conidia may be spherical, ovoid, elongated,
(aplanospores) while in others are motile cylindrical, thread-like, spirally curved,
(planospores). The motility of planospores muriform, or star-shaped. They may be
is governed by special mobility organs unicellular or multicellular, with either
known as flagella which can be tinsel-type transverse septa or both transverse or
(anterior) or whiplash-type (posterior). longitudinal septa.
4. The number of sporangiospores per They may be produced at the tip of
sporangium may vary from several conidiophore or its branches either singly,
66
 thousands to only one. ingroups or in chain which may be either
basipetal or acropetal.
5. Examples - Planospores are formed in Examples - Curvularia, Helminthosporium,
Physoderma, Albugo, Pythium, Colletotrichum, Fusarium, Trichoderma, etc.
Phytophthora, Plasmopara, etc.

8. Difference between Unilocular Sporangia and Plurilocular Sporangia

S.No. Unilocular Sporangia Plurilocular Sporangia

1. Unilocular sporangia are the sporangia Plurilocular sporangia are the sporangia
that consist of a single loculus or cavity. that consist of several compartments.

2. Common at cooler temperatures. Common at warmer temperatures.

3. Composed of a single cell. Composed of a large number of cuboidal
cells.
4. Ellipsoidal structures. Spherically elongated structures.
5. Produce haploid zoospores. Produce diploid zoospores.

9. Difference between Antheridium and Oogonium

S.No. Antheridium Oogonium

1. An antheridium (plural antheridia) is a An oogonium (plural oogonia) is a small
haploid structure or organ producing and diploid cell which upon maturation forms a
containing male gametes (called primordial follicle in a female fetus or the
antherozoids or sperm). female (haploid or diploid) gametangium of
certain thallophytes.
2. Male antheridia are elongated and contain The oogonia are usually round or ovoid,
several nuclei. with contents are divided into several
uninucleate oospheres.

67
 3.

10. Difference between Telomorph and Anamorph

S.No. Telomorph Anamorph

1. The sexual reproductive stage, typically An asexual reproductive satge, often mold-
a fruiting body. like.
2. Fruiting bodies originate with nuclear A somatic or reproductive structure that
recombination. originates without nuclear recombination
(asexual reproduction).
3. Plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis Mitosis produces nuclei for conidia.
occur.

11. Difference between Zoospores and Oospores

S.No. Zoospores Oospores

1. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are An oospore develops from a fertilized
created by some protists, bacteria and fungi oosphere in some algae, fungi, and
to propagate themselves. Oomycetes.
2. A zoospore is a motile asexual spore. An oospore is a thick-walled sexual
spore. In Oomycetes, oospores can also
result from asexual reproduction, by
apomixis.
3. A zoospore uses flagella for locomotion. Flagella is absent.
4.

12. Difference between Zoospores and Aplanospores

68
S.No. Zoospores Aplanospores
1. A zoospore is a motile asexual spore An aplanospores is a non-motile asexual
produced by certain algae, fungi and spore produced by certain algae and fungi.
protozoans.
2. Occur in phycomycetes. Occur in green algae.
3. Motile. Non motile.
4. Do not possess a true cell wall. Possess a true cell wall.
5. Small in size. Comparatively larger.
6. Incapable of enduring harsh Capable of enduring harsh environmental
environmental conditions. condition.
7. Produced by oomycetes like Produced by lower fungi, algae like
Phythopthora, Chytridiomycota, Haemotococcus pluvalis, Chlamydomonas
Myoxymycota, Opisthokonts, etc. and Waucheria.

13. Difference between Alternaria and Cercospora

S.No. Alternaria Cercospora

1. Dark brown to black irregular spots first Small, circular, tan or gray spots with adead
appear at the margin of the leaflets. center first appear along the margins of the
leaves causing the leaves to curl.
2. Lesions on the petioles and stems are dark As the lesions increase in number and size,
brown and girdle the stems. As thedisease the entire leaflet dies.
progresses, entire leaflets may
shrivel and die.
3. Lesions are more prevalent on older The fungus attacks younger plants.
foliage.
4. Because cool weather is favorable for It develops rapidly in hot or humid weather,
development, Alternaria is most severe in so it is likely to occur in July and early
late August and September. August.
5. Characteristic muriform conidia are Characteristic septate whip-like conidia are
brown, ovoid or obclavate, with or without borne singly on short conidiophores.
beak, also have elongated, beak- like apical
cells, geniculate, often produced in
acropetal chains and sometimes solitary,
may have longitudinalas well as transverse
septa, some have smooth and some have
roughen walls.

69
 14. Difference between Acervulus and Pycnidium

S.No. Acervulus Pycnidium

1. An open, saucer-shaped asexual fruiting Variable and complex flask-shaped
body found in fungi (kingdom Fungi). asexual reproductive structure, orfruiting
body, in fungi of the phylumAscomycota;
also a male sex-cell- producing organ in
the order Uredinales (rust fungi).

2. Always developed below the epidermis of Pycnidia can be submerged or on the

the host tissue. surface of the host tissue.

3. It bears conidiophores (specialized It bears spores (conidia) variously known

filaments, or hyphae) that form conidia as pycnidiospores, oidia, or spermatia.
(spores). The spores are liberated through an
opening (ostiole) in thepycnidium.

4. Colletotrichum have acervuli with setae. Conidiophores that form within the
pycnidium can be extremely short (eg.,
Phoma) or larger (eg., Septoria)

70
 15. Sclerotia of Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and Sclerotinia

S. No. Rhizoctonia solani Sclerotium rolfsii Sclerotinia scleotiorum

1. Colour of sclerotia is light Colour of sclerotia is light Colour of sclerotia is black.
brown. brown-dark brown.
2. Sclerotia generally Sclerotia may congregatein Sclerotia do not congregate.
congregate in centre of the centre of the petri dish.
petridish.
3. Sclerotia are produced in Sclerotia are produced in Sclerotia are generally at
centre and periphery of centre and periphery of Petri periphery of Petri dishes.
Petri dish. dish.
4. Sclerotia are small in size Sclerotia are small in size (1- Sclerotia are medium to big
(2-4mm). 2mm). in size (sometimes >1 cm).
5. Sclerotia are generally Sclerotia are generally round Sclerotia are elongated.
round, circle in shape (But like mustard grain.
sometimes irregular in
shape).

16. Difference between Aspergillus and Penicillium

S. No. Aspergillus Penicillium

1. Aspergillus contains an unseparated Penicillium contains a separated, brush-
conidiophore. like conidiophore.
2. The conidiophore of Aspergillus is straight The conidiophore of Penicillium is
ending in a large vesicle while that of branched.
Penicillium is branched.
3. Aspergillus is green to black in color. Penicillium is generally blue in color but
sometimes having green color also.
4. Having foot cell. Foot cell is absent.
5. The asexual spore-forming structure of One of the most characteristic features
Aspergillus or the conidiophore is called the of Penicillium is the presence of dense,
aspergillum, which is a cylindrical structure. brush-like spore-bearing structure.
6. A straight ending in a large vesicle. Vesicle is absent.
7. Metula is absent. Metula bearing phialides is present.
71
 8. Causes aspergillosis in lungs. Used in the production of antibiotics that
are effective against Gram-positive
bacteria. Some Penicillium species are
also used in cheese-making.
9.

17. Difference between Mucor and Rhizopus

S.No. Mucor Rhizopus

1. A genus of molds having round, usually A genus of mold fungi including some
cylindrical or pear-shaped sporangia not economically valuable forms and some
clustered and not limited in location to plant or animal pathogens.
points.
2. Commonly called pin mold. Commonly called bread mold.
3. The mycelium consists of one kind of The mycelium is distinguished into stolons
hyphae. (aerial hyphae) and rhizoids (root like
hyphae).
4. No stolons Stolons connect sporangiophore with the
rhizoids.
5. Sporangiophores may arise at any place Sporangiophores arise only from the
junction of rhizoids and stolons.
6. Sporangiophores are long and delicate Sporangiophores are much shorter, stout
and stiff.
7. Sporangiophores remain adhered to Sporangiophores are easily blown by the
columella and not dissemination wind and cause frequent contamination of
easily.usually mites bring about laboratory.
dissemination.

72
 8. Meiosis occurs before dormancy sets in Meiosis occurs at the time of zygospore
the zygosphere. germination.
9. No apophyses. Contain apophyses in sporangia.
10. Produces sporangial collarette on No sporangial collarette.
dissolving.
11. Generally a contaminant. Generally invasive.
12. White-to-grow, cotton candy; darken Resemble cotton candy: darken with age
with time. into gray or yellow-brown.
13.

18. Difference between Drechslera and Bipolaris

S.No. Drechslera Bipolaris

1. Drechslera can be differentiated from all Bipolaris can germinate from both the
other graminicolous helminthosporoid poles of conidia.
genera by its ability to develop a germ
tube from any of the cells in the
distoseptate conidia.

2. In Drechslera a flat scar exists within the In Bipolaris, hilum is inconspicuous or

lowest part of the basal cell ( hilum). very slightly protuberant.
3. Telomorph - Pyrenophora Telomorph - Cochliobolus
4. Ascospores of Pyrenophora are The ascospores of Cochliobolus are large,
characterised by both longitudinal and slender, coiled and transversely septate.
transverse septa.

73
 19. Difference between Phytophthora and Pythium

S.No. Phytophthora Pythium

1. The hyphae is 6µm wide, with a miximum The hyphae is 5µm wide, with a
of 14µm. miximum of 10µm.
2. Hyphal wall contains little amount of Hyphal wall contains greater amount of
protein. protein.
3. The sporangia are produced on special aerial The sporangia are produced on the
reproductive hyphae called the somatic hyphae indistinguishable from
sporangiophores which are sympodially the other hyphae of the mycelium.
branched and present a joined appearance.
4. The papillate, lemon-shaped sporangia are The globose to oval sporangia are either
always terminal in origin but are terminal or intercalary in position.
subsequently shifted to the side.

5. Sporangia are always terminal. Sporangia are either terminal or

intercalary.
6. The zoospores are differentiated in the The differentiation of zoospores takes
sporangium and are liberated by the bursting place in the vesicle. They are liberated
of the apical papilla. No vesicle is by the sudden bursting of the vesicular
formed in P. infestans. wall.
7. The germ tube enters the host tissuethrough, The germ tube enters the host tissues
the wall of the epidermal cells by means of either through a stoma or by boring
the infection peg that grows from the through the walls of the epidermal cells
appressorium produced by the germ probably by enzyme action. No
tube. appressoria are formed.
8. Haustoria are always present. Haustoria are absent.

74
 20. Difference between Ascospores and Basidiospores

S.No. Ascospores Basidiospores

1. Ascospore is a sexual spore produced by Basidiospore is a sexual spore produced
fungi ascomycetes. by fungi basidiomycetes.
2. Ascospores are produced inside a structure Basidiospores are produced by basidia.
called ascus.
3. A typical ascus bears eight ascospores. A typical basidium produces four
basidiospores.
4. Ascospores are produced endogenously. Basidiospores are produced
exogenously.
5.

21. Difference between Ascocarp and Basidiocarp

S.No. Ascocarp Basidiocarp

1. Ascomycete produces ascocarps, which are On the other hand, basidiomycete is
their fruiting bodies. another group of fungi, which produces
basidiocarps.
2. Ascocarps produce ascospores. Basidiocarps produce basidiospores.
3. Ascospore production is endogenous. Basidiospore production is exogenous.
4. The ascocarps contain asci, which may The basidiocarps contain basidia, which
contain four to eight ascospores. contain four basidiospores in each
basidium.
5. Most of the ascocarps are bowl-shaped Basidiocarps are club-shaped.
while some are spherical and flask-shaped.
6. Ascus wall should be degraded in order to Basidia are open and no need of
release ascospores. degrading basidia walls to release spores.

22. Difference between Cleistothecia, Perithecia and Apothecia

S.No. Cleistothecium Perithecium Apothecium
1. A cleistothecium is a Perithecium: These are flask An apothecium is a wide,
globose, completely closed shaped structures opening by open, saucer-shaped or cup-
fruit body with no special a pore or ostiole (short shaped fruit body. It is
opening to the outside. The papilla opening by a circular sessile and fleshy. The

75
 ascomatal wall is called pore) through which the structure of the apothecium
peridium and typically ascospores escape. The chiefly consists of three
consists of densely ostiolar canal may be linedby parts: hymenium (upper
interwoven hyphae or hair-like structures called concave surface),
pseudoparenchyma cells. It periphyses. The unitunicate hypothecium, and
may be covered with hyphal asci are usually cylindrical in excipulum. The asci are
outgrowth called shape, borne on a stipe present in the hymenium
appendages. (stalk), released from a pore, layer. The asci are freely
developed from the innerwall exposed at maturity.
of the perithecium and arise
from a basal
plectenchyma-centrum.
2. For example, asci are Examples are members of The morel, Morchella, an
globose, deliquescent, and Sphaeriales and edible ascocarp, not a
scattered throughout the Hypocreales. Perithecia are mushroom, favored by
interior cavity i.e., as in also found in Xylaria (Dead gourmets, is a mass of
Eurotium or arising in tufts Man's Fingers, Candle apothecia fused together ina
from the basal region of Snuff), Nectria, Claviceps single large structure orcap.
ascocarps as in Erysiphe. and Neurospora. The genera Helvella
and Gyromitra are similar.
3.

23. Difference between Unitunicate, Bitunicate and Prototunicate Asci

Types of Ascus
S.No. Unitunicate Bitunicate Prototunicate
('Unitunicate' means 'single-walled') ('Bitunicate' means (This is something of a
Operculate Inoperculate 'double-walled') catch-all term for cases
which do not fit into the
other three ascus types,
and they probably
belong to several
independent groups
which evolved
separately from
unitunicate asci)

76
 1. Ascus has a Instead of an This consists of a thin, Asci are mostlyspherical
"lid", the operculum, a brittle outer shell and athick in shape and have no
Operculum, unitunicate- elastic inner wall. When the active spore- shooting
which breaks inoperculate ascus spores aremature, the shell mechanism for forcible
open when the has an elastic ring splits openso that the inner dispersal. The mature
spores are that functions like wall cantake up water. As a ascus wall dissolves
mature and a pressure valve. consequence this begins to allowing the spores to
allows the Once mature the extend with its spores until it escape, or it is broken
spores to escape. elastic ring briefly protrudes above the rest of open by other
expands and lets the ascocarp so that the influences, such as
the spores shoot spores can escape into free animals.
out. air without being
obstructed by the bulk of
the fruiting body.

2.

3. Unitunicate- This type appears Bitunicate asci occur only Asci of this type can be
operculate asci both in Apothecia in Pseudothecia and are found both in
only occur in and in Perithecia. found only in the classes Perithecia and in
those ascocarps Dothideomycetes and Cleistothecia.
which have Chaetothyriomycetes
Apothecia, for (which were formerly
instance the united in the old class
morels. Loculoascomycetes).
4. For example, An example is the Examples: Venturia For example Dutch elm
Ascobolus is an illustrated inaequalis (apple scab) and disease (Ophiostoma
operculate Hypomyces Guignardia aesculi (Brown ulmi).
discomycete. chrysospermus. Leaf Mold of Horse
Chestnut).

24. Difference between Perithecia and Pseudothecia

S.No. Perithecia Pseudothecia

1. These are flask shaped structures in which Similar to a perithecium, but the asci are
asci are regularly organised into a not regularly organised into a hymenium.
hymenium.
2. ostiole (short papilla opening by a circular Ostiole is absent.
pore) is present through which the
77
 ascospores escape.
3. The unitunicate asci are usually cylindrical Bitunicate asci, having a double wall that
in shape, borne on a stipe (stalk), released expands when it takes up water and shoots
from a pore, developedfrom the inner wall the enclosed spores out suddenly to disperse
of the perithecium and arise from a basal them.
plectenchyma-centrum.
4. The ascocarps are surrounded by a definite Clusters of asci occur in cavities (locules)
peridium distinct from the stromaltissue inin the stroma and no peridium separates the
which they are embedded. cluster of asci from the surrounding stromal
tissue.
5. In the ontogeny of a perithecium, the On the basis of ontogeny, the pseudothecium
ascogonium appears first and the peridium develops from a stroma in which the
develops from hyphae that grow up around ascogonia later appear.
the ascogonium from the stalk cells of the
ascogonium or from adjacent
hyphae as a result of a sexual stimulus.
6. In many perithecial forms, the tissue that In many pseudothecial forms, however, the
develops into the peridium may appear “stromata” in which the ascogonia develop
before the ascogonia are readily may be so small - a knot of cells or a weft
identifiable. of hyphae that they are almost nonexistent.
7. The presence of paraphyses and The presence of pseudoparaphyses (sterile
periphyses is a notable characters. cells extending down from the upper portion
of the sexual structures, initially attached at
both ends, although the upper part may
become free) along with periphyses is a
notable character for the Pleosporales, but
absent in Dothideales and Myriangiales.

25. Difference between Periphyses and Paraphyses

S.No. Paraphyses Periphyses Pseudoparaphyses
1. Paraphyses are the sterile Periphyses are the sterile Pseudoparaphyses are
hypha present in some short hypha-like structure distinct, vertical,
fruiting bodies of fungi present in the inner paraphyses-like hyphae
(Perithecium) intermingled surrounding of ostiole of a that originate above the
with spore bearing perithecium or also in the level of developing asci
structure. They are opening of an ascostroma but do not reach the base
supposed to assist in the (pseudothecium). Also of the cavity as
dissemination of the occur in pycnidia (asexual paraphyses.
78
 ascospores. fungi) and in pycnia of rust
fungi.
2. They are upward growing, They are short hair-like Theses are often broader,
basally attached hyphal growth. regularly septate, branched
element and lie among the and anastomosing e.g.,
asci in a hymenium. They Pleospora.
are clavate or filiform,
ususally unbranched and
not anastomosed.
3.

26. Difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

S.No. Ascomycota Basidiomycota
1. The Ascomycetes are characterized by the The Basidiomycetes produce basidia and
development of asci and ascospores. basidiospores.
2. The ascospores are borne endogenously in The basidiospores are produced
an ascus. exogenously on a basidium.
3. Ascospores are usually eight in numbers Basidiospores are usually four on a
in an ascus. basidium.
4. A great number of Ascomycetes produce The asexual reproduction is rather
spores by which they reproduce asexually. insignificant.
5. Dolipore septa is absent. Dolipore septa are present in a majority of
the members.
6. Dikaryophase is short lived and Dikaryophase is long lived and
dependent. independent.
7. Primary mycelium is dominent and long Primary mycelium containing the cells with
lived. haploid nuclei is short lived.
8. Crozier formation is the common feature Clamp connections commonly occur in the
instead of clamp connection. seconday mycelium.
9. Sexual apparatus shows gradual Sexual apparatus is ill-developed or even
degeneration i.e., the sex organs are presentlacking.
in lower Ascomycetes whereas
absent in higher one.
10. Fruiting body consists of both Fruiting body consists entirely of
monokaryotic as well as dikaryotic
79
 hyphae and called ascocarp. dikaryotic hyphae and called basidiocarp.

27. Difference between Phycomycota and Ascomycota

S.No. Phycomycota Ascomycota
1. Fungi with aseptate mycelium were Fungi with endogenous ascospores are
grouped under Phycomycetes. Now a days grouped uder Ascomycetes. These are true
they are known as fungal like organisms or fungi. Ascomycetes are grouped under the
pseudofungi. They are now grouped in the Kingdom-Fungi. Only a few forms are
Kingdom-Protista and Chromista Along aquatic, the majority of them are
with many terrestrial forms a large saprophytes or parasites.
number of Phycomycetes are aquatic.
2. Usually the mycelium is aseptate and Except in unicellular members (Yeasts), the
coenocytic. mycelium is always septate.
3. Somatic hyphae do not show a tendency The hyphae in many members show a
to get organized into fungal tissues. tendency to aggregate into fungal tissues.
4. Common method of a sexual reproduction Zoospores are not formed, asexual
is by the formulation of motile zoospores reproduction takes place mainly by
formed in sporangia. exogenously produced conidia.
5. Sex organs become progressively There ia a progressive simplification and
complicated from lower to higher ultimate disappearance of sex organs from
phycomycetes. lower to higher forms.
6. Plasmogamy is immediately followed by Plasmogamy is not immediately followed
karyogamy. by karyogamy is majority of members.
7. Diplophase is represented by the Diplophase is represented by the doctorate
zygospore, which is generally long lived, fong resting period, its diploid nucleus
i.e., require a long resting period before divides sont form haploid nuclei.
germination.
8. Well - organized fruiting bodies are not Well-organized fruiting bodies or ascocarps
formed. are formed in nearly all members.

28. Difference between Oidium, Ovulariopsis and Oidiopsis

S.No. Oidium Ovulariopsis Oidiopsis

1. It is the anamorph of It is the anamorph of It is the anamorph of
Erysiphe, Podospheara, Phyllactinia. Leveillula.
Microspheara, Uncinula,
Sphearotheca,
2. Conidiomata hyaline, Conidia shape as a missile or Oidiopsis type of
conidiogensis holoarthric, rocket that settle on top of conidiophores: the
conidia aseptate, hyaline. conidiphore as 1/3 ofbiggest conidiophores are branched
Here conidiophores thickness rest on the top of and arise from a stoma.
consists of a short stripeof conidia Ascocarp absent, mycelium
one or more cells, a partly endophytic, conidia
germinative or spore ovoid and obclavate.
mother cell which give
80
 rise to a chain of maturing
conidia. Ascocarp absent,
mycelium superficial,
basal cell of the
conidiophore swollen.
3. Example - Powdery Example - Powdery mildew Examples- Powdery mildew
mildew of rubber – of papaya – Ovulariopsis of cotton, sesamum etc.
Oidium heveae. papayae caused by Leveillulataurica.

4.

29. Difference between Pseudoidium-Type and Euoidium-Type

S.No. Pseudoidium-Type Euoidium-Type

1. Pseudoidium-types, comprised of the Euoidium-types, comprised of the
tribes Erysipheae and Phyllactineae, remaining three tribes (Blumerieae,
produce false chains with just a single Cystotheceae and Golovinomyceteae),
conidium at its apex which is released produce many conidia per day in true
daily. chains.

81
 2.

30. Difference between Peronospora and Pseudoperonospora

S.No. Peronospora Pseudoperonospora

1. Branching dichotomous, terminal branch Branching sperse, straight and not
lets sharp pointed. actually dichotomous.
2. Asexual spore - conidia and are non- Asexual spores - zoospores produced by
papillate. Do not produce zoospores. papillate sporangia.
3. Germination by germ tube. Germination by zoospores.
4. Produces branched haustoria. Produces ovate haustoria.

5. Oospores are commonly formed. Oospores are not commonly formed.

6. Examples - Downy mildew of brassica Examples - Downy mildew of cucurbits
caused by Peronospora parasitica. caused by Pseudoperonospora cubensis.

82
 31. Difference between Uredinales and Ustilaginales
S.No. Uredinales Ustilaginales
1. The teliospore (encysted probasidium) is The teliospores (smut spores) are usually
terminal and germinates to give a intercalary and the basidiospores are
promycelium (metabasidium) bearing produced either terminally or laterally but
basidiospores on sterigmata from which are sessile, i.e., not borne on sterigmataand
they are forcibly discharged. are not forcibly discharged from the
metabasidium.

32. Difference between Oomycetes and Zygomycetes

S.No. Oomycetes Zygomycetes
1. A subclass of parasitic of saprophytic fungi Any of a wide variety of common fungi in
(class phycomycetes) that includes water which sexual reproduction is by the
molds, white rusts and downy formation of zygospores.
mildew.
2. Often known as water molds as this type A type of terrestrial fungi living in soil or
of fungi prefer water. on decaying plant or animal material.
3. Unicellular or filamentous Filamentous
4. The cell wall is made up of cellulose The cell wall is made up of chitosan
5. The vegetative state contains diploid The vegetative state contains haploid or
nuclei dikaryotic nuclei
6. Do not produce sporangia and their Produce sporangia
asexual spores are formed inside conidia
7. Asexual spores: Zoospores and A sexual spores: Mitospores and
chlamydospores chlamydospores
8. Produce gametangia differentiated into Produce zygosporangia, which is
antheridia and oogonia as a result of the heterokaryotic.
sexual process.
9. Sexual spores: Oospores Sexual Spores: Zygospores
10. Oospores are biflagellate and lack a cell Zygospores are non- motile and have a
wall. thick cell wall.
11. Meiosis occurs in the gametangia not , in Meiosis occurs in the zygosporangium
83
 the zygote. after the formation of zygote.
12. Plant pathogens and they can cause Parasitic on plants, insects, and a small
disease in fish. animals
13. Orders: Saprolegniales, Leptomitales, Orders: Mucoromycotina,
Rhipidiales, Albuginales, Peronosporales, Kickxellomycotina,
Lagenidiales Entomophthoromycotina,
Zoopagomycotina

33. Difference between Zygomycetes and Trichomycetes

S.No. Zygomycetes Trichomycetes

1. Mostly saprophytic but some are weak Mostly commensals.
parasites.

2. Some attacking insects by developing Present in the guts of arthropods and the
mycelium inside the insect body instead hyphae of the fungus attaches the linner
of only being attached to the inner lining of
lining of the digestive tract. Very rarely
digestive tract. found on the external parts of aquatic living
arthropods.
3. The zygospores are generally spherical in The zygospores where ever known are
shape. biconical in shape.
4. Examples: Rhizopus, Mucor, Pilobolus, Examples: Harpella, Asellaria
Cunninghamella, Syncephalestrum,
Entomophthora

34. Difference between Sordariomycetes and Dothideomycetes

S.No. Sordariomycetes Dothideomycetes

1. The class Sordariomycetes encompasses The class Dothideomycetes contains the
the Ascomycota having unitunicate asci majority of the fungal species with
borne in Perithecia. ascostromatic development and bitunicate
asci borne in Pseudothecia.
2. True perithecial walls will be present in True perithecial wall is absent in the
the Sordariomycetes. Dothideomycetes.
3. The development of a perithecial wall from The sexual spore bearing asci develop in
hyphae surrounding the ascogonial initials pockets (locules) already formed in an
is a distinctive feature of the unfertilized mass of hyphae (stroma). This
Sordariomycetes and one that is defined as ascolocular development andis
distinguishes it from the in contrast to ascohymenial development
Dothideomycetes. found in the majority of other fungalclasses.

4. Usually the perithecia of the This cannot be done with the

Sordariomycetes can be popped out of the Dothideomycetes, which lack separate
stroma, walls and all. walls.
5. Many Sordariomycetes produce their Another important character, the centrum,is
perithecia in a stroma (plural: stromata) defined as the tissues and cells occupyingthe
which is simply a fungal tissue composed cavity of the sexual structure. The
of compacted and often thickened and hamathecium, i.e. the sterile centrum tissues
highly pigmented hyphae that may existing between the asci, is one of
become extensive enough to dominate the the most reliable characters used to
84
 appearance of the organism. delineate ordinal classifications within the
Dothideomycetes.
6. The presence of paraphyses and The presence of pseudoparaphyses (sterile
periphyses is a notable characters. cells extending down from the upper
portion of the sexual structures, initially
attached at both ends, although the upper
part may become free) along with
periphyses is a notable character for the
Pleosporales, but absent in Dothideales and
Myriangiales.

35. Difference between Sterigmata and Phialides

S.No. Sterigmata Phialides

1. A sterigma (pl. sterigmata) is a small The phialide is a flask-shaped projection
supporting structure. from the vesicle (dilated part of the top of
conidiophore) of certain fungi.
2. A small pointed structure upon which a A specialized conidiogenous cell that
basidiospore forms. produces conidia in basipetal succession
without increasing in length.
3. It commonly refers to an extension of the It projects from the mycelium without
basidium (the spore-bearing cells) increasing in length unless a subsequent
consisting of a basal filamentous part and increase in the formation of conidia occurs.
a slender projection which carries a spore
at the tip. The sterigmata are formed on
the basidium as it develops and undergoes
meiosis, to result in the production of
(typically) four nuclei. The nuclei
gradually migrate to the tips of the
basidium, and one nucleus will migrate
into each spore that develops at the tip of
each sterigma.

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 36. Difference between Sporodochia and Synnemata

S.No. Sporodochia Synnemata

1. Sporodochia are small, compact, slightly Synnemata are large, fused conidiophores
raised circles which form on host. This which form a strand resembling a stalk of
stroma bears the conidiophores on which wheat, with spores lining the outside of the
the asexual spores or conidia are formed. structure.

2. A sporodochium (pl. Sporodochia)usually Synnemata usually formed on host plants

formed on host plants parasitised by parasitised by mitosporic fungi of the form
mitosporic fungi of the form order order Stillbellales (subdivision
Tuberculariales (subdivision Deuteromycota, class Hyphomycetes).
Deuteromycota, class Hyphomycetes).
3. Examples are Fusarium, Tubercularia, Examples are Graphium, Trichurus,
Epicoccum, Volutella, Exosporium Doratomyces

37. Difference between Arthrospores and Chlamydospores

S.No. Arthrospores Chlamydospores

1. Arthrospores arise by close septation of These are formed from a solitary or
86
 the distal part of hypha, the septa being neighbouring intercalary cells of a hypha,
formed in basipetal succession. which round off, enlarge and develop a
thickened often pigmented wall and dense
contents containing food reserves.

2. Proceeding from the apex to the base of the Chlamydospores generally function as
hypha each cell is rounded off and is set resting spores and are formed under
free as an arthrospore. unfavourable environmental or nutritional
conditions.
3. Coremiella ulmariae produces In Trichoderma viride the mature
arthrospores. chlamydospores are more or less spherical
or oblong and wider than long.

38. Difference between Agaricales and Aphyllophorales

S.No. Agaricales Aphyllophorales
1. The fungal order Agaricales, also known as "A-phyllo-phora" means "not bearing
gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) gills", distinguishing the Aphyllophorales
or euagarics, contains some of the most from the gilled agarics (mushrooms and
familiar types of mushrooms. toadstools).
2. They range from the ubiquitous common The order is entirely artificial, bringing
mushroom to the deadly destroying angeland together a miscellany of species now
the hallucinogenic fly agaric to the grouped among the clavarioid fungi,
bioluminescent jack-o-lantern mushroom. corticioid fungi, cyphelloid fungi,
hydnoid fungi, and poroid fungi.
3. Basidiocarps of the agarics are typically The basidiocarps are usually large
fleshy, with a stipe, often called a stem or bearing pores which are often so small as
stalk, a pileus (or cap) and lamellae (or to be barely visible to the naked eye. In
gills), where basidiospores are produced. texture they may be fleshy, corky,
This is the stereotypical structure of a woody, or gelatinous to cartilaginous. In
mushroom. shape also the basidiocarps are extremely
variable. The main bulk of the
basidiocarp —hymenophore is composed
of vertically arranged tubes the ends of
which usually appear as pores on the
lower surface.

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 4. Examples – Agaricus, Pleurotus, Lentinula Examples – Polyporus, Ganoderma,
edodes, Calocybe indica, Volvariella Trametes versicolor, Laetiporus
volvacea, etc. sulphureus.

39. Difference between Hemiascomycetes and Higher Ascomycetes

S.No. Hemiascomycetes Higher Ascomycetes

1. A sub-class of Ascomycetes comprising Produce ascospores inside an elongated
simple ascomycetous fungi that lack an cella or sacs known as asci.
ascocarp and have asci arising directly
from the fertile ascogonium.
2. Each ascus containing an indefinite Ascus generally containing eight ascospores
number of spores. (although this number varies in some
species).
3. Cell-wall contains very little chitin and Cell-wall contains large amount of chitin
is often confined to a small ring around and less cellulose.
the site where daughter cell is produced
(the bud scar).
4. The vegetative body (thallus) of the The vegetative body (thallus) is
Saccharomycetales may be either multicellular.
unicellular (true yeasts) or mycelial.
5. In unicellular species, asci form whentwo The spores and hyphae of the filamentous
vegetative cells fuse, and then the fused Ascomycota acts as the gametangia that is
cell undergoes meiosis to form responsible for the production of gametesfor
ascospores. In mycelial species, the sexual reproduction. For filamentous fungi,
hyphae are not very extensive. Sexual an organ referred to as a fruiting body is
reproduction occurs when adjacent cells produced and develops on the mycelia of the
extend short lateral branches that fuse to organism. As soon as it is mature, it is
form the asci. Variations on these modes fertilized by the male gametes (nucleus) that
of ascus formation, however, are is produced from the conidium of another
common among the yeasts. mycelia if they are compatible.

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 40. Major Differences between pyrenomycetes, Discomycetes, Loculoascomycetes

S.No. Pyrenomycetes Discomycetes Loculomycetes

1. Perithecial or occasionally, Are characterized by the Are characterizied by the
clesitothecial ascocarps that production of ascocarps production of bitunicate asci
may be formed in a known as apothecia, having within locules in a performed
stroma,immersed in a large and colourful stroma (ascostroma) that
subiculum,or be unassociated ascocarps, which often takeon constitutes the ascocarp.
with specialized stomatic the forms of cups,saucers and
structures. cushion.
2. Ovoid to cylindrical unitunicate Apothecial ascocarps Ascogonia develop within a
asci, usually formed from produce an exposed pseudoparenchymatous
ascogenus hyphae and crosiersin hymenium at maturity and stroma in which the structure
a hymenium or become cylindrical to ovoid asci often that will contain the asci is
secondarily scattered interspersed withparaphyses. present before the asci begin
throughout the ascocarp to develop,rather than the
ascocarp walls developing
around the asci.Asci are
generally globose in shape.
3. Two types of asci: Two types of ascus on the Forcibly ascocarp discharge is
Persistent asci → forcibly basis of dehiscence: of the jack-in-the-box type.
discharge ascospores Opercullate → forcibly An opening develops in the
Evanescent asci → passive discharged asci directly on ectotunicate and the two wall
discharge the mycelium & no ascocarp layers separate completely
is present with great elongation of the
Inoperculate → Passive endotunicate & explusion of
ascocarps discharge because ascospores occur
asci line internal chambers of
ascocarp tissue are scattered
among hyphal tissues
4. Important Genera: Important Genera: Important Genera:
Hypocera, Nectria, Claviceps, Tuber, Peziza, Morchella, Guignardia, Cochliobolus,
Chaetominun, Melanospora, Sclerotinia, Monilinia Venturia, Mycospaerella,
Glomerella, Ophiostoma, Elsinoe, etc.
Magnaporthe, Diaporthe,
Xylaria, Neurospora, etc.
41. Difference between Low and High Sugar Fungal Pathogens

S.No. Low Sugar Pathogens High Sugar Pathogens

1. Generally low sugar pathogens are High sugar pathogens are biotrophs.
necrotrophs.
2. As older leaves contain low sugar, they are As young leaves contain high sugar content,
more attacked by the low sugarpathogens. they are more prone to high sugar pathogens.

3. Fungal pathogens like Alternaria, Fungal pathogens like Verticillium albo-

Ceratostomella ulmi, Fusarium, atrum, Botrytis, Cercopsora spp. etc.
Colletotrichum, Septoria, Verticillium, became more active in high sugar
Macrophomina, Helminthosporium spp. conditions.
etc. became more active in low sugar
conditions.
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 42. Difference between Talaromyces and Eupenicillium

S.No. Talaromyces Eupenicillium

1. Fruiting body grows indefinitely and itssize Fruiting body attains a definite size.
keeps on increasing even after the
maturation of ascospores.
2. Cleistothecial wall is made up of loosely Cleistothecial wall is hard and made up of
arranged interwoven hyphae. thick-walled.
3. Asci are produced from crosiers in most of The asci generally develop on short
the species. branches of the ascogenous hyphae.

43. Difference between the Families of Order Peronosporales

S.No. Pythiaceae Peronosporaceae Albuginaceae

1. Facultative parasites or Obligate parasites Obligate parasites
saprophytes
2. Sporangiophores Sporangiophores branched Sporangiophores unbranched
undifferentiated from the determinate in growth and clavate.
mycelium, indeterminate in easily distinguishable from
growth and branched. the mycelium.
3. Sporangia appear singly Sporangia singly or in Each sporangiophore
clusters, borne at the producing a chain of
characteristically branched sporangia, in basipetal
sporangiophores. succession.
4. Haustoria absent or branched Haustoria varied or branched Haustoria knob shaped
5. Oogonial periplasm is either Periplasm is well developed Periplasm is persistent and
absent or present in the form and persistent. conspicuous.
of a thin layer.
6. Example - Pythium, Example - All downy Example - Albugo candida
Phytophthora mildews

44. Difference between Verticillium albo-atrum and Verticillium dahlia

S.No. Verticillium albo-atrum Verticillium dahliae

1. It is more virulent than V. dahliae. It is less virulent than V. albo-atrum.
2. The conidiophores are simpler, Forming branched conidiophores with no
unbruanched, with swollen and coloured swelling or colouration of the basal portion.
basal portion.
3. It grows at lower temperature of 22- 25°C It shows fairly good growth at 30°C.
and shows no growth at 30°C.
4. It forms resting mycelium, originally Forming microsclerotia as the resting
called dauer mycelium or sklerotein. stage.

45. Difference between Phyllosticta and Phoma

S.No. Phyllosticta Phoma
Both producing pycnidia as a fruiting body
1. Phyllosticta typically infect the foliage The symptoms of a Phoma blight infection
and cause tannish-gray leaf spots with dark are visible only on older leaves. Affected
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 brown to purple borders. Early symptoms leaves display angular, yellow to brown
include small, circular or oval spots. irregular lesions scattered over the entire
Phyllosticta may also infect fruit andstems. lamina. As the disease progresses the
Yield loss is a common consequence of lesions grow and form larger patches that
Phyllosticta infection. later turn into dull necrotic areas with grey
centers and dark margins.
2. A minute apical mucilagenous appendage The condia of Phoma invariably lack the
is the characteristic feature of the conidia. minute apical mucilagenous appendage.
3. Conidia having several septa with long Conidia are single celled and are borne
pointed beak. from inconspicuous peg-like phialides.

46. Difference between Rhizoids and Stolon

S.No. Rhizoids Stolon

1. Rhizoids are small branching hyphae that A stolon is defined as an occasionally
grow downwards from the stolons that septate hypha, which connects
anchor the fungus to the substrate, where sporangiophores together. Root-like
they release digestive enzymes and absorb structures called rhizoids may appear on the
digested organic material. That is why stolon as well, anchoring the hyphae to the
fungí are called heterotrophs by substrate.
absorption.
2. The stolon (horizontally expanding across the mold) and rhizoids are commonly found
in bread molds

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 47. Difference between Chlamydospore and Sclerotia

S.No. Chlamydospore Sclerotia

1. A chlamydospore is the thick-walled large A sclerotium, (plural sclerotia) is a
resting spore of several kinds of fungi. compact mass of hardened fungal
mycelium containing food reserves.
2. It is the life-stage which survives in Another role of sclerotia is to survive
unfavourable conditions, such as dry or hot environmental extremes. In some higher
seasons. fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become
detached and remain dormant until
favorable growth conditions return.
3. Chlamydospores are usually dark-coloured, Sclerotia are often composed of a thick,
spherical, and have a smooth (non- dense shell with thick and dark cells and
ornamented) surface. They aremulticellular, a core of thin colorless cells. Sclerotia are
with cells connected by poresin the septae rich in hyphae emergency supplies,
between cells. especially oil. They contain a very small
amount of water (5-10%) and can survive
in a dry environment for several
years without losing the ability to grow.
4. Chlamydospores are a result of asexual Sclerotia germinate to form fruiting
reproduction (in which case they are bodies (Basidiomycetes) or mycelium
conidia called chlamydoconidia) or sexual with conidia (in imperfect fungi).
reproduction (rare). Teliospores are special
kind of chlamydospores formed by rusts
and smuts.
5. Chlamydospores resemble oospores (lower Sclerotia resemble cleistothecia in both
fungi) morphologically because both are their morphology and the genetic control
thick walled spherical resting spores. of their development. This suggests the
two structures may be homologous,
sclerotia being vestigial cleistothecia
that lost the capacity to produce
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 ascospores.
6. Examples including Ascomycota such as Examples of fungi that form sclerotia
Candida, Basidiomycota such as Panus, are ergot (Claviceps purpurea),
and various Mortierellales species. Some Polyporus tuberaster, Psilocybe
mitosporic fungi like Fusarium spp. also mexicana, Sclerotium spp., Rhizoctonia
produces chlamydospores. spp. and many species in
Sclerotiniaceae. The plasmodium of
slime molds can form sclerotia in
adverse environmental conditions.

48. Difference between Oospore and Oosphere

S.No. Oospore Oosphere

1. Oospore is (biology) a fertilized female Oosphere is (botany) a large nonmotile
zygote, having thick chitinous walls, that egg cell formed in an oogonium and
develops from a fertilized oosphere in ready for fertilization.
some algae and fungi.

2. Oospore is a sexual spore of oomycete Each oosphere is dark, uninucleate and

fungi. contains a single large or many small oil
globules. There is no periplasm.
3. It is also a resting spore, arises from an Each oosphere germinates by producing
oogonium. a germ tube, which soon develops into a
well-developed mycelium, and thus the
life cycle is completed. Multinucleate
oogonium gets cleaved into a number of
uninucleate oospheres or eggs. Usually
the oospheres are 4-10 in an oogonium
but rarely they may reach up to 32.

49. Difference between Hyphomycetes and Coelomycetes

S.No. Hyphomycetes Coelomycetes

1. Hyphomyetes are a class of mycelial A class of conidial fungi where the conidia
moulds which reproduce asexually by are formed within a cavity lined by fungal
conidia on hyphae or aggregations of or host tissue.
hyphae.
2. The conidia are borne on conidiophores The fruiting structures may be spherical
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 which are not in a fruiting body. Some with an apical opening (pynidia) or saucer
species form only sclerotia. shaped (acervuli).
3. Hyphomycetes have "naked" conidia. The production of conidia within a fruiting
body.
4. Examples are Alternaria, Bipolaris, Examples are Colletotrichum, Septoria,
Helminthosporium, Cercospora, etc. Phoma, Macrophomina, etc.

50. Difference between Urediospores and Teliospores

S.No. Urediniospores Teliospores

1. It is also known as repeating spores. It is also known as over-wintering
spores.
2. Urediniospore is the thin-walled summer Teliospore is the thick-celled winter or
spore which is produced during the so- resting spore of the rusts (order
called uredo stage of certain rusts. uredinales), produced in late summer.

3. Urediniospores develop in the uredium, Teliospores develop in telia.

generally on a leaf’s under surface.
4. Urediniospores usually have two dikaryote Teliospores consist of one, two or more
nuclei within one cell. dikaryote cells.
5. In mass they are usually pale brown. In mass they are generally dark brown.
6. Pustules formed by urediniospores can be Pustules formed by teliospores cannot be
easily rub-off. easily rub-off.

51. Difference between Teliomycetes and Ustomycetes

S.No. Teliomycetes Ustomycetes

1. Teliospores terminal Teliospores intercalary or terminal
2. Four basidiospores produced on Variable number of basidiospores produced
stertigmata no sterigmata
3. Basidiospores actively liberated Basidiospores not usually actively liberated
(discharge)
4. Clamp connections rarely formed Clamp connection common
5. Distinct haustoria formed Haustoria not distinct
6. Obligate bioprophs Facultative biotrophs, form yeast-like
colonies on artificial media
7. Often require an alternate host to Complete life cycle on a single host species
complete its life cycle
8. Intection usually located Infection usually systemic
9. Teliospores in telial sori, location non- Teliospores usually in a specific host organ,
specific e.g., leaves or inflorescence
10. Infect ferns, gymnosperms and Infect angiosperms only
angiosperms

52. Difference between Hymenomycetae and Gasteromycetae

S.No. Hymenomycetae Gasteromycetae

1. Basidia formed on a distinct hymenium Hymenium present or absent

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 2. Hymenium exposed before basidiospores Basidiomata closed when basidiospores
reach maturity. reach maturity
3. Basidiospores actively liberated Basidiospores not actively liberated
4. Basidiospores asymmetrically mounted Basidiospores symmetrically mounted on
(offset) on sterigmata sterigmata
5. Example: mushroom, boletes, coral Example: puffballs, earthstars, stinkhorns,
fungi, bracket fungi, spine fungi bird’s nest fungi

53. Difference between Plasmodiophorales and Peronosporales

S.No. Plasmodiophorales Pernosporales

1. It is a pseudofungal order under division It is a pseudofungal order under division
Myxomycota, class- Eumycota, sub division-
plasmodiophoromycetes. It has single Mastigomycotima, class-oomycetes. It has
family-plasmodiophoraceae which 3 families- Pythiaceae, Albuginaceae,
includes 16 genera. Recent classification pernosporaceae with 17 genera. Recent
includes it under kingdom protozoa. classification includes it under kingdom
Chromista.
2. They are commonly known as the They are saprophytes in water or soil or
endoparasitic slime molds, consists of a highly specialized parasites or
naked holocarpic plasmodial thallus with angiosperms.
plasmodial movement and feeding.
3. Members are obligate parasite of algae, Peronosporacee and Albuginacee are
aquatic fungi and higher plants (usually in biotrophic (obligate) parasites, some
roots). members of Pythiaceae, however are
facultative parasite.
4. These parasites actually cause marked The mycelia are intercellular in
enlargement (hypertrophy) and abnormal Peronosporaceae or intracellular in
multiplication of the host cells majority of Pythiaceae. The intercellular
(hyperplasia). mycelium runs through the intercellular
spaces of the plant and only their haustoria
enter the host cell. But the hyphae of the
intracellular mycelium penetrate the host
cells and rarely develop the haustoria.
5. A characteristic cruciform typer of nuclear Sexual spores are called oospores.
division is found only in
plasmodiophorales and in no other fungi.
6. The asexual spores called zoospores are The asexual spores called zoospores are
biflagellate with two anteriorly inserted biflagellate with one whiplash flagellum
whiplash flagella of unequal length. and other a tinsel flagellum.
7. The life cycle includes two distinct The mycelium is coenocytic freebranching
plasmodial phases. The first plasmodial and delicate septa may be formed to delimit
phase is a zoosporangial plasmodium. The the reproductive organs or in the older
second plasmodial phase gives rises to mycelium. The colourless
resting spores contain either chitin or hyphae wall composed and protein
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 cellulose. containing hydroxyl proline.
8. Important genera causing plant diseases They causes many plant diseases such as:
are: a) Late blight of potato- Phytopthora
a) Club root of crucifers- Plasmodiophora infestans
brassicae b) White rust of crucifers- Albugo candida
b) Powdery scab of potato- Spongospora c) Downy mildew of grape- Plasmopara
subterranean. viticola
d) Damping off of seedlings- Pythium sp.

54. Difference between Taphrina and Saccharomyces

S.No. Taphrina Saccharomyces

1. It is a genus of order Taphrinales under It is a genus of order Endomycetales under
class Hemiascomycetes, sub division class Hemiascomycetes, sub division –
Ascomycota fungi. Ascomycota fungi.
2. They are homothallic (naked asci). The They are homothallic and heterothallic.
asci are not enclosed by an peridium.
3. Mycellium is abandon. They produce a Mycellium is usually scanty or lacking.
definite mycelium in nature, but on Plant body is unicellular unique character.
artificial media no mycelium is formed.
4. Like yeasts their ascospores also multiply They are mostly saprobes in nature, they
by budding. show ability to ferment.
5. The ascus is produced from a special Cell wall: cellulose is absent, glycogen
binucleate, ascogenous cell developed and mannan present along with chitin.
from the mycelium.
6. Asexual reproduction takes place by Asexual reproduction takes place by
uninucleate, thin-walled spores which are fission, budding and arthrospore
referred to as conidia. The conidia are formation. Sexual reproduction takesplace
developed from the ascospores. The by the fusion of two somatic hyphal
ascospores produce conidia by budding. cells, two ascospores or two gametangia.
7. Examples: All members are parasitic on Examples: Baker’s yeast or brewer’s yeast
higher vascular plants. Causes important - Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
plant diseases like-
a) Peach leaf curl- Taphrina deformans
b) Brown leaf spot or turmeric - T.
maculans
c) Leaf and witche’s broom of apricot and
cherry - T. wiesneri.

55. Difference between Amphigynous Antheridia and Paragynous Antheridia

S.No. Antheridia in Phytophthora can be either amphigynous or paragynous.

Amphigynous Antheridia Paragynous Antheridia

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 1. An amphigynous antheridium completely A paragynous antheridium does not
surrounds the oogonial stalk. surround the oogonial stalk.
2. An oogonium with an amphigynous can be attached anywhere on the
antheridium form when the oogonial oogonium, in most species however,
hyphae grows through the antheridium. attached will be close to the oogonial stalk.
3.

4. Example is Phytophthora ilicis. Example is Phytophthora cactorum.

56. Difference between Monoclinous Antheridia and Diclinous Antheridia

S.No. Monoclinous Antheridia Diclinous Antheridia
1. The hyphae bearing the antheridium can The hyphae bearing the antheridium can
branch from the same hyphae is known as branch from the different hyphae is known
monoclinous. as diclinous.
2.

3. Example - Saprolegnia brachydanis Example - Pythium rostratifingens

57. Difference between Plerotic Oospore and Aplerotic Oospore

S.No. Plerotic Oospore Aplerotic Oospore
1. If an oospore completely fills the If there is some space left between the
available space in the oogonium, it is oospore wall and oogonium wall, it is
considered as plerotic. considered as aplerotic.

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 2.

58. Difference between Puccinia and Melampsora

S.No. Puccinia Melampsora

1. Teliospores pedicillate. Teliospores sessile.
2. Teliospore 2 celled. Teliospore 1 celled or in layer of one spore
depth.
3. Teliospore with peridium. Teliospore without peridium.
4. Telia not conspicuously gelatinous when Telia long and covered by host tissue.
wet.
5. Basidium produce through germ pores. Basidium is external.

59. Difference between Wood staining Fungi and Sap-staining Fungi

S.No. Wood Staining Fungi Sap Staining Fungi

1. Several Ascomycetes and imperfect fungi Also called blue-stain fungi, causing
result in the appearance of unsightly discolouration of the sap wood.
discolourations in the wood and thus
reduce the quality but not the strength of
the wood.
2. These are simply surface molds thatusually They produce pigmented hyphae that grow
grow on freshly cut surfaces ofwood and mainly in the ray parenchyma but can spread
impart color of their spores to throughout the sap wood and cause
the wood. lines of discolouration.
3. Examples: Penicillium stains blue or Examples: Ceratocystis, Hypoxylon,
green; Aspergillus stains wood black and Xylaria, Graphium, Diplodia, Coprinus and
green; Fusarium produces red or pink Cladosporium.
colour and Rhizopus causes a grey color.

60. Difference between Brown Rot and White Rot Fungi

S.No. Brown Rot Fungi White Rot Fungi

1. They attack preferably softwoods and They preferably attack hard woods either by
break down and utilize primarily the cell decomposing lignin and hemicellulose first
wall polysaccharides (cellulose and and cellulose in the last or decompose all
hemicellulose) leaving the lignin more or wood components.
less unaffected.
2. This usually results in rotten wood that in Reducing the wood to a light-coloredspongy
some shade of brown and in advanced mass with white pockets or streaks separated
stages, has a cubical pattern of cracking by thin areas of firm wood.
98
 and a crumbly texture.
3. Examples: Postia, Piptoporus, Pholiota Examples: Cariolus, Pleurotus, Daldinia,
Ustilina, Xylaria

61. Difference between Hypocrea and Nectria

S.No. Hypocrea Nectria

1. Hypocrea is a genus of Ascomycetous Nectria is a genus of Ascomycetous fungi
fungi belongs to family Hypocreaceae of belongs to family Nectriaceae of order
order Hypocreales and class Hypocreales and class Sordariomycetes.
Sordariomycetes.
2. Anamorphic genera associated with Sporodochium-forming fungi likeFusarium
Hypocrea include Acremonium, and Tubercularia forms the anamorphic
Gliocladium, Trichoderma and stage of Nectria.
Verticillium.
3. It is used in management of plant Plant pathogenic in nature by causing
diseases. canker.
4. Hypocrea/Trichoderma having green Colorless, striate ascospores are observed
ascospores. in case of Nectria.
5. Each ascus has eight ascospores that are
Asci are cylindrical, uniseriate and having
16 ascospores. generally arranged biseriately, rarely
uniseriately.
6. Ascospores hyaline, wedge-shaped or sub- Nectria limiting it to species having 1-
globose, usually distinctly flattened on septate ascospores.
one side.
7. Ascospores separate out at the time of Ascospores are not separate after maturity,
maturity. they remain intact as such.

62. Difference between Sclerospora and Peronosclerospora

S.No. Sclerospora Peronosclerospora
1. Produces sporangia on sporangiophore. Produces conidia on conidiophore.

2. Sporangia germinate by producingzoospores, Conidia directly germinate by producing

although direct germination occassionally germ-tube.
occurs.
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3. Sporangia having a papillate operculum. Conidia have no apical modification.
4. Warm, wet and humid weather favours the Cool, wet and humid weather favours
growth of Sclerospora. the growth of Peronosclerospora.

63. Difference between Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma harzianum

S.No. Trichoderma harzianum Trichoderma viride

1. Colony is dark green in colour. Colony is light green in colour.
2. On PDA media, T. harzianum appears to On PDA media, T. viride formed 1-2
be a bit granular on PDA, with green conidia concentric rings with green conidial
distributed throughout. An irregular yellow production. The conidia production was
zone without conidia was present around the denser in center then towards the
inoculum. Some white pustules were also margins.
found growing on the green mat of conidia.

3. Phialides were flask shaped. Phialides were also flask shaped but
shorter than those of T. harzianum.

100
4. Conidia of Trichoderma harzianum The conidia of T. viride (3.0x2.8 μm)
(2.8x2.6 μm) were globose to subglobose. were globose, variously roughened or
verrucose.

5. No any characteristic smell is produced. Characteristic aromatic odorsresembling

coconut are produced commonly by
strains of Trichoderma
viride.

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 64. Difference between all Downy Mildew Fungi

S.No. Downy Mildew

A number of common genera differentiated chiefly by the branching of their sporangiophore.
1. Basidiophora sp. Sclerospora sp. Plasmopara sp. Peronospora sp. Bremia sp. Bremiella sp.
Pseudoperonospora sp.
2. The sporangiphore is The sporangiophore The branches of The sporangiophores are The sporangiophore The tips of
clubbed shaped witha is a long, stout hypha, sporangiophore and dichotomously branched branches are expand sporangiophore’s
swollen head over with many upright their sub divisions at acute angles and taper into cup-shaped branches inflated into
which the sporangia branches near the occur typically at to gracefully curved apophyses with four bulbous apophyses on
are borne on minute end, bearing right angles and are pointed tips on which sterigmata each which sterigmata
sterigmata. sporangia at the tips. irregularly spaced. sporangia are borne. bearing the sporangia bearing sporangia are
along their margins. produced.
3.

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 65. Difference between all Powdery Mildew Fungi

S.No. Powdery Mildews

Mycelium Partially Endophytic Mycelium Epiphytic
1. Cleistothecium contains several Cleistothecium contains several asci. Cleistothecium contains single
asci. ascus.
2. Conidia formed singly. Conidia formed singly Conidia formed in true chains. Conidia formed in true chains.
(or in pseudochains).
3. Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages Appendages
straight, bristle- simple, hypha- simple, coiled or branched short, simple, hypha-like, simple, hypha- bristle-like,
like, with bulb- like. hypha-like hooked at dichotomously hypha-like; flexuous, simple like branched
like base. tip at tip infects or irregularly dichotomously at
grasses branched; infects tip
dicots
4. .Phyllactinia (A) Leveillula (B) Erysiphe Uncinula Microsphaera Blumeria (F) Golovinomyces Sphaerotheca Podosphaera
(C) (D) (E) (G) (H) (I)
5.

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(b) Bacteria
1. Difference between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria

S.No. Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria

1. 40-90% murein is present 1-10% murein is present
2. Teichoic acid is present Teichoic acid is absent
3. Lipids generally absent but present in Lipid is present
Mycobacterium
4. Lipopolysachharide is absent Lipopolysachharide is present
5. Genome size→1-3×109 Daltons Genome size→1.2-2.9×109 Daltons
6. In gram staining appear as blue or violet In gram staining appear red
in a red background
7. When exposed to 3% KOH,the reaction Produced sticky reaction
is non sticky
8. Endospore formation No endospore formation (exception-
Neisseria)
9. Very sensitive to triphenyl methyl dyes Less sensitive to triphenyl methyl dyes
10. Maybe acid fast. Never acid fast.
11. Presence of magnesium ribonucleate Absence of magnesium ribonucleate
protein protein
12 Examples - Clavibacter, Examples - Erwinia, Pectobacterium,
Corynebacterium, Streptomyces, Pantoea, Agrobacterium, Pseudomonas,
Ralstonia, Acidovorax, Xanthomonas,
Xylella.
13..

2. Difference between Protoplast and Sphaeroplast

S.No. Protoplast Sphaeroplast

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 1. The wall is completely removed. The wall is damaged but not completely
removed.
2. Obtained mostly from gram positive Obtained mostly from gram negative
bacteria. bacteria.
3. Properties associated with cellwall are Properties associated with wall are lost but
completely lost. not completely.
4. Mesosomes is extracted from the Mesosome is not extruded but retained
cytoplasm. between the plasmalemma and the wall.
5. Fail to resynthesize the wall because the Can resynthesize the cell wall when the
mesosome, which is required for sphaeroplasting agent is withdrawn. This is
synthesis of cell wall material, is because the mesosome which was retained
extruded out. is available for cell wall synthesis.

3. Difference between Bacteria, Mycoplasma, Spiroplasma and Phytoplasma

S.No. Character Bacteria Mycoplasma Spiroplasma Phytoplasma

1. Cell structure Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Prokaryotic
2. Cell shape Rod, spherical Ovoid, coccoid, Spiral/helical Generally
Spiral, comma filamentous ovoid spherical
etc.
3. Cell size 0.5µm-20µm 300-2000nm 100-240nm 200-800nm
Diameter and 1-
2µm long
4. Cell wall (+) (˗) (˗) (˗)
5. Plasma Lipo-protein Lipo-protein Lipo-protein Lipo-protein
membrane Triple layered Triple layered Triple layered Triple layered
6. Cultivability (+) (+) (+) (˗)
7. Sterol (˗) (+) (+) (˗)
requirement
8. Genome size 140-1300Kb 580-2320Kb 940-2220Kb 530-1350Kb
9. Plasmid
10. G+C Ratio 28-80 24-41 25-26 23-29
11. Penicillin (+) (˗) (˗) (˗)
sensitivity
12. Tetracycline (+) (+) (+) (+)
sensitivity
13. Host range Plants, animals Animals Plants Plants
human beings Human beings

4. Difference between Acid Fast Bacteria and Non-Acid Fast Bacteria

S.No. Acid Fast Bacteria Non-Acid Fast Bacteria

1. Acid fast bacteria are a type of bacteria Non-acid fast bacteria are a type of bacteria
that resist decolorizing by acid after that are readily decolorized by acid after
staining. staining.
2. Final color is pink or red. Final color is blue.
3. Stained with the primary stain. Stained with the counter stain.
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 4. Consist of mycolic acid in their cell wall. Do not consist of mycolic acid in their cell
wall.
5. Mycobacterium is an example. Escherichia coli is an example.

5. Difference between Actinomycetes and Bacteria

S.No. Actinomycetes Bacteria

1. Filamentous bacteria. A large group of micro organisms with a
murine cell wall and no membrane – bound
organelles.
2. Belong to the order Actenomycetales. A domain.
3. Gram – Positive. Gram positive or Gram negative.
4. A facultative anaerobe. Aerobes, anaerobes or facultative aerobes.
5. Oval – shaped. Rod - or spherical - shaped.
6. Form powdery colonies that stick firmly Colonies are slimy and distinct.
to agar.
7. Colonies grow slowly. Colonies grow fast.
8. Form hyphae and conidia as fungi. Do not form such structures.
9. Non – motile. Motile.

6. Difference between Pathogenic Bacteria and Non-Pathogenic Bacteria

S.No. Pathogenic Bacteria Non-Pathogenic Bacteria

1. Bacteria that can cause disease. Bacteria that do not cause disease, harm or
death to another organism.
2. Parasitic in nature. Commensals
3. Harmful. May be useful.
4. Virulence genes are present in the Do not possess virulence genes.
genome.
5. Adhere to the cells of the tissues in Do not adhere to the tissues.
order to escape from the fluid flows
inside the body.
6. Invades the cells of the body. Live outside the body cells.
7. Resist phagocytosis by using a slick Subjected to phagocytosis.
capsule, leucocidins and other
antiphagocytic mechanisms.
8. Produce toxins that can alter the Do not produce toxins.
metabolism of the host cells.
9. Produce their colonies within the Do not produce colonies.
tissues.
10. Examples - Pseudomonas syringae, Examples - Escherichia coli
Ralstonia solanacearum

7. Difference between Flagella, Pilli and Fimbriae

106
S.No. Flagella Pili Fimbriae
1. Flagella are longer than Pili are long hair-liketubular Fimbriae are bristle-like
pili, whip-like microfibres likestructures. short fibres.
filamentous structures.
2. Approximate length of Approximate length of Approximate length of
fimbriae is 15 to 20µm. fimbriae is 0.5 to 2µm. fimbriae is 0.03 to 0.14µm.
3. Present in both Gram- Pili are present only on Present in both Gram-
positive and Gram- some Gram-negative positive and Gram-negative
negative bacteria. bacteria. bacteria.
4. Flagella usually show a Pilli are randomly Fimbriae are evenly
distinct pattern of distributed on the surface of distributed on the entire
distribution, may bepolar, the cell. surface of the cell.
lateral or
throughout the surface.
5. Flagella are made up of Pili are made up of pillin Fimbriae are made up of
flagellin protein. protein. fimbrillin protein.
6. Flagella are helical, Pili are more rigid than Fimbriae are solid structures
hollow tubular structure fimbriae. without a lumen.
with lumen.
7. The formation of pili is Similar to flagella, the
The formation of flagella
is controlled by genes controlled by the gene formation of fimbriae is
present in the nucleoid present in plasmids. controlled by the genes
region. present in the nucleoid
region,
8. The main function of The main function of pili is The main function of
flagella is locomotion. gene transfer and fimbriae is surface
attachment. attachment.
9.

8. Difference between Bacterial Flagella and Eukaryotic Flagella

S.No. Bacterial Flagella Eukaryotic Flagella

1. Smaller and simple structure. Larger and complex structure.
2. They are narrower. They are thicker.
3. They are single stranded. They are 11 stranded.
4. A covering membraneous sheath is Flagella are covered by sheath derived from
absent. plasmalemma.
5. Each flagellum has three parts: basal Each flagellum has two parts: basal body
body, hook and filament. Basal body and shaft. Basal body bears rootlets. The
107
 bears rings. They are formed of protein strands are formed of protein tubulin (9+2
flagellin (53kDa subunit). microtubule arrangement).
6. Rotatory movement. They perform lashing or undulatory
movements.
7. Proton driven. ATP driven.

9. Difference between Xanthomonas and Pseudomonas

S.No. Xanthomonas Pseudomonas

1. Cell size measuring 0.2-0.8x0.6-2µm. Cells size measuring 0.5-1.0x 1.5-4µm.
Like pseudomonads, xanthomonads are Cells are gram negative, single, straight or
gram negative and obligately respiratory curved rod but not helical. Energy
using molecular oxygen as terminalelectron metabolism is resparitory, never
fermentative. Molecular oxygen is used as
acceptor. Cells are single, straight rod.
the terminal electron acceptor, except for
certain strains of Ralstonia solanacearum
which are capable of denitrification.
Growth factors are not required.
3. Motile by a single polar flagellum (usually Motile by means of one or more pollar
monotrichous). flagella.
4. Copious extracellular slime produced in Many species are common inhabitants of
sugar containing media. soil or of freshwater and marine
environments.
5. Growth on agar media is usually yellow, Bacterial colonies are not yellow coloured
and most are slow growing. Bacterial ruther it is white.
colonies yellow coloured due to
production of brominated, yellow pigment-
“xanthomonadin”.
6. They cause less number of bacterial plant They cause higher number of bacterial
disease than caused by Pseudomonas. plant disease. Few infects animals or
humans.
7. Unlike certain pseudomonads, Four phytopathogenic species within the
xanthomonads do not reduce nitrates. They genus Pseudomonas were differentiated
are sensitive to triphenyl tetrazolium by several biochemical tests including the
chloride and NaCl, relatively slow growing production of fluorescent pigment,
even in complex media and often lipolytic, intracellular accumulation of poly-β-
proteolytic, pectolytic and /or amylolytic. hydroxybutyrate and absence of arginine
dihydrolase, P. syringae, P. chichorii and
the opportunistic phytopathogen P.
aeruginosa were placed with thefluorescent
group, with most of the fluorescent
phytopathogenic nomen species lumped
under P. syringae. Another pathogen P.
marginalis, Wasplaced in biotype II of
P.fluorescens.
again P. solanacearum and P. cepacia
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 were the other two phytopathogenic
species recognized under the
nonfluorescent pseudomonads.
8. They causes bacterial plant diseases like They cause bacterial plant diseases like-
common blight of bean( X. axonopodis pv. moko disease of banana (Ralstonia
phaseoli), bacterial leaf blight of rice(X. solanacearum), wild fire of tobacco (P.
oryzae pv. oryzae), etc. syringae pv. tabaci).

10. Difference between Root Knot and Root Nodule

S.No. Root Knot Root Nodule

1. Root Knot symptoms are caused by Root nodule symptoms are caused by gram-
Meloidogyne spp. of nematode. negative bacterium genus Rhizobium.
2. Gall formation take place. Nodule formation take place.
3. Root galls cannot be easily detach. Root nodules can easily be detach.
4. Common in rice, vegetable crops etc. Common in leguminous crops-pea, bean,
gram, soybean, arahars etc.
5. Soil fertility donot increase. It is symbiotic association. Soil fertility
(nitrogen) increases due to symbiotic
nitrogen fixation takes place inside the root
nodule.
6. It causes damage to host. It is a parasitic It is a non-parasitic association.
association.

11. Difference between Root Nodule and Root Galls

S.No. Root Nodule Root Galls

1. Root nodules are well-organized structures Swelling or overgrowth produced on roots
produced on the roots of most legume plant as a result of infection by certain pathogens
after inoculation with certain, mostly are known as root galls.
nitrogen-fixing species of bacteria of the
genus Rhizobium.
2. It is a symbiotic association, not parasitic It is a parasitic axxociation between host
infection. and pathogen.
3. Root nodules can be easily separated. Root galls can not be easily separated.
4. The nodulation genes enable bacteria to Root galls are caused by abnormal cell
induce nodule formation in host-specific enlargement (hypertrophy).
manner.
5. The root nodule bacterial include Root knot nematode - Meloidogyne spp.
Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium,
Azorhizobium and Frankia.
6.

12. Difference between Prototroph and Auxotroph

S.No. Prototrophs Auxotrophs

1. The organism that grows on the minimal A mutant of prototroph (especially a
medium is called a prototroph. bacterium) which fail to grow on the

109
 minimal medium is called an auxotroph.

2. Any microorganism that can synthesize Any microorganism that has lost the ability to
its nutrients from inorganic material. synthesize an organic compound required for
its growth, usually as a result of mutation.

3. Prototroph is like the parent organism Has a nutritional requirement and you need to
and was able to make the amino acid. add the amino acid or nucleotide to medium.

110
111
 13. Difference between Conjugation, Transformation and Transduction

S.No. Conjugation Transformation Transduction

1. The process was discovered in 1946 by Transformation in bacteria was first Transduction was discovered by Norton
Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in demonstrated in 1928 by the British Zinder and Joshua Lederberg at the
Escherichia. coli. bacteriologist Frederick Griffith in University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1952 in
Streptococcus pneumoniae. Salmonella typhi.
2. The process of exchanging genetic material The process by which bacteria cells Using a virus to transfer DNA from one
through cell-to-cell contact (conjugation pick up and incorporate DNA from bacteria to another. Viruses called
bridge). dead bacteria cells. They take up DNA bacteriophages are used to carry DNA
from dead cells across the cell walland between cells. This is one way to get bacteria
cell membrane of the same or a to make large amounts of proteins for
closely related species. research and medicine.
3. Bacteria can extend their sec pili to form as Genotype and possible phenotype of A type of horizontal gene transfer. A
an avenue for DNA transfer. The presence of prokaryotic cell are altered by the bacteriophage can infect a donor bacterial
particular piece of DNA is called the F factor uptake of foreign DNA from its cells. The host's DNA is fragmented and
(fertility). Cells containing F+ plasmid surroundings. Foreign DNA can be proteins are made. A bacterial DNA fragment
function as DNA donors during conjugation. incorporated into genome by can infect other cells and some of the DNA
The F- plasmid will become the DNA homologous DNA change. may replace homologous region of the
recipients. The F factor is transferable in the recipient DNA by DNA recombination.
sense that F+ cell converts an F- cell to F+ cell
if a copy of F+ plasmid is transferred.
4. Plasmid transfer occurs. Plasmid transfer occurs. Plasmid transfer not likely occurs.
5. No chromosomal transfer. Chromosomal transfer sometimes No chromosomal transfer.
occur.
6. Antibiotic resistance acquired. Antibiotic resistance acquired. Antibiotic resistance acquired only
sometimes.

112
7.

113
 14. Difference between Generalized Tranduction and Specialized Tranduction

S.No. Generalized Tranduction Specialized Tranduction

1. Generalized tranduction occurs during the Specialized tranduction normally occurs
lytic cycle in which the phage accidently when the phage "decides" to leave the
packages a random piece of the bacterial lysogenic phase. If a phage is in the
DNA just before the bacteria lysis (before lysogenic phase, it's DNA will stay in the
the bacterial cell breaks apart, the insideof bacterial genome unless there is some kind
the bacteria is in pieces). of stress. In the case of stress, the phage
DNA will leave by "looping itself" out of the
bacterial genome. It may also, accidentally
take some of the bacterial genome with it.

2.

15. Difference between F+ x F- Conjugation and Hfr x F- Conjugation

S.No. F+ x F- Conjugation Hfr x F- Conjugation

1. F- plasmid is free in the cell. The cell F-plasmid is integrated into the
acts as donor (male). chromosome. Integration may be different
at sites of the chromosomes containing
insertion sequences ( IS element) which can
recognise F-DNA. Integration at different
sites gives rise to different Hfr-strains.
114
 2. Replication of F-plasmid is independent Replication of integrated F-DNA occurs
of chromosomal replication. Replication with the replication of the chromosomal
of F-plasmid begins at OrlT and proceeds DNA. Replication starets a Ori T of the F-
by rolling circle mechanisms. DNA and proceeds by the rolling circle
mechanisms.
3. F- plasmid transfer to the recipient takes Transfer of the F integrated chromosome
about 2 min and the whole of the F- takes about 100 minutes. Very rarely the
plasmid id transferred. whole chromosome is transferred.
Generally, only a small part of the F-DNA
is transferred.
4. The F- recipient is transformed into F+ Generally, the F- recipient remains F-
donor. because very rarely the complete F-DNA is
transferred.
5. Only the F-plasmid borne genes are Chromosomal genes are transferred along
transferred. No chromosomal genes are with a few f-plasmid genes. As the mating
transferred. cells break apart before the entire
chromosomes is transferred, only several
hundred chromosomal genes can be
transferred.
6. Recombination of chromosomal genes Transferred chromosomal genes may be
does not occur. incorporated into the recipient’s
chromosome by homologous crossing-over
resulting in genetic recombination.

16. Difference between Transcription and Reverse Transcription

S.No. Transcription Reverse Transcription

1. Transcription is the process of copying the Reverse transcription refers to the reverse
genetic information stored in a DNA process of the normal transcription in which
genome into a complementary strand of the RNA template is copied to form
RNA. a cDNA molecule in retroviruses.
2. Encoding of DNA genome into RNA. Encoding of RNA genome into cDNA.
3. Occurs in both prokaryotes and Occurs in retroviruses.
eukaryotes.
4. Occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes Occurs in the cytoplasm of the host.
and nucleus in eukaryotes.
5. RNA polymerase is involved. Reverse transcriptase is involved.
6. No primer is used by RNA polymerase. Lysyl tRNA acts as the primer for the
reverse transcriptase.
7. Products of transcription are used in the Products of reverse transcription are
protein synthesis. integrated into the host genome.

17. Difference between Lytic Cycle and Lysogenic Cycle

S.No. Lytic Cycle Lysogenic Cycle

1. Lytic cycl is a type of a viral reproduction Lysogenic cycle is a viral reproduction
mechanism, which results in the lysis of the mechanism where the viral DNA is
infected cell. intregrated into the host genome.
115
 2. Viral DNA does not integrate into the host Viral DNA integrates into the host DNA .
DNA.
3. Does not have a prophage stage. Has a prophage stage.
4. Host DNA is hydrolyzed. Host DNA is not hydrolyzed.
5. Viral DNA replication occurs Viral DNA replication occurs along with
independently from the hosts DNA the hosts DNA replication.
replication.
6. Productivity of viral DNA is high. Productivity of viral DNA is low.
7. Hosts cellular mechanism is completely Hosts cellular mechanism is slightly
takes over by the viral genome. disturbed by the viral genome.
8. Virus is virulent. Virus is non virulent.
9. Host cell is lysed during the release of the Host cell is not lysed.
viral particles.
10. Produces a progeny of virus since viral Does not produce a viral progeny since
particles are liberated. viral particles are not liberated.
11. Occurs within a short period of time. Takes time.
12. Cannot follow the lysogenic cycle. Can follow the lytic cycle.
13. Shows the symptoms of viral replications.
Does not show symptoms of viral
replication.
14. Does not allow genetic recombination in Allows genetic recombination of the host
the host bacterium. bacterium.

18. Difference between Secretion Systems of Bacteria

S.No. Bacterial Occurrence Main Function Mechanism

Secretion Systems
(SS)
1. Type-ISS It is present in This secretion system They consist of ATP-
almost all plant carries out the binding cassette (ABC)
pathogenic secretion of toxins proteins and are involved
bacteria. such as hemolysins, in the export and import
cyclolysin and of a variety of
rhizobiocin. compounds through
energy provided by the
hydrolysis of ATP.
2. Type-IISS It is common in This secretion system Proteins are exported in a
Gram-negative involved in the export two-step process. First as
bacteria. of various proteins, unfolded proteins to the
enzymes, toxins and periplasm via the second
virulence factors. pathway across the inner
membrane, then as
processed and folded
proteins through the
periplasm and across the
outer membrane via an
apparatus consisting of
12 to 14 proteins encoded
by a cluster of genes.
3. Type-IIISS It is most The primary function Genes that encode
116
 important in terms of this secretion protein components of
of pathogenicity of system is the transport the Type III SS apparatus
the bacteria in the of effector proteins have two third similarity
genera across the bacterial at the amino acid level
Pseudomonas, membrane and into the and uch genes are called
Xanthomonas and plant cell. hypersensitive response
Ralstonia conserved (HRC) genes.
4. Type-IVSS It is common in The Agrobacterium The proteins transferred
Agrobacterium tumefaciens vir-B are very similar to those
tumefaciens. operon encodes 11 responsible for the
proteins that form an mobilization of plasmids
organised structure among bacteria.
and are involved in the
transfer of the T-DNA
strand from the
bacterium to the plant
cell cytoplas.
5. Type-VSS It is found in It contains genes that They have a β-barrel
Xylella and encode surface domain, which inserts
Xanthomonas. associated adhesins in into the outer cell
the outer cell membrane and forms a
membrane. They are channel that can transport
also called the auto secreted protein along
transport system e.g., with it. When the
Trimeric secreted proteins are
Autotransporter exposed outside, the
Adhesins. autotransporters are cut
off, releasing the protein
from β-barrel domain.
6. Type-VISS It is found in The classic role as For T VI SS form a gene
Vibrio cholerae pathogenicity factor cluster that consists of
and Pseudomonas but also involved in more than 15 genes. Hcp
aeruginosa. defence against simple and VgrG genes are the
eukaryotic predators most universal genes.
and in inter-bacteria Structural similarity of T
interactions. VI SS with the tail spike
of T4 phage suggest that
the process of infection is
similar to that of the
phage.
7. Type-VIISS It is present in Type VII SS of This includes two
Gram-positive Mycobacteria secrete membrane proteins with
bacteria and substrates over the (predicted) enzymatic
mycobacteria such unusual diderm cell activities - a predicted
as Mycobacteria envelope having its ATPase and a subtilisin-
bovis, role in bacterial like protease involved in
Mycobacterium physiology and processing of specific
tuberculosis, virulence. substrates.
Streptomyces
coelicolor and
117
 Streptomyces
aureus. It is also
called T7b system
in Bacillus subtilis
and S aureus.

19. Difference between Siderophores and Bacteriocines

S.No. Siderophores Bacteriocines

1. Siderophores are extracellular,low A protein or apeptide which antibiotic
molecular weight-iron(III)-transparent activity normally against narrow range of
agents. closely related bacteria.
2. Produced by most aerobic and Usually it is plasmid borne.
facultative anaerobic microorganism
under low iron stress.
3. The function of siderophores is to supply Bacteriocins are adsorbed on the surface of
iron to the cell. bacterial cell and they stop biosynthesis of
nuceic acids and result in cell death.
Eg., Agrocin K84, Carotovoricin, colicin,
Subtilisin, pyocin.

20. Xylem-inhabiting and Phloem-inhabiting Bacteria

S.No. Xylem-inhabiting Bacteria Phloem-inhabiting Bacteria

1. The principal conducting elements of The principal conducting cells of the
the xylem are tracheids and vessel phloem are the sieve tube elements.
members.
2. Both tracheids and vessels are dead cells, These sieve tube elements are joined end
contain no cytoplasm, and have to end into sieve tubes, and are associated
lignified secondary walls. with parenchymatic, nucleated cells, the
companion cells, an important role of
which is to load sucrose into the sieve
tubes. The sieve tube elements are
living cells, which become enucleated at
maturity. The sieve plates arelateral
wall areas between two adjacent sieve
elements.
3. The vessel elements are joined end to The sieve plates are clustered with
end into vessels, and the adjoining ends pores, resembling giant plasmodesmata
have open perforation plates. These and interconnecting two adjacent sieve
openings allow relatively unimpeded elements through their cytoplasms. The
longitudinal spread of the xylem- diameter of a pore ranges from a fraction
restricted bacteria with in the vessels. On of a micron(m) to15m and more, and is
the lateral walls, both tracheids and vessel large enough to allow passage of
members have apertures, called pits, sievetube-restricted bacteria.
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 which have membranes separating
adjoining elements. Lateral movement of
xylem-restricted bacteria through pits
implies breaching pit membranes.
4. The xylem sap is not as rich as phloem sap, Most phloem-restricted bacteria have
and most xylem-restricted bacteria can be resisted in vitro cultivation, even though
cultured in vitro. they multiply actively in phloem sap with in
the sieve tubes. This suggests that the rich
phloem sap, in contrast to culture media,
contains nutrients still to be identified and
indispensable for the growth
of phloem-restricted bacteria.
5. Xylem-restricted bacteria were discovered Sieve tube-restricted organisms became
a few yearslater. Those associated with known as myco-plasma-like organisms or
Pierce’s disease of grapevine and phony MLOs, now called ‘phytoplasmas’. The
disease of peach, now known as spiroplasmas were discovered in 1970.
representatives of Xylella fastidiosa, as Whilethe phytoplasmas have no defined
well as those of ratoon stunting disease morphology, the spiroplasmas are helical
of sugar cane, now named Clavibacter organisms, and this well-defined
xyli subsp. xyli, were first seen in 1973. morphology, for organisms lacking a cell
The bacterium associated with Sumatra wall, came as a surprise. In addition to
disease of cloves was observed in 1985, wall-less bacteria (phytoplasmas and
and named Pseudomonas syzygii in 1990. spiroplasmas), sieve tubes may also
Xyllela fastidiosa and P. syzygii are contain walled bacteria of the Gram-
Gram-negative bacteria, C. xyli is negative type (proteobacteria). The best-
Gram-positive. No phytoplasmas have studied ones are the liberibacters and the
been seen in the xylem. phlomobacters. The liberibacters were
discovered in 1970 through the study of
citrus greening disease, now renamed
‘huanglongbing’. Marginal chlorosis of
strawberries led to the discovery of
phlomobacters in 1993.

21. Difference between Plasmid and Cosmid

S.No. Plasmid Cosmid

1. Plasmid is a genetic structure in the cell Cosmid is a type of hybrid plasmid which
which can replicate independently from contains lambda phage cos sequences.
the chromosome.
2. A type of cloning vector. A hybrid cloning vector.
3. Do not contain cohesive end sites. Contains a cohesive end site, which allows
the plasmid to be packaged into a virus
particle.
4. Can accommodate a DNA piece up to Can accommodate up to 45kb sized
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 15kb. fragments.
5. Transformation frequency is low. Transformation frequency is high.
6. Examples include pBR322, pBG1805, pHV79 is one of the most common
pYES2.1 examples in genetic engineering.

22. Difference between Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes

S.No. Agrobacterium tumefaciens Agrobacterium rhizogenes

1. Causes crown-gall disease in plants. Induces root tumors or hairy roots.
2. The disease is characterised by a tumour- Infects plants, adventitious roots called
like growth or gall on the infected plant, ‘hairy roots’ are induced from the infected
often at the junction between the root and site.
the shoot.

3. Tumors are incited by the conjugative Carries the distinct Ri (root-inducing)

transfer of a DNA segment (T-DNA) from plasmids integrate its transfer-DNA (T-
the bacterial tumour-inducing (Ti) DNA) into the plant genome (DNA). As a
plasmid. result, rapidly growing and intensely
branched (hairy) adventitious roots are
developed.

23. Difference between Erwinia amylovora and Erwinia carotovora

S.No. Erwinia
It is a Gram negative, rod shaped, non-spore forming and peritrichously flagellated
bacteria, it is a facultative anaerobe that is catalase negative and oxidase positive.
Erwinia amylovora Erwinia carotovora
1. Erwinia amylovora received its name Erwinia carotovora was named after the
from the appearance of the infected crop of carrots from which it was first
leaves and branches, which often appears isolated.
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 blackened as if scorched by fire.
2. All the strains of Erwinia amylovora The strains of Erwinia carotovora were
formed taxonomically homogeneous taxonomically heterogeneous.
group.
3. Erwinia amylovora is a casual pathogen Erwinia carotovora causes soft-rot
that causes the contagious disease diseases of many plants and vegetables by
fireblight which is a first phytobacterial producing a number of extracellular plant
disease reported by T.J. Burill. Fireblight cell wall degrading enzymes such as pectic
mainly affects pears, apples, and enzymes that degrade pectin, cellulase that
ornamental plants of the Roseaceae degrades cellulose, hemicellulases,
family. Infections typically begin in arabanases, cyanoses and a protease that
spring due to optimal moisture and eventually become characterized as slimy
temperature conditions. The first sign of and foul smelling due to rotting.
infection is a blossom with a water-
soaked appearance. The affected areas of
the plants appear shriveled and
blackened as if they were scorched byfire;
hence the term “fireblight.”

3. Erwinia amylovora can survive over As a mesophilic bacterium, Erwinia

winter in cankers and become an active carotovora thrives the most in the
infection again in spring. temperature range between 27 and 30
degrees Celsius.

24. Difference between Pseudomonas and Ralstonia

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S.No. Pseudomonas Ralstonia
1. The etymology of the name was not It is named after the American
specified at the time and first appeared in Bacteriologist Ericka Ralston.
the seventh edition of Bergey's Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology (the main
authority in bacterial nomenclature) as
Greek pseudes - "false" and monas - "a
single unit", which can mean false unit;
however, Migula possibly intended it as
false Monas, a nanoflagellated protist
(subsequently, the term "monad" was used
in the early history of microbiology
to denote unicellular organisms).
2. Pseudomonas produces fluorescent Ralstonia was recently classified as
pigment. Pseudomonas with similarity in most
aspects, except that it does not produce
fluorescent pigment.
3. Numerous Pseudomonas species can act Ralstonia colonises the xylem, causing
as plant pathogens, notably all of the other bacterial wilt in a very wide range of
members of the P. syringae subgroup, but potential host plants mainly belongs to the
P. syringae is the most Family Solanacae (Ralstonia
widespread and best-studied. solanacearum).

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(c) Virus
1. Difference between Virus and Viroids

S.No. Viruses Viroids

1. Viruses or submicroscopic entities which Circular,uncapsulated,low-molecular-
replicate only in the living cell and consists weight ssRNA molecules are known as
of template nuclic acid either DNA or viriods
RNA and typically surround by
protein coat
2. Contain either DNA or RNA as nucleicacid. Contains only single stranded RNA as
the complete fully assembled viruses is nucleic acid.
termed virion.

3. They vary from 20-220 nm in size (the size They have much smaller size (the size of
of virus nucleic acid is 4 to 20 KB) they are RNA which consists of 247 to 375
generally bigger than viroids. The smallest nucleotides) and lower (100000-130000)
known viruses and the bacteriophages such molecular weight. Thus viroids aresmaller
as maize streak virus a single stranded than viruses i.e., less than one tenth the size
DNA virus (2681- 2687 nucleotides) or a of a genome of a smallest known viruses.
ssRNA and
bacteriophage MS2 (3569 nucleotides).
4. Although viruses can take any of several Viroids are circular.
forms they are mostly either rod-shaped or
polyhedral or variants of these two basic
structures.
5. They cause diseases in plants and animals They cause diseases in plants only.so far
including men. no animal or human diseases as been
shown to caused by a viroid.
6. They contain protein coat called capsid They do not contain the protein code -
many viruses in addition to having a capsid capsid
also contain a virus encoded
envelope.
7. The viruses are encoded with virus specific Viroid replication occurs without
polyviruses association of helper viruses.viroids
depend upon host enzymes for replication
(e.g RNA polymerase II ).
8. In case of virus diseases high temperature Viroid concentration and more disease
as been used as elimination of virus symptoms observed at high temperature at
30°c.viroids are usually quite resistant to
high temperature and cannot be
inactivated in infected plants by heat

123
 treatment.
9. Viruses are absent in the meristematic tissue Viroids are found in meristematic
so these meristematic tissues are used to tissues.viroids concentrations and
grow virus free seedlings translocation is higher and on growing
parts of a plant and they usually present
upto 0.2mm from the apex.
10. Viruses do not divide and do not produce Viroid multiplication and retention In the
any kind of specialised reproductive cotyledon tissue and cell suspension
structure such as spores instead they culture is very stable than the plant virus
multiply by inducing host cells to form and some viroid the concentration is much
more virus.viruses cause diseases not by higher than the leaf tissues.
consuming cells or killing them withtoxins
but by utilising cellular substances during
multiplication taking up space in
cells and disrupting cellular process.
11. Viruses cause symptoms like stunting, Viroids cause disease symptoms such as
mosaic, phyllody, leaf blade distortion like stunting, mottling, and leaf discoloration.
leafroll, leaf curl, crinkling and
discoloration symptoms like chlorosis,
vein clearing, vein banding, etc.

12. Plant viruses are transmitted from plant to Most viriods are sap transmissible and
plant in a number of ways.mode of usually not transmitted by insect vector
transmission include vegetative viroids are spread from disease to healthy
propagation, mechanically through SAP, plants primarily by Mechanical mean
seed, pollen, dodder, specific insects, mites, which is through sap carried on hands or
nematodes and fungi. tools during propagation or cultural
practices and of course by vegetative
propagation.
13. Viruses as obligate intracellular parasite Viroids apparently survive in the nature
must attach to or enter host cell in to outside the host or in dead plant matter for
undergo reproductive cycle. periods of a time varying from a few
minutes to few months generally they seem
to overwinter and oversummer in perineal
host which include the main host
of almost all known viroids.
14. The best way to control a disease is by Control of diseases caused by viruses
keeping it out of an area through a system based on the use of Viroid free planting
of quarantine, inspection and certification material,removal and destruction of
.Eradication of a diseasedplants to eliminate viroids infected plants and washing of hand
inoculum from field may in some cases or sterilizing of tools after handling viroid
help to control the disease plant may be infected plants before moving onto a
protected against healthy plants
certain viruses by protecting them againstl
124
 virus vector the use of virus freeseed,tubers
budwood and so on is the single most
important measure for avoiding virus
diseases.once inside a plant
some viruses can be inactivated by heat.
15. The total number of viruses known to date To date more than 30 plant diseases have
exceeds 2000 and new viruses aredescribed been shown to be caused by viroids
almost every month. about ¼ of all known
viruses attack and cause
diseases in plants
16. Examples are Tobacco Mosaic Virus, Examples are Potato Spindle Tuber Viroid
Potato Virus X, etc. Coconut Cadang-Cadang Viroid, Citrus
Exocortis, etc.

2. Difference between Viroids and Prions

S.No. Viroids Prions

1. Discovered by T.O. Diener in 1971 Discovered by Stanley B. Prusiner, 1982.
associated with Potato Spindle Tuber.
2. It is an infectious RNA particle. It is an infectious protein particle.
3. Viroid is formed of only single stranded RNA or DNA is absent.
circular RNA.
4. A protein coat is absent. It is formed of only protein.
5. Viroids are inactivated by ribonuclease
Prions are inactivated by proteinase K and
digestion but resistant to proteinase K and
trypsin digestion but resistant to
trypsin digestion. ribonuclease digestion.
6. Viroid has a smaller size than virus.Mostly smaller than viroid.
7. Viroid infects both plants and animals.
Prions infect only animals by causing
neurological degenerative diseases.
7. Examples are Potato Spindle Tuber, Examples are Mad Cow Disease in cow
Chrysanthemum Stunt Disease, Coconut and Scarpie Disease in sheep & goat.
Cadang-Cadang Disease
8.

3. Difference between Bacteria and Virus

S.No
Characteristics Bacteria Viruses
.
1. Size Larger (1000 nm) Smaller (20-400 nm)
2. Cell Wall Peptidoglycan or No cell wall. Protein coat

125
 Lipopolysaccharide present instead.
3. Ribosomes Present Absent
4. Number of cells One cell (Unicellular) No cells
5. Living/Non- Between living and non-living
Living organisms
Living things.
6. DNA and RNA DNA and RNA floating freely in DNA or RNA enclosed inside
cytoplasm. a coat of protein.
7. Infection Localized Systemic
8. Reproduce Able to reproduce by itself Need a living cell to reproduce
9. Reproduction Invades a host cell and takes
Fission - a form of asexual
over the cell causing it to make
reproduction.
copies of the viral DNA/RNA.
Destroys the host
cell releasing new viruses.
10. Duration of A bacterial illness commonly will Most viral illnesses last 2 to
illness last longer than 10 days. 10 days.
11. Fever A bacterial illness notoriously A viral infection may or may
causes a fever. not cause a fever.
12. Cellular
Possesses a cellular machinery Lack cellular machinery
Machinery
13. Under Visible only under Electron
Microscope Visible under Light Microscope.
Microscope.
14. Benefits Viruses are not beneficial.
Some bacteria are beneficial
However, a particular virus
(Normal Flora)
may be able to destroy brain
tumors. Viruses can be useful
in genetic engineering.
15. Treatment Antibiotics Virus does not respond to
antibiotics.
16. Diagram

4. Difference between Chlorosis and Yellowing

S.No. Chlorosis Yellowing

1. The loss of chlorophyll from the tissues of A symptom characterized by the turning
126
 plant, resulting from microbial infection or yellow of plant tissues that were once
by some abiotic stress. green. May be slight or severe; covers
whole leaf or some times sectors of
yellow and normal color are formed.
2. It occurs due to viral infection, the action Induced by some viruses e.g., Sugarbeet
of certain phytotoxins, the lack of light, and Peach Yellow or by some
magnesium or iron deficiency, etc. Mycoplasma like Aster Yellow

5. Difference between Vein-clearing and Vein-banding

S.No. Vein Clearing Vein Banding

1. An increased translucency of the veinal A change of colour in a narrow zone of a
system in a leaf making the pattern more leaf tissue alongside the main veins. It is a
pronounced, light against dark by symptom of a viral disease in which the
transmitted light is it called vein clearing. tissues along the veins are dark green than
it is a symptom of viral plant diseases in the tissues between the veins. when
which the tissues along the veins are chlorophyll surrounding the veins
lighter green or yellow and the rest of the disappear the symptom is known as vein
lamina is normal or dark green. In vein banding.
clearing symptom the normal green colour
of a vein fails to develop due to inhibition
of chlorophyll formation while the
interveinal areas appear mostly normal
with the dark green colour.

6. Difference between Incubation Period and Latent Period

S.No. Incubation Period Latent Period
1. The period between infection and ⚫ The period between the infection and
appearance of visible disease symptom is sporulation of the called as latent
called as incubation period. periods.
⚫ The period from acquisition of a virus
by the vector becomes capable of
interacting is called latent period
⚫ Elapsed time between phage infection
or induction and lysis of a bacterial cell
is known as latent period.
2. It is much more related to the disease It is not much related to disease condition
condition in plants. in plants.

7. Difference between Non-Persistent, Semi-Persistent and Persistent Transmission

S.No. Non-Persistent Semi-Persistent Persistent
1. In non-persistent Semi-persistent viral Those viruses that manage to
transmission, viruses transmission involves the pass through the gut into the
become attached to the virus entering the foregut of haemolymph and then to the
127
 distal tip of the stylet of the insect. Acquired from salivary glands are known as
the insect and on the next phloem region with long persistent.
plant it feeds on, it feeding There are two sub-classes of
inoculates it with the persistent viruses:
virus. Such viruses are propagative and circulative.
acquired by the vector ⚫ Propagative viruses are
during probing and able to replicate in both
feeding on host the plant and the insect
parenchyma including (and may have originally
epidermal cells Probing been insect viruses),
takes as little as 5 whereas circulative can
seconds. not.
⚫ Circulative viruses are
circulate but not
replicate.
2. Vector becomes infective Virus persist in its vector Virus persist in their vector
immediately after for 10-100 hrs. for >100 hrs and in some
feeding. cases for whole life of
vector.
3. Such viruses are Do not circulate and Virus multiply and
mechanically multiply in its circulate in vector body
transmissible. Acquisiti vector Particles
on fasting increases accumulate at special
acquisition of virus and sites. High vector
transmission. specificity.

4. Virus lost by the vector Infectivity lost in moulting. Moulting has no effect of
during moulting. virus.

5. No latent period. No latent period. Latent period is present.

6. Example - Cucumber Example - CTV, CaMV, Example - PLRV, RDV,

Mosaic Virus (CMV) BYV PYDV, BYDV
particles, to be An example of circulative
transmissible by the aphid (nonreplicative) transmission
Myzus persicae. is given by the begomo
Geminiviruses, which are
transmitted by whiteflies,e.g.,
Bemisia tabaci.

8. Difference between Virus and Satellite Virus

S.No. Properties Virus Satellite Virus
1. Replication Able to direct host cell to Depends on presence of helper
replicate genome. virus for replication of genome.
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 2. Nucleic acid. Contain DNA or RNA or both at Contain DNA or RNA.
different points in life cycle.
3. Genome Size <10kbp to >2000kbp 0.22-1.5kbp
4. Structure ⚫ Contain protein shell or ⚫ Satellite viruses contain the
capsid protein to encode own capsid
⚫ Packaged genome with a with aid of helper virus.
capsid ⚫ Satellite RNA's and DNA's do
⚫ Envelope-not specific to all not have capsids, rely on helper
viruses virus to enclose their
genome.
5. Host Range Can infect all types of organism; Plants (most common), mammals,
animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, arthropods, bacteria.
archaea.

9. Difference between Satellite Viruses and Satellite RNAs

S.No. Satellite Viruses Satellite RNAs
1. Satellite viruses are particles that contain Satellite RNAs do not encode capsid
nucleic acid genomes encoding a protein, but are packaged by a protein
structural protein that encapsidates the encoded in the helper virus genome.
satellite genome.
2. Satellite genomes may be single-stranded Satellite RNA genomes range in length
RNA or DNA or circular RNA, and are from 220-1500 nucleotides, and have been
replicated by enzymes provided by the placed into one of three classes. Class 1
helper virus. Genome size is 0.22-1.5kbp. satellite RNAs are 800-1500 nucleotide
linear molecules with a single open reading
frame encoding at least one non- structural
protein. Class 2 satellite RNAs are linear,
less than 700 nucleotides long and do not
encode protein. Class 3 satellite RNAs are
350-400 nucleotide long circles
without an open reading frame.
3. An example of a satellite virus is satellite For example, the Y-satellite RNA of
Tobacco Necrosis Virus, which encodes cucumber mosaic virus causes systemic
a capsid protein that forms an icosahedral chlorosis in tobacco. This syndrome is
capsid that packages only the 1,260 caused by production of a small RNA from
nucleotide satellite RNA. The helpervirus, the Y-satellite RNA that has homology to a
Tobacco Necrosis virus, encodesan RNA gene needed for chlorophyll biosynthesis.
polymerase that replicates its genome and Production of this small RNA leads to
that of the satellite. degradation of the corresponding mRNA,
causing the bright yellow leaves.

10. Difference between the Inclusion Bodies

S.No. Inclusion Bodies

129
 These are intracellular structures formed due to the virus infection in plant cells.
Crystalline Bodies Pinwheel Inclusions Nuclear Inclusions
1. These are in the form of virus Characteristic of infectionof They are considered to be a
aggregates arranged inorderly Potyviridae family of main characteristic of
fashion giving three viruses. Geminiviruses and
dimensional appearance. Rhabdovirus.
2. Commonly seen in the Commonly seen in the Commonly seen in the
epidermal and hair cells of the cytoplasm of infected cells. nucleus of infected cells
cytoplasm which affects nucleolus.
3. May be in the form of rods, These cylindrical inclusions These inclusions are
helical, icosahedral or are composed of the viral- aggregates of virus particles.
crystalline array of infected encoded cylindrical Nucleus become granular,
cells. inclusion jelicase (CI chromatins may be reduced
protein). and disintegrated.
4.

11. Difference between Cross-protection and Indexing

S.No. Cross Protection Virus Indexing

1. Viral cross protection in plants is known Testing of plants for the presence or absence
as an acquired immunity phenomenon, of concerned viruses is called virusindexing.
where a mild virus isolate/strain can
protect plants against economic damage
caused by a severe challenge
strain/isolate of the same virus.
2. Its basis is that prior infection with one Indexing involves inoculation by grafting of
virus affords protection against closely certain plant species or varieties called
related ones. indicators. The indicators are sensitive to
specific viruses and on inoculation with
these viruses develop characteristic
symptoms and vice versa i.e., development of
the characteristic symptoms by an indicator
identifies the virus with which the indicator
was inoculated.
3. The molecular detail of mild strain cross Every meristem tips or callous derivedplants
protection (MSCP) still remains unclear, must be tested before using it is amother plant
although several lines of evidence imply to produce virus-free stocks.This necessitates
that the resistance is protein and/or RNA indexing of plants several times at periodical
mediated. intervals and only those individuals which
give consistency negative
130
 results should be labelled as virus tested for
specific viruses.

12. Difference between Cytorhabdovirus and Nucleorhabdovirus

S.No. Rhabdoviruses
Cytorhabdovirus Nucleorhabdovirus
1. The particles of which acquire their The particles of which acquire their
envelope from the outer membrane (which envelope from the inner nuclear membrane
continuous with the ER) & accumulate in and accumulate in the perinuclear space.
vesicles in the cytoplasm.
2. Example - Lettuce Necrotic Yellow Virus Example - Potato Yellow Dwarf Virus

13. Difference between NEPO Virus and NETU Virus

S.No. NEPO Virus NETU Virus

1. Nematode transmitted polyhedral Nematode transmitted tubular/rod shaped
shaped particles. particles.
2. Belongs to Comoviridae family. Family not yet assigned.
3. Xiphinema spp., Longidorus spp., and Trichodorus spp. and Paratrichodorus spp.
Paralongodorus spp. tansmit the transmit the rattle viruses and called
“NEPO” virus. “NETU” virus.
4. Virus is retained in the inner surface Virus is retained in the cuticle lining of the
of the guiding sheath of Longidorus and lumen of oesophagus in Trichodorus and
Paralongidorus & in the cuticle lining of Paratrichodrous.
stylet extension and
oesophagus in Xiphinema.
5. At present there are 15 nepoviruses: Only 2 netuviruses, tobacco rattle (TRV) and
arabis mosaic (AMV), grapevine fanleaf pea early browning (PEBV), are known yet.
(GFV), strawberry latent ringspot
(SLRV), tomato black ring (TBRV),
cocoa necrosis (CNV), grapevinechrome
mosaic (GCMV), artichoke Italian latent
(AILV), tobacco ri~spot (TRSV), tomato
top necrosis (TTNV), raspberry ringspot
(RRSV), mulberry ring-spot (MRSV),
cherry rasp leaf (CRLV), tomato ringspot
(TomRSV), peach rosette mosaic
(PRMV), cherry leafroll (CLRV) and 4
putative ones: eunonymus ringspot
(EuRSV), myrabolan latent ringspot
(MLRV), grape~ vine Joannes-Seyve 26-
205 and grapevine CMl12 are reported.

6. Tobacco ring spot virus is the type Tobacco rattle virus is the type member of
member of the group. the group.

131
132
 14. Difference between Curtovirus, Mastrevirus, Begmovirus and Topovirus of Geminiviridae

S.No. Geminiviridae
Curotovirus Mastrevirus Begmovirus Topocuvirus
1. Curly Top of Sugar beet Maize Streak Virus Bean Golden Mosaic Virus Tomato Pseudo Curly Top
2. The genome of which The genome composed of a The genome of most of them Genome consists of asingles,
consist of a single, circular single component of ss DNA. consists of 2 circular ss DNAs circular ss DNA of about 2.6-
single stranded (ss) DNA of (DNA-A or 1 and DNA B or 2) 2.8 kilobases.
about 2.6 – 2.8 of about equal size (2.4-2.8
kilobases. kb).
3. Transmitted by leaf Transmitted by leaf hoppers in Transmitted by white files. Transmitted by leaf hopper.
hoppers in the circulative the circulative non-
non- propagative manner. propagative manner.
4. These viruses infect These viruses infect Begmovirus infect only Topocuvirus infect
dicotyledonous plants. monocotyledonous plants on dicotyledonous plants. they dicotyledonous plants.
which they cause severe include many geminiviruses
losses. Exception → bean & → tomato mottle virus, tomato
tobacco yellow dwarf viruses yellow leaf curl virus, tomato
golden mosaic viris, African
cavsava mosaic virus, squash
leaf curl virus, tobaccoleaf curl
virus

133
 15. Difference between Antigen and Antibodies

S.No. Antigen Antibody

1. Substance that can induce an immune Proteins that recognize and bind to antigens
response
2. Generally proteins but can be lipids, Antibodies are proteins.
carbohydrates or nucleic acids.
3. Triggers the formation of antibodies. Variable sites has the antigen binding
domain.
4. Originate within the body or externally. Originate within the body not externally.

5. There are three basic kinds of antigens. There are five basic kinds of antibodies
(Exogenous, Endogenous and (Immunoglobulins M, G, E, D and A).
Autoantigens).
6. The variable region of the antibody that
The region of the antigen that interacts
specially binds to an epitope is called
with the antibodies is called epitopes.
paratope.

7. Cause disease or allergic reactions. Protects the body by immobilization or

lysis of antigenic material.

16. Difference between Vector and Carrier

S.No. Vector Carrier

1. Vector refers to an organism that spreads Carrier refers to an organism that harbors a
diseases by conveying pathogens from the specific infectious agent in the absence of
host to another individual, but without discernible disease and serves as a potential
causing diseases by itself. source of infection.
2. Vector does not show any symptoms of Generally, carrier shows the symptoms of
the disease. the disease as it is also an infected organism.

3. Vectors generally do not transmit genetic Carrier also transmit genetic diseases.
diseases.

17. Difference between Polyclonal Antisera and Monoclonal Antisera

S.No. Polyclonal Antisera Monoclonal Antisera

1. Contain antibodies to all available Contain antibodies to one epitope.
epitopes on the antigen.

2. Less specific. More specific and can be used to

134
 differentiate strains of many pathogens.

18. Difference between Polyclonal Antibodies and Monoclonal Antibodies

S.No. Polyclonal Antibodies Monoclonal Antibodies

1. Every time we have to inject the antigen A small quantity of antigen is enough to
into the animal in several doses. start with.
2. Antibodies are produced in response to Produced for a single antigen
several antigens (polyspecific). (unispecific) can be obtained even if the
preparation is impure.
3. Continuous supply of antibody not It is possible as the hybridomas can be
possible. preserved under liquid nitrogen.
4. Failure of recognition of antigens by the Highly specific antibodies are produced
polyclonal antisera may occur at times. .The antigens are not recognized by
polyclonal antisera can be accurately
recognized.
5. Antibody production is completely in vivo. Antibody production is completely in
vitro.
6. The quality and quantity of antibodies Such situation never arises as the antibody
obtained varies from animal to animal and production is specific to a single antigen.
even from one bleeding to the next in a
given animal.
7. May have cross reaction with other Cross reactivities to other antigens never
antigens. occurs.
8. As a result of the polyclonal nature of Variability in the nature of antibodies
conventional antiserum, no antiserum is never occurs even when prepared by
precisely reproducible and the antiserum different laboratories.
developed in one laboratory is often
different from the antiserum generated
against the same pathogen in another
laboratory. This commonly leads to
conflicting results.
9. Advantages of pcAb Disadvantages of mcAb
Capacity to form large insoluble immune Due to their monospecificity mcAb’s
complexes which antigen or to agglutinate reactions are not readily visible. However
cells readily so that reactions can be seen this problem can be rectified.
and measured visually or photometrically.

19. Difference between Monocistronic Nucleic-acid and Polycistronic Nucleic-acid

S. No. Monocistronic Nucleic Acid Polycistronic Nucleic Acid

135
 1. If the length of nucleic acid codes for a If it is responsible for the formation of many
single protein say coat protein then it is different proteins then it is known as
known as monocistonic. polycistronic.

20. Difference between Isocapsidic Forms and Heterocapsidic Forms

S.No. Isocapsidic Forms Heterocapsidic Forms

1. These viruses have separate genomic The viruses have separate RNA
RNAs encapsidated into identical Sps.Encapsidated into particles of different
capsids. dimensions dependent on RNA size.

2. Eg., Bromo and Cucumo Viruses Eg, Alfalfa Mosaic virus particles, vary
from small spheres to larger bacilliform
shapes.

21. Difference between Vertical Transmission and Horizontal Transmission

S.No. Vertical Transmission Horizontal Transmission

1. Vertical transmission occurs when a plant Horizontal transmission is by vectors,
get sit from its parent plant. Eitherthrough human pruning shears and tools, and other
asexual propagation (cuttings) or direct, external contamination.
in sexual reproduction via infected seeds.

22. Difference between Acquisition Access Time, Acquisition Feeding Time and
Acquisition Threshold Period
S.No. Acquisition Access Time Acquisition Feeding Time Acquisition Threshold Period
1. The length of time that a The time that a vector feeds The minimum time necessary
test vector is given access on a virus source in for a vector to spend on a virus
to a virus source in transmission tests. source in order to obtain an
transmission tests. It is not infective charge of virus.
implied that the vector
feeds during all or any of
this time.

23. Difference between Schlieren Patterns and Cryptogram

S.No. Schlieren Patterns Cryptogram
1. In virus purification after centrifugation, In 1996 Gibbs et al., and in 1968 Gibbs
sedimentation co-efficient of the virus was and Harrison in addition to vernacular
then estimated graphically by using name, introduced a system of cryptogram
pictures of schlieren patterns. The to give concise information of the
schlieren pattern obtained from properties of individual viruses.
equilibrium banding of virus in cesium Cryptogram gives the reader an immediate
chloride. summary of a viruses specific
136
 characteristic and helps in relating the
particular virus to other with similar
properties.
Examples & key to plant viruscryptograms:

TMV → R/1 : 2/5 : E/E : S/O

(Ⅰ) (Ⅱ) (Ⅲ) (Ⅳ)
I = Nucleic Acid
II = Mol. Wt. of Nucleic Acid
III = Particle Shape
IV = Type of host infected/Type of vector

24. Difference between Tobamovirus and Tobravirus

S.No. Tobamovirus Tobravirus
1. Named after Tobacco Mosaic Virus. Named drived from Tobacco Rattle Virus.
2. Tobamovirus contains more than a dozen Tobraviruses consist of two rod-shaped
rod-shaped viruses measuring 18 x 300 particles measuring about 190 x 22 and
nanometers. about 80-110 x 22 nanometers.
3. Their genome consists of one positive Each particle contains a positive single-
single-stranded RNA of approximately stranded RNA of approximately 6.8kb
6,400 nucleotides (6.4kb). (long particles) and 1.8-4.5kb (short
particles).
4. Tobamoviruses are easily transmitted Tobraviruses are transmitted in nature by
mechanically, and in nature they are spread nematodes of the genera Trichodorus and
by incidental contact and wounding. They Paratrichodorus. The virus can persist in
do not seem to be transmitted by any the vector for weeks or months but does not
vectors. multiply in the vector. Tobraviruses
sometimes invade only the roots of plants.
Some tobraviruses e.g., Pea Early
Browning Virus, may be transmitted by 4
to 10% of the seed of infected plants.
5. Symptoms consist of various degrees of The virus causes necrotic areas on stems
mottling, chlorosis, curling, distortion and and leaf veins and a crumpled appearance
dwarfing of leaves, flowers and entire on the leaves of tobacco, whereas in potato
plants. In some plants, necrotic areas it causes necrotic areas on the leaves and
develop on the leaves. On tomato, leaflets stem; in tubers, the latter isknown as corky
may become long and pointed and, ring spot of potato.
sometimes, shoe-stringlike. Infection of
young plants reduce fruit set and may
occasionally cause blemishes and internal
browning on the fruit that does form.
6. Infected cells contain virus particles seen Some tobraviruses produce characteristic
easily with an electron microscope and cytoplasmic inclusions consisting of virus
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 sometimes visible as crystalline aggregates particles becoming arranged
or amorphous bodies with a compound perpendicularly outside the mitochondria.
microscope.
7. Pepper Green Mottle Virus and Pea Early Browning Virus and Pepper
Odontoglossum Ring Spot Virus of orchids Ring Spot Virus are also Tobraviruses.
are also commercially important.

25. Difference between Closterovirus and Crinivirus of Closteroviridae

S.No. Closteroviridae
(Threadlike Viruses)
Closterovirus Crinivirus
1. Closterovirus, also known as Beet Yellows Crinivirus, formerly the Lettuce Infectious
virus group, is a genus of viruses, in the Yellows virus group, is a genus of viruses,
family Closteroviridae. in the family Closteroviridae.
2. Viruses in Closterovirus are non-enveloped, Viruses in Crinivirus are non-enveloped,
with flexuous and Filamentous geometries. with bipartite filamentous geometries. The
The diameter is around 10-13 diameter is around 10-13 nm, with a
nm, with a length of 1250-2200 nm. length of 700-900 nm.
3. Genomes are linear, around 19.3kb in Genomes are linear and bipartite, around
length. 17.6kb in length.

4. At least some species require vectors such The virus is transmitted via a vector
as aphids or mealybugs for their (Bemisia tabaci). Transmission route is
transmission from plant to plant. mechanical.
5. This genus has a probably worldwide Examples of species whose entire
distribution and includes among other viral genomes have been sequenced that are
species the Beet Yellows Virus (the type currently classified into the genus include
species) and Citrus Tristeza Virus, rather the Sweet Potato Chlorotic Stunt Virus
economically important plant diseases. (SPCSV) and the Lettuce Infectious
Yellows Virus (LIYV)

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(d). Phanerogamic plants
1. Difference between Total Parasite and Partial Parasite

S.No. Total Parasite Partial Parasite

1. A complete parasite that depends on the A parasite that depends on the host for
host to fulfil all its requirements. some requirements.
2. Depend on the host plant for sugar, Photosynthetic and produce their own food,
minerals, and water. depending on the host for water and shelter.
3. Called holoprasitic plants. Called hemiprasitic plants.
4. Achlorophyllous (does not contain Chlorophyllous (contain chlorophyll)
chlorophyll)
5. Ex. dodder, broomrape and Rafflesia Ex. Castilleja, mistletoe, yellow rattle, etc.

2. Difference between Dodder and Mistletoe

S.No. Dodder Mistletoe

1. Total stem parasite. Partial stem parasite.
2. Cuscuta spp. - mainly infect alfalfa, onion, Arceuthobium - Dwarf mistletoe of conifers
potato and numerous broad-leaved plants as Phoradendron - The American true mistletoe
well as legumes. of broad leaved trees and
Viscum - The European true mistletoe
(True mistletoes affect mainly deciduous
trees, although some species grow on
conifers)
3. Belongs to morning glory family, or the Belongs to family Viacaceae.
Convolvulaceae (=Cuscutaceae). True mistletoes belong to the sandlewood
family, or the Santalaceae. All members of the
family are parasitic to some extent.
4. It has a widespread distribution and is found Both true mistletoes (genus Phoradendron)
in both temperate and tropical parts of the and dwarf mistletoes (genus Arceuthobium)
America, Europe, Africa, Southern Asia and are found in North America. The European
Australia. mistletoe (Viscum album), another true
mistletoe, has been introduced to North
America.
5. Dodder affects the growth and yield of Mistletoe species grow on a wide range of
infected plants. Losses range from slight to host trees, some of which experience side
complete destruction of the crop in the effects including reduced growth, stunting,
infested areas. Infected host plants become and loss of infested outer branches. A heavy
weakened by the parasite, their vigor infestation may also kill the host plant.
declines and they produce poor yields. Viscum album successfully parasitizes more
Many are smothered and may be killed by than 200 tree and shrub species.
the parasite. As the infection spreads,
several patches coalesce and form large
areas covered by the yellowish vine of the
parasite.
6. The stems of a dodder range from yellow Mistletoes have small, green leaves that are
to red in color. It may appear to have no oval in shape and are thick and leathery.

139
 leaves, but these are present in the form of They are evergreen plants. Mistletoe forms
tiny scales. The dodder stem wraps itself clumps which may be hanging or upright.The
around the stem of its host in a spiral pattern clump is sometimes known as a witch's
and is sometimes known as strangleweed. broom. Some birds build their nests in witch's
Older names for the plant include devil's brooms.
hair and devil's guts. Dodder obtains its
food from its host and can create serious
infestations.

7. The dodder sinks "suckers", or haustoria, A mistletoe plant inserts its haustoria through
into its host. It's often a very serious pest, its host's bark to obtain water and minerals.
since it absorbs the food that the host plant The mistletoe requires these nutrients in order
has made for its own use. to make its food.
8. It's been discovered that some dodders can Leaves of mistletoe contain chlorophyll and
carry out a small amount ofphotosynthesis, the plant produces its own food by
but this doesn't seem to photosynthesis.
provide a significant amount of food.
9. Dodder is best controlled by preventing its The only means of controlling dwarfmistletoes
introduction into a field by the use of is by physical removal of the parasite. This is
dodder-free seed, by cleaning agricultural done either by pruning infected branches or by
equipment and by limiting the domestic cutting and removing entire infected trees.
animals from infested to dodder-free field. Uninfected stands can be protected from dwarf
When dodder infestations are already mistletoe infections by maintaining a
widespread in the field, dodder can be protective zone free of the parasite between the
managed by frequent tillage, flaming and diseased stand and the stand to be protected.
use of contact herbicides that kill the
dodder plant on its germination from the
seed but before it becomes attached to the
host.

3. Difference between Striga and Orobanche

S.No. Striga Orobanche

1. Commonly known as Witchesweed. Commonly known as Broomrapes.
2. Partial root parasite. Total/obligate root parasite
3. Belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. Belongs to the family Orobanchaceae.
4. The genus is predominently Afican in Native to the Mediterranean region (North
origin and distribution. Africa, the Middle East & Souther Europe)
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 and Western Asia.
5. Losses vary and may range from slight Losses varing from 10-70%.
to 100%.
6. Striga species are distinguished from Orobanche species have reduced leaves,
other root parasites by unilocularanthers almost uniform inflorescence, microscopic
and bilabiate (two-lipped) corollas with a and uniform seeds and very little variation
pronounced bend in the corolla tube. in corolla color and shape and often similar
hosts.
7. Affected plants remain stunted, wilt and Affected coccur in small patches and may
turn yellowish followed by death if planst be stunted to various degrees, depending on
are heavily parasitized. how early is their lives and by how many
broomrapes they were infected.
8. The flowers are small usually red or White, yellow-white or slightly purple,
yellowish, or white always having snapdragon-like flowers arising singly along
yellow centers. Flowers appear just the stem.
above the leaf attachment to the stem.
9. After pollination, seed pods or capsules The broomrapes produce seed pods about
develop, each containing more than a 5mm long, each containing several 100
thousand tiny brown seeds. minute seeds.
10 The parasite overwinters as seeds, most Broomrapes overwinter as seeds, which may
of which require a resting period of 15- survive in the soil for more than 10 years.
18 months before germination, although
some can germinate without any
dormancy.
11. Seeds close to host roots germinate and Seeds germinate only when roots of cerain
grow towards these roots, attracted by the plants grow near them, although not all these
exudates of the host roots. plants are susceptible to the parasite.

12. As soon as the witchweed rootlet comes On germination the seeds produce a radicle,
in contact with the host root, its tip swells which grows toward the root of the host
into a bulb-shaped haustorium which plant, becomes attached by producing a
dissolves and penetrates the host roots shallow cup-like appressorium.
within 8-24 hours and advances into
tracheids, reach the vessels of the
host roots.
13. Although xylem vessels are present in the From the appressorium, a mass of
haustorium but no typical phloem cells undifferentiated cells penetrate the host.
develop. However cells in the “nucleus” Some of these cells differentiate into parasite
of the haustorium seem to xylem vessel and connect the host
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 connect the phloem of host and parasite. xylem with the main vascular system of the
parasite. Other undifferentiated cells
become attached to phloem cells and obtain
nutrients from them, which they transport
back to the parasite.
14. Although chlorophyll of witchweed is No chlorophyll is present.
functional, manufactured food stuffs
still move from the host plant into the
parasite.
15. It attacks mostly monocots such as corn, They attack several 100 species of
sorghum, millets, upland rice and herbaceous dicotyledonous crop plants.
sugarcane but also cowpeas, peanuts,
other legumes, sweet potato and tobacco.

16. Trap crops, consisting mostly non-host Flax serves as a trap crop for broomrapes.
legumes, may be used to stimulate the Flax roots exudate stimulate broomrapeseeds
germination of witchweed seeds, which, to germinate and these then infect flax but do
however, cannot infect the trap plants not produce flowers.
and therefore, starve to death.

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III. Differences regarding Plant Disease Management
1. Difference between Quarantine and Emburgo

S.No. Quarantine Embargo

1. The legal destruction in export and import The total band or restriction in export and
of certain commodity in a country or a import of certain commodity in a country
state is known as Quarantine. or a state is known as embargo.
2. It is not a total band restriction. It is a total band restriction.
3. Literally Quarantine means 40 days Example:Banana planting materials can
inspection. not be import from Sri Lanka to India due
to emburgo.

2. Difference between Contact Fungicides and Systemic Fungicides

S.No. Contact Fungicides Systemic Fungicides

1. Contact fungicides act on the outside ofthe Systemic fungicides act within the plant
plant mostly by interfering with spore after being taken up in the tissue and
germination. They can also have an effect translocated through the plant.
on the growth of hyphae.
2. They won't stop an infection though. These fungicides can kill a fungus after
infection during incubation (curative
control) or with symptoms already visible
(eradicant control).
3. Contact fungicides are mostly multi site Systemic fungicides single site inhibitors.
inhibitors.
4. Less prone to resistance build up of the More prone to resistance build up of the
target fungal population. target fungal population.
5. Examples are copper, mancozeb and Examples are triazoles, SDHI's and QoI’s.
chlorthalonil.

3. Difference between Antibiotics and Pesticides

S.No. Antibiotics Pesticides

1. The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 In general, a pesticide is a chemical or
to describe any substance produced by a biological agent that kills, or otherwise
microorganism that is antagonistic to the discourages pests.
growth of othermicroorganisms.

2. Antibiotics are agents that either kill or Pesticides are plant protection products,
inhibit the growth of a microorganism. which protect plants from weeds, insects and
plant pathogens, including bacteria and other
microorganisms.
3. Antibiotics kill the pathogens, disease Pesticides interfer the metabolism of insects

143
 causing harmfull microorganisms by or their growth and disturbing their
interfering with their molecular process physiological activity by active organic
like transcription translation etc or also molecules which are very lethal to normal
by inhibiting the process which are very cells.
essential for the survival of pathogen
like cell wall synthesis etc.
4. Examples are Penicillin, Streptomycin, Examples are Malathion, Chlorpyriphos,
Aureofungin, Griseofulvin, etc. Imidacloprid, Carbendazim, Metalaxyl, etc.

4. Difference between Fungicides and Herbicides

S.No. Fungicides Herbicides

1. Fungicides help to control fungi before they Herbicides are different from other types
become one of those serious problems. of pesticides because they're designed to
kill or curtail certain kinds of plant growth
rather than protect them.
2. Fungicides used for agricultural purposes Herbicides are applied in places such as
and must not harm the rest of a treated lawns and golf courses.
plant or leave toxic residue behind.
3. Fungicides are either protectants or Herbicides are either selective or non-
eradicants. selective and organic or inorganic.
⚫ A protectant fungicide is applied ⚫ A selective herbicide is designed tokill
before a fungus is evident, essentially only one type of plant in an area
as a preventive measure. Fruit and containing more plant varieties; an
vegetable crops are commonly treated example is an herbicide that kills
with protectants. weeds growing among grass.
⚫ An eradicant is applied directly to a ⚫ Non-selective herbicides kill all
fungus and usually is needed when a plants in the application area, such as
protectant was not applied. Eradicants all types of plants growing between
are useful, for instance, to stop a pavement cracks.
disease in its tracks in a fruit tree ⚫ Inorganic herbicide chemicals include
orchard where some of the trees suffer sodium chlorate and borate.
from the disease. ⚫ Organic versions include phenol
An example of a fungicide is triticonazole, derivatives and sulfonylureas.
which is used on cereal grains.

5. Difference between Bordeaux Mixture and Bordeaux Paste

S.No. Bordeaux Mixture Bordeaux Paste

1. It is the first universal fungicide It is a paste it is prepared by mixing 10
discovered by professor P.A.Millerdet in gram CaCO3,10 gram CuSO4 in 100 ml
1882.It is prepared by mixing 10 gram water.it gives 10% Bordeaux paste..
CaCO3, 10 gram CuSO4 in 1000 ml
water.It gives 1% bordeaux mixture
solution.

144
 2. It is a good fungicide for controlling many It is used for the protection from infection
fungal diseases like late blight of potato, in wounded portion or grafted portion of
koleroga of arecanut, etc. plants.
3. It is used by spraying or by soil drenching. It is used by pasting.

6. Difference between Burgandy Mixture, Chestnut Compound and Chaubattia Paste

S.No. Burgandy Mixture Chestnut Compound Chaubattia Paste
1. It is also known as “Soda Chestnut compound contains Chaubattia paste is prepared
Bordeaux” and contains two parts of copper sulphate by mixing copper carbonate
copper sulphate, CuSO4, - 10 and 11 parts of ammonium - 800 g, red lead - 800 g and
lb (4.5 kg) and sodium carbonate. The two substances raw linseed oil or lanolin -1
carbonate, Na2CO3 - 12.21b are well powdered and litre.
(5.6 kg) in 50 gallons of thoroughly mixed and the dry
water. mixture stored in an airtight
receptacle for 24 hours before
being used.
2. Burgundy mixture is used as It is used against damping -off This paste was developed as
a preemptive fungicide disease. a wound dressing fungicide
prevention for trees and small to be applied to pruned parts
fruits. of pears, apples and peaches
for the control of disease,
such as stem black, stem-
brown, pink disease, stem
canker of apples and pears,
and collar rot of apples,
peaches, apricots and
plums.

7. Differece between Spraying and Dusting

S.No. Spraying Dusting

1. Spraying is a method of application of Dusting is a method of application of
fungicides, antibiotics or other chemicals fungicides, antibiotics or other chemicalsin
in liquid form into plant surface. dust or powder form into plant surface.
2. Here water or liquid solution is essential. Water or liquid solution is not needed.
3. In general equipments are heavy. Equipments are lighter than spraying.
4. It is most widely practiced methods of It is less practiced method of chemical
chemical control of plant diseases/pests. control.
5. It does not requires very fine particles in It need very fine formulated products.
the formulated product.
6. Most effective. Less effective than spraying loss due to air
movement.

8. Difference between Apoplastic and Symplastic Movement of Fungicides

145
S.No. Apoplast movement of fungicides Symplast movement of fungicides
1. The upward movement of fungicides in The downward movement of fungicide in
plant system is known as apoplastic or the plant system is known as symplastic or
acropetal or upward movement of basipetal or downward movement of
fungicides. fungicides.
2. Here systemic fungicides after their Here, systemic fungicides after their
absorption in the plants move in the absorption in the plants, move with
direction of the evapotranspiration stream. photosynthesis towards the sinks (towards
opposite direction of evapotranspiration
stream).
3. Examples are benomyl, carboxin, Examples are Fosetyl-Al, Metalaxyl etc.
thiabendazole, carbendazim, etc.

9. Difference between Antiseptic and Disinfectant

S.No. Antiseptic Disinfectant

1. A chemical agent that prevent growth of A physical or a chemical agent that frees
microorganism by either inhibiting the plant organ or tissue from infection of
growth of or destroying microorganisms microorganism is known as disinfectant.
is known as antiseptic.
2. It is for topical application to living It is a substance which can kill or inactive
tissues, primary skin. pathogenic microorganisms in the
environment or on the surface of plant
parts before infection.
3. Example-antiseptic creams etc. Example-UV radiation, HgCl2, Dettol,
cresol, sodium hypochlorite.

10. Difference between Protectant and Tharapeutant

S.No. Protectant Therapeutants

1. Substances that protect microbes for Substances that cure a disease plant/
plants against infection by a pathogen are animal are known as therapeutants.
called protectants.
2. Most fungicides, bactericides are Few chemicals are therapeutants in the cure
protectant. of the diseased plants, which is rate, the
pathogen is inhibited or destroyed after
it has entered the host (chemotherapy).
3. Examples - Bordeaux mixture, Thiram, Example - Carbendazim
Captan, etc.

11. Difference between Prophylaxis and Immunization

S.No. Prophylaxis Immunization

1. It is method of protection against diseases It is the method of imparting or injecting
an immunogen into a susceptible host
146
 organism
2. Under this, following measurements come Under this the following measurements
⚫ Protection-chemical and cultural come
⚫ Legislation - central and state ⚫ Immunization
⚫ Eradication - chemical, rotation, ⚫ Resistance
sanitation, alternate host eradication. ⚫ Chemotherapy

12. Difference between Immunity and Resistance

S.No. Immunnity Resistance

1. Exempt from infection or freedom from A plan surpresses for retards invasion by a
attack by a potential pathogenic agent is potential pathogen is called resistance.
called immunity.
2. Immunity of a plant against given disease Resistance is the ability of host variety to
is an absolute quality it denotes that the exclude or overcome either partly or
pathogen cannot establish parasitic completely the attack by its Pathogen
relationship with the host. suffering little or no damage (either by
suppression of it or inactivation of its
mechanism of pathogenesis).
3. In immunity system plant cannot be It may be three types
infected by an organism. ⚫ True resistance - vertical resistance,
horizontal resistance
⚫ Apparent resistance
⚫ Non-host resistance

13. Difference between Resistance and Tolerance

S.No. Resistance Tolerance

1. Resistance is an absolute term where the Tolerance means the plant can be under stress
plant completely immunize itself to a (diseased/ infected/ or physiologically
particular stress. challenged) but the extent of loss does not
exceed the economic threshold level (an
extent of loss which do not hamper the
economic potential of the produce).
2. "Resistance" implies an active approach "Tolerance" in abiotic stress is a condition
to the stressor and has epigenetic when a plant is "equipped", as in posses the
implications. means, to tolerate a stressor.
3. This kind of situation are observed incase This kind of situation are observed in
of Biotrophic pathogen (pathogen necrotrophic pathogen that draw nutrient
needing live host to draw nutrient) from dead host cells.
infection when the host contain a
resistance gene and the infecting
pathogen contain its corresponding
avirulence gene.
4. Typical examples of resistance are Examples of tolerance can be found in case
observed in diseases like rice blast, of sheath blight of rice, Yellow stem borer
147
 linseed rust, insects like brown plant of rice etc. and all the abiotic stresses
hopper infestation of rice etc. because these are complex traits are
governed by multiple factors.

14. Difference between Fungicide and Fungistatic

S.No. Fungicide Fungistatic

1. Fungicides are biocidal chemical Fungistatics are anti-fungal agents that
compounds or biological organisms inhibit the growth of fungus by preventing
used to kill parasitic fungi or their germination of spores and hyphal growth
spores. without killing them.
2. They are highly toxic. They are less toxic.
3. Example - Carbendazim Example - Fluconazole

15. Difference between Microbial Mycostasis and Residual Fungistasis

S.No. Microbial Mycostasis Residual Fungistasis

1. It is supposed to be of microbial origin Heat and sugar resistant fungistasis, is of
or heat and sugar sensitive mycostasis abiotic origin and is caused by presence of
because it is annulled by heat or sugar some inherent harmful component in the
treatment of the soil. soil.

16. Difference between Carboxin and Oxycarboxin

S.No. Carboxin Oxycarboxin

1. Commonly known as Vitavax. Commonly known as Plantavax.
2. Carboxin is an anilide obtained by Oxycarboxin is a sulfone anilide obtainedby
formal condensation of the amino group formal condensation of the amino group of
of aniline with the carboxy group of 2- aniline with the carboxy group of 2- methyl-
methyl-5,6-dihydro-1,4-oxathiine-3- 5,6-dihydro-4,4-dioxo-1,4-
carboxylic acid. oxathiine-3-carboxylic acid.
3. Carboxin is prepared by reaction ofα- Oxycarboxin is obtained by subsequent
chloroacetoacetanilide and 2- oxidation of carboxin with hydrogen
thiothanol followed by cyclization. peroxide.
4. A fungicide for control of bunts and A fungicide for the control of rust diseases
smuts normally that is normally used as on ornamentals, cereals and nursery trees as
a seed treatment. well as fairy rings on turf.
5. The primary mode of action of carboxin, oxycarboxin and related compounds probably
involves the blocking of succinate oxidation in the mitochondria of sensitive fungi.

17. Difference between Streptomycin and Aureofungin

S.No. Streptomycin Aureofungin
1. Streptomycin is an antibiotic used to treat Aureofungin is a heptaene type of antifungal
a number of bacterial infections. antibiotic used for controlling plant fungal
infections and diseases, during pre and post
harvesting period of various
crops.

148
 2. It was discovered in 1943 by Albert It was discovered in 1974 by M.J.
Schatz, from Streptomyces griseus. Thirumalachar in the submerged cultures of
Streptomyces cinnamomens.
3. Streptomycin is a protein synthesis It appears that antifungal action of
inhibitor. aureofungin involves primarily a damage to
cell membrane.
4. It is sprayed to control Xanthomonas citri The most useful property of the antibiotic
(citrus canker), bacterial leaf spot of is its high activity against a large number
tomato and pepper, hollow blight of of phytopathogens and; its absorption and
french bean and fire blight of apples and translation in living plants. Downy mildew,
pears. It is also used as a dip for potato powdery mildew and anthrancnose of
seeds against various bacterial rots of grapes are controlled by spraying. Seed
tubers and as a seed disinfectant in treatment of rice controls Helminthosprium
bacterial pathogens of beans, cotton, oryzae. Pyricularia oryzae of rice.
crucifers, cereals, etc. Diplodia of mango, Alternaria rot of
tomato, Sclerotinia rot of peach, Pythium
rot of cucurbits etc are controlled by this
antibiotic.

18. Difference between Penicillin and Griseofulvin

S.No. Penicillin Griseofulvin
1. Penicillin is an antibacterial antibiotic. Griseofulvin is an antifungal antibiotic.
2. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Griseofulvin was discovered in 1939 by
Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming fermenting the fungus Penicillium
from Penicillium chrysogenum griseofulvum.
(previously known as Penicillium
notatum). People began using it to treat
infections in 1942.
3. Penicillin inhibits activity of enzymes Griseofulvin works by interfering with
that are needed for the cross linking of fungal mitosis. This antibiotic binds to
peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls, tubulin, interfering with microtubule
which is the final step in cell wall function, thus inhibiting mitosis.
biosynthesis results in cell lysis and
death.
4. It is used to cure human diseases, yet not It is effective against downy mildew of
reported to manage any plant disease. cucurbits, powdery mildew of rose, powdery
mildew of beans, early blight of tomato and
brown rot of apple. The dosage
of foliar spray varies from 100-1000 ppm.

19. Difference between Hot Water and Hot Air Treatment

S.No. Hot Water Treatment Hot Air Treatment
1. The seeds are soaked in cold water at 20- Sugarcane setts are treated with hot air at

149
 300C for 5 hrs to induce the dormant 500C for 2 hrs to eliminate mosaic virus.
mycelium to grow. Then the seeds are
immersed in hot water at 50-540C for
10 minutes to kill the mycelium. It is very
effectively used to eliminate loose smut of
wheat. The setts of sugarcane can be
treated at 500C for 2 hrs to eliminate
grassy shoot pathogen.
2. The main drawback in the hot water Seeds may not loose its germinability, even
treatment is that the seeds may be killed if the period of treatment exceeds the
or loose its germinability, if the period of specified time.
treatment exceeds the specified
time.

20. Difference between Aerated Steam Therapy and Moist Hot Air Treatment
S.No. Aerated Steam Therapy Moist Hot Air Treatment
1. Sugarcane setts are also exposed to This method is effectively used in
aerated steam at 500C for 3 hrs to sugarcane to eliminate grassy shoot
eliminate mosaic virus. disease. Initially the setts are exposed to
hot air at 540C for 8 hrs, then exposed to
aerated steam at 500C for 1 hr and finally
to moist hot air at 540C for 2 hours.

21. Difference between Solar Heat Treatment and Moist Hot Air Treatment
S.No. Solar Heat Treatment Soil Solarization
1. Luthra in 1953 devised a method to Katan in 1976 developed the technique of
eliminate the deep seated infection of soil solarization which is generally used
Ustilago nuda - pathogen of loose smut for controlling soil-borne pathogens like
of wheat. The method is popularly Pythium, Verticillium, Rhizoctonia,
known as solar heat or solar energy Fusarium, etc. and nematodes in small
treatment. areas like nurseries.
2. The seeds are soaked in cold water Irrigate the nursery bed to moisten the
for 4 hours in the forenoon on a bright soil to a depth of 10cm. Cover the bed
summer day followed by spreading and after 2 days with thin transparent
drying the seeds in hot sun for four hours polythylene sheets for 4-6 weeks and
in the afternoon. Then, the seeds are then irrigate the beds once in a week.
again treated with carboxin or The purpose of irrigation is to increase
carbendazin at 2g/kg and stored. This the thermal sensitivity of resting
method is highly useful for treating large structures of fungi and to improve heat
quantities of the seed lots. conduction.

150
IV. Miscellaneous
1. Difference between Taxonomy and Ontology

S.No. Taxonomy Ontology

1. Taxonomy refers to a branch of science are Ontology refers to a branch of science that
defined and named based on their shared studies the nature of being, its existence or
characteristics reality as well as the hierarchy of the being
2. Anatomical , Physiological and A type of philosophical study about
evolutionary study of organisms organisms
3. Uses the hierarchy of the organisms to Uses more complex variations such as the
describe and classify organisms nature of the being , its reality
4. Involved in naming, defining, and Involved in classification of organisms
classifying organisms using a complex and sophisticated model
where everything is interconnected
5. A comparatively simple phenomenon More complex than taxonomy

6. Produces a tree with branches like Produces a web – like relationship where
relationships everything is interconnected
2. Difference between Phylum and Division

S.No. Phylum Division

1. A phylum refers to a principal taxonomic The division refers to a taxonomic ranking
category of animal, which ranks above of plants and fungi, which ranks above class
class and below kingdom. and below kingdom.
2. Used to classify animals. Used to classify plants, fungi and protists.
3. A precise taxonomic level. A less precise classification level.

3. Difference between Systematic and Systemic

S.No. Systematic Systemic

1. The science of classification of organisms It means spreading through out the
is known as systematic. plant/animal body internally.
2. It includes both taxonomy and It is a term denote for systemic
nomenclature. infection, systemic fungicides, systemic
symptoms, etc.

4. Difference between Pathogen and Parasite

S.No. Pathogen Parasite

1. A pathogen causes disease to its host. A parasite thrives inside or on the body of
another organism at the expense of their host.

2. All the pathogens are parasite. Not all parasites are pathogen.
3. Pathogens are either microscopic or Parasites are generally visible to the naked
macroscopic organism. eyes thus are macroscopic organism.
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 4. Examples - All fungal, bacterial, viral Examples - Cuscuta, Orobanche, parasitic
and nematode pathogens of plants. fungi like Septobasidium is parasitic on scale
insects (order Homoptera) that feeds
on trees.

5. Difference between Parasites and Parasitoid

S.No. Parasites Parasitoid

1. Parasites refer to the organisms that livein Parasitoids reefer to the organisms that live
or on another organism and benefit by as a parasite and eventually kill the host.
deriving nutrients at the expense of the
host.
2. Do not kill their host. Eventually kill their host.
3. Can be either diurnal or nocturnal. Nocturnal.
4. Can have several hosts during their life Highly host specific.
cycle.
5. Live on or inside the body of host. Spend a significant portion of their life
cycle within the host.
6. Less susceptible for biological control. Highly susceptible for biological control.
7. Examples: mosquito, leech, mite, flea, Examples: waps, beetles, flies such as
tick, louse, roundworms, tapeworms, and tachinid flies, and worms such as Gordian
trematodes and protozoans etc. worms.

6. Difference between Biotroph and Necrotroph

S.No. Biotroph Nectrotroph

1. Rate of killing host cell is relatively slow.
Rate of killing host cell is rapid.
2. Form haustoria. Haustoria is absent.
3. Penetrate directly through natural opening.
Penetrate through wounds or natural
opening.
4. There is no production of toxins or production of toxins or cytolytic enzymes
cytolytic enzymes. is present.
5. Host range is narrow. Host range is wide.
6. Infect all stages of host development. Infect juvenile,debilitated or senescing
tissues.
7. Host-pathogen contact is necessary. Can grow saprophytically away from the
host.
8. Eg., Viruses and pathogens causing rusts, Eg., Sclerotium rolfsii
downy mildews and powdery mildews.

7. Difference between Apoptosis and Necrosis

S.No. Apoptosis Necrosis

1. Cell volume decreases. Cell wall increases.
2. Plasma membrane remain intact up to the Damaged plasma membrane ruptures.
moment of formation of apoptotic

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 vesicles.
3. Cell contents split into apoptotic Cell contents appear into intercellular
vesicles. spaces.
4. Nuclear fragmented which formation of Nucleus destroyed.
membrane wrapped oligonucleosomic
particles.
5. Pores of organelles open in Organelles swollen and destroyed.
outermembrane to liberate apoptosis.

8. Difference between Chlorosis and Etiolation

S.No. Chlorosis Etiolation

1. It’s a physiological disease. It’s a physiological phenomenon.
2. Its caused due to deficiency of certain It is caused in green plants, when they are
elements like Mg2+, iron, nitrogen, grown in dark. Mineral deficiency is not
potassium, manganese, sulphur, etc. involved in such plants.
when the plants are grown in light.
3. During chlorosis, the leaves becomenon- During etiolation, the stem becomes long
green due to low chlorophyll synthesis. and weak, the leaves become smaller and
Accessory pigments like xanthophylls, colourless or yellow, young leaves remain
carotenoids may form but cannot carryout enexpanded. Pigments like chlorophylls,
photosynthesis due to lack of chlorophyll. carotenoids and xanthophylls involved in
photosynthesis are not synthesized.
4. It may be complete or inter veinal Absence of light is the only factor in
chlorosis. In inter-veinal chlorosis, etiolation and the entire leaf becomesyellow
petioles and veins may remain green. or colourless.
5. Affected plant cannot carryout Etiolation can be avoided if the plant iskept
photosynthesis and may die due to lack in proper sunlight. This process is called
of chlorophyll. Chlorosis can be treated etiolation.
by supplying the deficient element
through any method.

9. Difference between Chlorosis and Necrosis

S.No. Chlorosis Necrosis

1. It is symptom of plant disease where the It is also a symptom of plant disease where
chlorophyll in green parts of host is death of host tissue occurs due to
destroyed due to viral infection. viral infection.
2. It results in appearance of yellow spots. Drying of dead tissues results in appearance
of brown spots called necrotic spots.
3. Yellowish spots in green tissue give a Mosaic pattern not ever appears.
mosaic pattern.

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 10. Difference between Plesionecrosis and Holonecrosis

S.No. Necrosis
The death or disintegration of cells and tissues.
Plesionecrosis Holonecrosis
1. Means `nearly` dead Means `completely` dead
2. Necrotic symptoms expressed before the death of the protoplast. Necrotic symptoms expressed after the death of the protoplast.
3. In the plesionecrotic zone, intercellular mycelium was often present May develop on any part of the plant and generally the infected
throughout the area and frequently extended to the point where host tissues become brown.
cells were apparently quite normal.
4. Commonly, nuclei and chloroplasts in cells of the plesionecrotic In general, cell contents disappeared in the center of the
zone had either completely disappeared or remained only in outline, holonecrotic zone and cell walls were collapsed but not
the contents having disappeared. disintegrated.
5. Yellowing Wilting Hydrosis Rots Spots Blight
6.

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 11. Difference between Pathogenic Diseases and Non-pathogenic Diseases

S.No. Pathogenic Diseases Non-Pathogenic Diseases

1. Diseases which are caused by parasitic Diseases which are caused by agents other
or living micro-organisms are known as than parasitic or living micro-organisms, i.e.,
pathogenic or parasitic diseases. environmental, physical, soil, chemical and
other miscellaneous factors are known as
non-pathogenic diseases.
2. They may create an epidemic in a They usually do not occur as an epidemic.
particular region.
3. They may be infectious. They are not infectious.
4. Example - Late Blight of Potato caused Example - Black heart of Potato due to low
by Phytophthora infestans. oxygen level and high temperature during
storage condition.

12. Difference between Pathogenic Wilt and Physiological Wilt

S.No. Pathogenic Wilt Physiological Wilt

1. Loss of turgidity and droping of plant Loss of turgidity and droping of plant parts
parts due to infection by microbes due to insufficient water in plant body is
resulting in blockage of water transport known as physiological wilt.
or toxicity is known as pathogenic wilt.
2. It is a type of soil borne pathogenic It is a physiological imbalance.
disease.
3. Pathogens like fungi, bacteria, etc. can No pathogens are found in disease samples.
be isolated from diseased samples.
4. Original healthy stages generally not Original healthy stage may come again if
come again. proper measures taken.
5. In case of bacterial wilt, ooze test can be No oozing can be seen.
performed.

13. Difference between Monocyclic and Polycyclic Diseases

S.No. Monocyclic Diseases Polycyclic Diseases

1. Like simple interest in terms of money Like compound interest in terms of money

2. Monocyclic diseases are most efficiently Polycyclic diseases are most efficiently
managed by reducing the amount or managed by reducing large amounts of
efficiency of initial inoculum,as for a initial inoculum &/or by limting
monocyclic pathogen, disease is directly potentially rapid rates of disease increase
related to the size of the population at the because polycyclic pathogens produce
start of the season because inoculum inoculum effective during the same season
produced during the season do not cause and disease induced by them increases
new infection in the same season. Hence exponentially or logistically.
there is a direct relationship between
initial inoculum and disease at the end of
the season.
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3. Birth rate is low Birth rate is high
4. Inoculum is long lived Inoculum is short lived
5. Death rate is low Death rate is high.

14. Difference between Pathotype, Strain and Biotype

S.No. Race
A population of a particular species of a pathogen having the same combination of
virulence genes and all the individuals in that population showing the same reaction
(virulence/avirulence) with only a particular cultivar/variety of a host crop (Wheat/ Rice)
is called a Race. Thus races of the same pathogen vary in virulence to host cultivars.

Pathotype Strain Biotype

1. Pathotype is a synonymous Strain is used in case of Biotypes is used in case of
term used for race in fungi, viruses. insects.
bacteria and nematodes.

15. Difference between Bacteria and Fungi

S.No. Bacteria Fungi

1. Bacteria refers to unicelleular prokaryotic Fungi refers to unicellular or multicellular
microorganism with a cell wall made up of microorganisms and absorbing organic
peptidoglycans, but lacking organelles material on which they grow.
and an organised nucleus.
2. Prokaryotes. Eukaryotes.
3. Unicellular microorganism. Most are multicellular.
4. Size is 0.5-5.0 µm Size is 2-10µm
5. Favourable ph for growth is 6.5-7.0 Favourable ph for growth is 4-6
6. Spirella, coccus, and bacillus are the Hypha and yeast are the common
common morphologies. morphologies.
7. Some use flagella to move. Immobile organism.
8. Cell wall made up of peptidoglycans. Cell wall made of chitin.
9. Genetic material is localised in the Genetic material is localised in the nucleus.
nucleiod of the cytoplasm.
10. Do not contain membrane bound Contain membrane bound organelles.
organelles.
11. Contain 70S ribosomes. Contain 80S ribosomes.
12. Binary fission is asexual mode of Fungi reproduce through both sexual and
reproduction. asexual spores.
13. Transmission occurs through contact, Transmission occur through spores.
body fluids, food, water, insects or air.
14. Used in production of antibiotics and Used in the production of beer, bread and
other useful chemicals. antibiotics.

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 15.

16. Difference between Bacterial Endospores and Fungal Endospores

S.No. Bacterial Endospores Fungal Spores

1. Bacterial endospores are dormant Fungal spores are reproductive structures
structures present in prokaryotic bacteria. present in eukaryotic fungi.
2. Endospore has a thick structure with a Fungal spores are varied in size, shape and
spore coat. colour.
3.

17. Apoptosis, Programmed Cell Death and the Hypersensitive Response

S.No. Apoptosis Programmed Cell Death Hypersensitive Response
1. German scientist Karl Vogt The concept of "programmed The first observations of HR
was first to describe the cell-death" was firstly usedby date back to 1902 in the
principle of apoptosis in Lockshin & Williams in wheat-Puccinia glumarum
1842. 1964. pathosystem, and the
counter-intuitive term
‘hypersensitiveness' was
coined in 1915 by Stakman,
to describe a pathogen-
triggered cell death reaction
that correlated with disease
resistance in wheat infected
with Puccinia graminis.
2. Apoptosis is typically a Programmed cell death The hypersensitive response
morphologically (PCD) in plants is a crucial is a specific form of plant

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 identifiable form of component of development programmed cell death
programmed cell death in and defence mechanisms. evolved as a defense against
mammals that is regulated microbial parasites.
by genes with homologues
in other animal Phyla.

18. Difference between Virulence and Aggressiveness

S.No. Virulence Aggressiveness

1. Ability of a genetically homogenous Ability of a race to grow and invade to cause
strain to grow on a genetically disease on large scale in susceptible plants.
homogenous host plants.
2. Qualitative in terms of pathogenicity. Quantitative in nature.
3. Often used in relation to plants. Used in relation to pathogen.

19. Difference between Disease and Disorder

S.No. Disease Disorder
1. Disease invovles biotic factors. Disorder involves abiotic factors.
2. Disease is most often than not caused byA variety of environmental conditions can
microbes such as fungi, viruses, bacteria
cause plant disorders. Poor environmental
and nematodes. conditions stress plants and cause abnormal
growth or disease-like
symptoms.
3. Disease is transmittable. Disorder is not transmittable.
4. Fungicides, antibiotics and nematicides Plant disorders are treated by changing the
are often may be used to control this conditions that caused the damage (if
disease if it regularly causes severe possible).
damage.

20. Difference between Somatic Hybridization and Sexual Hybridization

S.No. Somatic Hybridization Sexual Hybridization

1. It involves fusion of somatic cell. It involves fusion of male and female
gametes.
2. It requires tissue culture technique. It does not require tissue culture
technique.
3. Cytoplasm is contributed by both Cytoplasm is strictly contributed by
parents. female parent.
4. Hybrid combines somatic chromosomes Hybrid combines haploid chromosomes
of both parents. of both parents.
5. Segregation does not occur. Segregation occurs.
6. Crosses between unrelated species can be Crosses between unrelated species are
easily made. incompatible.

21. Difference between Sexual Cycle and Parasexual Cycle

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S.No. Sexual Cycle Parasexual Cycle
1. Nuclear fusion occurs in specialized Nuclear fusion occurs in somatic cells.
structures.
2. Zygote usually persists for one Zygote persists for many generations by
generation only. mitotic divisions.
3. Recombination occurs by crossing over Recombination by mitotic crossing
during meiosis. The crossing over occurs over,which is a rare event and occurs in a
in all chromosomes pairs and in single chromosome arm. Haplodization,
accompanied by a reduction in the unlike meiosis, is independent of crossing
chromosome number. over.
4. Products of meiosis are readily Recombination nuclei lie in the somatic
recognizable which can be isolated cells and can be recognized only by
easily. suitable genetic markers.

22. Difference between Disease cycle and Life cycle

S.No. Disease cycle Life cycle

1. The chain of events involved in disease The stages or successive stages in the
development including the stages of growth and development of an organism
development of the pathogen and the that occur between the appearance and the
effect of the disease on the host. reappearance of the same stage (i.e. spore)
of the organism.

23. Difference between Hypersensitivity and Klendusity

S.No. Hypersensitivity Klendusity

1. Increased sensitivity by the host at site of
The term Klendusity is used commonly to
infection and shown by rapid cell death characterize the type of disease escape
which prevent further growth by the accomplished by the avoidance of insect
pathogen and spread of infection is knownvector. A susceptible host does not become
as hypersensitivity. infected in the presence of a pathogen
because of qualities preventing or hindering
the operation of vector or other inoculating
agent.
Eg: Variety that is resistant to an aphid will
not become infected with viruses for which
the aphid is a vector.
2. The term hypersensitivity was first used The term Klendusity was first used by
by Stakeman in 1915. R.R.Nelson in 1973.
3. It is applicable to all types of plant It is applicable specially for viral plant
diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, diseases.
viruses, etc.

24. Difference between Holocarpic and Eucarpic

S.No. Holocarpic Eucarpic
1. Whole thallus of fungus becomes Differentiates into distinct vegetative and

159
 converted into a reproductive cell. reproductive portions.
2. Denoting a fungus in which the entire Denoting a fungus in which the thallus is
thallus is differentiated into a differentiated into vegetative and
reproductive sporangium when mature. reproductive regions.
3. Found among: Found among all divisions. A majority of
⚫ Chytridiomycota oomycetes are eucarpic.
⚫ Hyphochytridiomycota
⚫ Plasmodiophoromycota
⚫ Oomycota
⚫ Ascomycota
⚫ Basidiomycota
⚫ Fungi imperfecti

25. Difference between Saprophytes and Parasites

S.No. Saprophytes Parasites

1. Saprophytes are organisms that grow on Parasites are organisms that depend on
the dead and decaying material to obtain other organisms to obtain nutrients
nutrients
2. Use extracellular digestion Use intracellular digestion
3. Absorb nutrients through the cell wall Absorb nutrients through haustoria
4. Depend on dead and decaying matter Harm their hosts
5. Examples: mushroom and bacteria Examples: Plasmodium, ticks, lice, fleas,
mites, platyhelminths, round worm etc.

26. Difference between Endomycorrhiza and Ectomycorrhiza

S.No. Endomycorrhizae Ectomycorrhizae

1. Form symbiotic relationships with about Form symbiotic relationships with about
85% of plant families. 10% of plant families.
2. This kind of mycorrhizae is confined tothe In this association, the absorbing roots are
cells of the root system; causing internal almost completely enveloped by a mantleof
infections of the cortex of rootand rhizome a very compact hyphae of the fungus.
of the plant.

3. The endomycorrhizal fungi enter into the In ectomycorrhizal association, the fungus

160
 root cells and are generally restricted to forms a mantle or sheath over the surface of
the cortical region rarely crossing the fine lateral roots of the host trees.
endodermis.
4. The most important role of the fungus of Trees with ectomycorrhizal association are
endomycorrhizae is the disintegration of capable of growing better under nutrient-
soil particles and absoption and transport deficient conditions in comparison to non-
of released particles into the plants. mycorrhizal plants, because of their greater
ability to absorb nutrients from soil.
5. AM fungi help plants to capture nutrients Nutrients can be shown to move between
such as phosphorus and micronutrients different plants through the fungal network
from the soil. (sometimes called the wood wide web).
Carbon has been shown to move from birch
trees into fir trees thereby promoting
succession in ecosystems.
6. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AMs) are Ectomycorrhizae send some hyphae into the
characterized by the formation of unique intercellular spaces of the outer cortex
structures such as arbuscules and vesicles forming a so-called Hartignet.
by fungi of the phylum Glomeromycota
(AM fungi).

7. The best known endo-mycorrhizae are Many forest trees including both conifers,
those of orchids. It is well- known that like Pinus, Cedrus, Abies, as well as
under natural conditions, orchids are deciduous non- conifers, like oak, beech,
unable to grow without association with birch etc. form ecto-mycorrhizal
fungi. Some conifers like Junipers and associations.
Sequoia are also form endomycorrhizae.
VAM has been found in many species of
monocots and dicots belonging to
Gramineae Leguminosae, Compositae,
Palmae etc.
8. orchids are known to form endomycorrhiza The fungal components also belong to
with species of Rhizoctonia, like R. repens. different groups of mostly higher fungi.
Among VAM fungi, species of Pythium Basidiomycetes, like agarics and
have been found gasteromycetes are common. The truffles
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 in many species of Liliaceae. The genus belonging to ascomycetes are able to
Endogone has been claimed as fungal associate with pines. Some of the common
component of VAM in apple, strawberry genera of ecto-mycorrhizal fungi are
and some other plants. members of Russula, Clitocybe, Boletus,
Lactarius, Tuber etc.

27. Difference between Sign and Symptoms

S.No. Sign Symptoms

1. Sign is a morphological or physiological Symptom is the phenotypic and or
structure of causal organism present in the physiological manifestation of a
disease specimen. successful invasion of a host by a pathogen
or it is a visible effect of disease
on the plant.
2. Examination of disease signs help in Symptoms are not always true diagnostic
identifying the pathogen. for study diseases.
3. Fungal disease signs: Fungal disease symptoms:
• Fruiting bodies • Birds-eye spot on berries
• Leaf rust (common leaf rust in (anthracnose)
corn) • Damping off of seedlings
• Stem rust (wheat stem rust) (Phytophthora)
• Sclerotinia (white mold) • Leaf spot (Septoria brown spot)
• Powdery mildew • Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves)
4. Bacterial disease signs (difficult to Bacterial disease symptoms:
observe, but can include): • Leaf spot with yellow halo
• Bacterial ooze • Fruit spot
• Bacterial streaming in water from a • Canker
cut stem • Crown gall
• Sheperd’s crook stem ends on
woody plants
5. Viral disease signs: Viral disease symptoms:
• None – the viruses themselves • Mosaic leaf pattern
can’t be seen • Crinkled leaves
• Yellowed leaves
• Plant stunting

28. Difference between Metaplastic Symptoms and Proleptic Symptoms

S.No. Metaplastic Symptoms Proleptic Symptoms

1. Metaplastic symptoms are those which Proleptic symptoms result from the
form when tissues change from one form to development of tissues earlier than usual.
another.
2. Such symptoms include - Examples include -
⚫ Phyllody: the development of floral ⚫ Prolepsis: the premature development of
organs into leaf-like structures, a shoot from a bud,

162
 ⚫ Juvenillody: the development of ⚫ Proleptic Abscission: the premature
juvenile seedlings on mature plants. formation of abscission layers.

⚫ Russeting: a superficial browning of

surfaces of fruits and tubers due to
suberization.

⚫ Restoration: the unexpected development

of organs that are normally rudimentary.

29. Difference between Basipetal and Acropetal Mode of Spore Formation

Arrangement of Conidia in Chain

S.No. Basipetal mode of spore formation Acropetal mode of spore formation
1. Condia can be formed at the base of a chain Acropetal formation describes a chain that
which is called basipetal mode of spore bears the youngest spore at the apex as in the
formation as in Aspergillus, case of Alternaria, Cladosporium, etc.
Penicillium, Albugo, etc.
2. Maturation can start at the moment the Conidia are instrumental for the formation
spores are delimited from the of spores.
conidiogenous cell.

30. Difference between Thallic Conidiogenesis and Blastic Conidiogenesis

Conidiogenesis
(Process of formation of conidia)

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S.No. Thallic Conidiogenesis Blastic Conidiogenesis
1. In thallic conidiogenesis, a preexisting cell In blastic conidiogenesis, conidia differentiate via
differentiates into a conidium. expansion from the conidiogenous cell.
S.No. Holothallic Thallic-arthric Holoblastic Enteroblastic
1. Whole cell is converted Thallic conidiogenesis When expansion of a cell In the case of enteroblastic
into a conidium. can also result in includes the completecell conidium formation, the
fragmentation of a cell wall of the conidiogenous cell wall of the
into conidia, called cell, this is known as conidiogenous cell is
thallic-arthric. holoblastic conidium disrupted and the
formation. conidium appears through
an opening in the cell wall.
2. Holothallic-derived Thallic-arthric mode When the blastospores When the first conidium
conidia usually have give rise to arthrospores. develop by the balooning carries the broken parent
thick, melanized and They are thin wall spores of the inner wall of wall of conidiophore and
often encapsulated cell formed in basipetal conidiophore, arrange in subsequent conidia
walls. These conidia order. acropetal mode called possess a new wall, such
are, in general, referred porospore e.g., basipetally formed conidia
to as chlamydospores. Alternaria. are called phialospore.The
For example, the formation of the conidial
chlamydospores of G. chain in the genus
zeae are thick-walled Aspergillus is an example
cells formed between of enteroblastic
hyphal compartments conidiogenesis.
that can persist upto 16
months in soil.

31. Difference between Haustorium and Appressorium

S.No. Haustorium Appressorium

1. Special branch of a fungal hyphae, The swollen tip of hyphae or germ tube
especially intercellular hyphae, within the that facilitates attachment and penetration
living cell to absorb nutrients is known as of the host by the fungus is known as
haustorium. It also include the root-like appressorium.
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 absorbing organ connecting parasitic seed
plants to the vascular system of their host.
2. It helps in sucking nutrients from host and It helps in penetration of host cell.
attachment.
3. It is found in all downy mildews, powdery It is found generally in all fungi.
mildews, rusts, arbuscules of VAM fungi.
4.

165
166
 32. Difference between Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

S.No. Autotrophs Heterotrophs

1. Autotrophs produce their own food Heterotrophs do not produce their own food
2. Are at the primary level in a food chain Are at the secondary and tertiary levels in a food chain
3. Produce their own food for energy Eat other organisms in order to obtain their energy
4. Are either photoautotrophs or chemoautotrophs Are either photoheterotrophs or chemoheterotrophs
5. Plant, algae and some bacteria are the examples Herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores are the examples
6. Photoautotroph Chemoautotroph Photoheterotroph Chemoheterotroph
7. Chlorophyll allows microbes to Creates own food using the Can convert between anabolic Ingest and break down foods
trap light energy and transfer it chemical bonds of inorganic and catabolic reactions i.e., containing glucose for energy.
to chemical bond energy. molecules. photosynthesis to respiration.
8. Eg. Cyanobacteria Anabaena Eg. Nitrosomonas - Ammonia Eg. Rhodobacter sphaeroides Eg. Saccharomyces

33. Difference between Phototrophs and Chemotrophs

S.No. Phototrophs Chemotrophs

1. Phototrophs are the organisms that capture protons in order to Chemotrophs are the organisms which obtain their energy by
acquire energy. oxidizing electron donor.
2. Energy source is mainly sunlight. Energy source is the oxidizing energy of chemical compounds.
3. Photoorganotrophs Photolithotrophs Chemoorganotrophs Chemolithotrophs
4. Photoorgano Photoorgano- Photolitho- Photolitho- Chemoorgan Chemoorgan Chemolitho- Chemolitho-
-autotroph heterotroph autotroph heterotroph oautotroph o-heterotroph autotroph heterotroph
5. - Some bacteria Some bacteria Purple non- Some archaea Predatory, Some Some
(Rhodobacter) (blue green sulfur bacteria (anaerobic parasitic, and bacteria bacteria
algae), some and Green non- methanotrophi saprophytic (Nitrobacter), (Oceanitherm
eukaryotes sulfur bacteria c archaea). prokaryotes. some archaea us profundus)
(eukaryotic Some (Methanobac
algae, land eukaryotes teria).
plants). (heterotrophic
protists, fungi,

167
 animals)

34. Difference between Gametangial Copulation and Gametangial Contact

S.No. Gametangial Copulation Gametangial Contact

1. Entire protoplast is transferred into the female gametangia In this method two gametangia of opposite sex comes in contact
a involes the fusion of two protoplast in a common cell. and one or more nuclei migrates from male to the female.

2. Sex gametes are indistinguishable or morphological The male nuclei enters the female gametangium through apore
identical. Copulation occurs either by complete fusion of developed by the dissolution of gametangial walls at the point
two protoplast. of contact while in other species fertilization tube acts as a
passage or the male nuclei. After the passage of nuclei has been
accomplished the organisms continues its development in
various ways and Antheridium eventually disintegrates.
3. It is common in class Trichomycetes and Zygomycetes. It is common in Oomycetes and Ascomycota.
4.

35. Difference between Clamp-Formation and Crozier-Formation

S.No. Clamp-Formation Crozier-Formation

1. A clamp connection is a hook-like structure formed by growing A crozier is an anatomical feature of many fungi in the phylum
hyphal cells of Basidiomycetous fungi. Ascomycota that form at the base of asci.
2. In Basidiomycota, division starts with the formation of a lateral peg. In Ascomycota, division starts with the formation of a apical peg.
3. In Basidiomycota, the apical cell continues its vegetative growth In contrast, in most Ascomycota, the apical cell usually

168
and undergoes further cell division. differentiates into a meiocyte and undergoes karyogamy and
meiosis, although in a few species it may continue to divide as a
dikaryon.

169
 36. Difference between Compound Interest Disease and Simple Interest Disease

S.No. Compound Interest Disease Simple Interest Disease

1. The rate of increase is mathematically The rate of increase is mathematically
analogous to compound interest in analogous to simple interest in money.
money.
2. There are several or many generation of There is only one generation of pathogen
pathogen in the life of the crop. in the life of the crop.
3. The pathogen produces spores at a very The pathogen produces spores at a very
rapid rate. slow rate.
4. The spores are disseminated by rapid The dispersal of propagules is restricted by
means such as air. climatic & biotic conditions.
5. The incubation and sporulation period is The incubation and sporulation period is
short. long.
Eg., Late blight of potato, stem rust of Eg., common root rot of wheat, cedar
wheat, Dutch elm, Oak wilt apple rust, loose smut of wheat, covered
smut of barley.

37. Difference between Alternate and Collateral Host

S.No. Alternate Host Collateral Host

1. A host on which some pathogens must A host that belongs to the same family of
develop to complete their life cycles. the main host, aiding the survival of the
parasite during off-season.
2. Alternate and the main host of a particular Collateral and the main host of a particular
pathogen belong to different families. pathogen belong to same family.
3. Aids in the survival of the pathogen by Aids in the survival of the pathogen when
allowing the completion of their life cycle the main host is not available.
and also under unfavourable weather
conditions.
4. For example - Puccinia graminis tritici For example - Alternaria solani, a fungal
which causes black/stem rust of wheat pathogen attacks the member of
survives on barbery. Solanaceae family.

38. Difference between Plasmid and Vector

S.No. Plasmid Vector

1. Plasmids are extra chromosomal, self Vectors are DNA molecules that serve as
replicating, double stranded, circular DNA vehicles to carry foreign DNA molecules
molecules, generally found in bacterial into another cell.
cells.
2. Extra chromosomal elements, mainly in Carrier DNA molecules that carry foreign
bacteria. DNA molecules into another cell.
3. Found in bacteria, archaea and protozoans. Plasmids, cosmids, viral vectors and
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 artificial chromosomes are the four types.
4. Naturally occur in bacterial cells. Naturally occur or artificially produced by
a series of ligation and restriction
digestion reactions.
5. Naturally encoded for antibiotic Carry important genes for the function of
resistance, nitrogen fixation, metal the cell.
resistance and toxic production.
6. Gene product is not essential for the Gene product is important for the cell.
function of bacterial cells.

39. Difference between Tyndalization and Sterilization

S.No. Tyndalization Sterilization

1. Tyndall's method is relatively simple but Sterilization refers to any process that
somewhat time-consuming. Food is eliminates, removes, kills, or deactivates all
placed in a can or heat-proof storage forms of life and other biological agents
container, which is then boiled for about (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, sporeforms,
15 to 20 minutes each day, for three days prions, unicellular eukaryotic organisms such
in a row. The rest of the time, it just sits as Plasmodium, etc.) present in a specified
on the counter at room temperature. The region, such as a surface, a volume of fluid,
boiling temperature must be at least the medication, or in a compound such as
boiling point of water, or 100 degrees biological culture media.
Centigrade (212 degrees Fahrenheit).

2. Tyndallization, also called fractional It is a complete purification process.

sterilization and discontinuous heating.
3. It can be done with steam heat only. Sterilization can be achieved throughvarious
means, including: dry heat, chemicals,
irradiation, high pressure, and filtration.

40. Difference between Bacterial Colonies and Fungal Colonies

S.No. Bacterial Colonies Fungal Colonies

1. A visible mass of cells arisen from a A mass of thread-like hyphae produced by
single bacterial cell. a single spore.
2. Made up of unicellular organisms. Can be made up of either unicellular or
multicellular organisms.
3. Colonies are small. Colonies that develop hyphae are large.
4. Have smooth or rough appearance. Have a fuzzy appearance.
5. Have a defined margin. Have a filamentous margin.
6. Look wet and shiny. Look fibrous or powdery.
7. Circular or irregular. Filamentous or rhizoid-like.
8. Grow within the pH range 5 - 9 Grow within the pH range 5 - 6.
(optimum 7).

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 41. Difference between Inoculation and Infection

S.No. Inoculation Infection

1. The arrival or transfer of a pathogen onto The establishment of a parasite within host
a host is known as a inoculation. is known as infection.
2. It may not cause a disease condition. It is generally causes a disease condition in
a host plant.

42. Difference between Alloinfection and Autoinfection

S.No. Allo-infection Auto-infection

1. Allo-infection to be infections arising Auto-infection to be infections arising from
from inoculum pro-duced on other host inoculum produced on the same host unit.
units.
2. Infection in which the donor (or infector) Infection in which the donor (infector) host
host is a different individual from the individual is the same as the receptor
recipient (or in-fected) hostindividual. (infected) host individual.

3. The first infection of any individual host This is because the parasite individual
must be an allo-infection. It normally does reproduces asexually to produce a clone (or
this with a system of locking which reduces else reproduces sexually and quickly reaches
the proportion of allo-infections that are homogeneity of matching individuals) and
matching infections. auto-infection is thus
matching infection.
4. Vertical resistance can control allo- Auto-infection and all the consequences of
infection only. a matching allo-infection, can be controlled
only by horizontal resistance.
5. In studying mosaics of host genotypes, In studying mosaics of host genotypes,
alloinfection was considered to be autoinfection was considered to be infection
infections resulting from propagules pro- resulting from propagules produced from the
duced on other genotype units in the same unit ofcontiguous plants of the same
population. genotype.

43. Difference between Toxins and Phytoaggressins

S.No. Toxins Phytoaggressins

1. A toxin can be defined as a microbial Enzymes, causing rot or tissue
metabolite excreted (exotoxin) or released disintegration are also not toxins
by lysed cells (endotoxin) which in very because they do not affect the
low concentration is directly toxic to cells protoplasm and only disintegrate the cell
of the suscept. In Plant Pathology, the term walls, using the degradation products of
toxin is used for a product of the pathogen, middle lamella as substrate for their
its host or pathogen-host interaction which activity. Such substances have been
even at very low concentration directly acts termed as phytoaggressins.
on living host protoplasm to influence the
course of disease development or symptom
expression.

44. Difference between Vertical and Horizontal Resistance

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S.No. Feature Vertical Resistance Horizontal Resistance
1. Phenotype-specificity Specific Nonspecific
2. Nature of gene action Oligogenic Polygenic, rarely Oligogenic
3. Response to pathogen Usually, hypersensitive Resistant response
4. Phenotypic expression Qualitative Quantitative
Expression increases as plant
5. Stages of expression. Seedling to maturity. matures.
6. Selection and Relatively easy present Relatively difficult absent
evaluation Risk ofboom (rarely durable) (durable).
and bust suitable for 1.
Host, 2.Pathogen

7. Need for specific Critical for success with None

development of mobile pathogen.
resistant varieties.

Need for other control

8. measures likely Much less likely
Host pathogen
9. interaction Present Absent
Highly efficient against Variable but operates against all
10. Efficiency specific races races.

45. Difference between Epidemic, Endemic and Sporadic and Pandemic Disease
S.No. Epidemic Endemic Sporadic Pandemic
1. A widespread and A disease that is Disease occurring A disease very
severe outbreak of a permanently present in occasionally, singly, widely distributed
disease in a large a locality in a mild or or in irregular or over a large area of a
population is known severe form is known random instances in a country is known as
as epidemic. as endemic. moderate to severe pandemic disease.
form.
2. It causes heavy Losses caused by In a sporadic disease, Pandemics are
losses. endemic disease are pathogen affects only destructive
less than epidemic a few plants in a large epiphytotics
diseases. population of host developing on a
plants and others continental scale.
remain unaffected.
3. Example - During Example - Wart Example - Leaf Example - Late
1845 - 1848 in disease of potato is blights and wilt blight of potato.
Ireland the late blight endemic to Darjeeling disease.
of potato appear as hill areas.
an epidemic (the
Irish famine).

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 46. Difference between Inoculation and Infection
S.No. Inoculation Infection
1. Before a pathogen can infect a plant, it The pathogen established and grows within
must be introduced to the plant. This the plant and begins damaging the tissues by
process is called inoculation. producing symptoms is known as infection.
2. It may not causes a disease condition. It generally causes a disease condition in
host plants.

47. Difference between Primary Inoculation and Secondary Inoculation

S.No. Primary Inoculation Secondary Inoculation
1. The over wintering and over summering Inoculation produced by infection that took
pathogen, or it's spores that cause primary place during the same grading season is
infection is known as primary known as secondary inoculum.
inoculation.
2. The primary inoculation initiates the The secondary inoculum spread the disease.
disease.
3. The primary inoculation is in the form In viral diseases secondary inoculum is
of a resting structures, lodged in the dead spread by insect vector.
plant organs or soil or in the body of
insect vector or as dormant mycelium in
the winter - hardy leaves of many
cereals.

48. Difference between Parasitism and Pathogenicity

S.No. Parasitism Pathogenicity
1. The relationship between the parasite the capability of a pathogen or parasite to
and host is known as parasitism. cause disease is known as pathogenicity.
2. Since parasitism mostly results in a The formation of root nodules in legumes due
disease development there is not much to Rhizobium species is actually due to
difference between the parasitism and parasitic relationship but the bacterium live in
pathogenicity. However there are a a symbiotic relationship with the plants
number of exceptions. giving more benefit than causing harm to the
plants in this case symbiotic relationship is
not a pathogenicity although the bacterium
enters the plant roots on a parasite. Like wise
the relationship of a mycorrhizal fungi
and plant roots.

49. Difference between Anisogamy, Isogamy and Oogamy

S.No. Anisogamy Isogamy Oogamy

1. Anisogamy is the fusion Isogamy is the fusion of Oogamy is the fusion of large
of gametes dissimilar gametes in similar size. immotile female gametes with
sizes. small motile male gametes.
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 2. Male and females gametes Male and female gametes are Male and female gametes are
are present not distinguishable present
3. Both male and female Both make and female Egg cell is immotile and sperm
gametes are either motile gametes are either motile or cell is motile
or immotile immotile
4. Second stage of evolution First stage of evolution in the Third stage of evolution in the
in the sexual process sexual process sexual process
5. Occurs in some fungi, Found in chlamydomonas, Found in higher groups ofalgae
higher invertebrates andall which is a unicellular alga like Volvox, and Oedogonium,
vertebrates and monocystis, which is a plants like bryophytes, ferns
protozoan and gymnopserms, protists and
animals

50. Difference between Isoplanogamtic, Anisoplanogamtic and Heteroplanogamtic

Copulation

S.No. Planogametic Copulation

Fusion of two naked gametes, one or both of which are motile. It is completed in three manners.
Isoplanogamtic Copulation Anisoplanogamtic Copulation Heteroplanogamtic
Copulation
1. It involves two motile It involves union of dissimilar Fusion of non motile female
identical similar gametes but motile gametes of which one is gamete and motile male
differs in their physiology. larger than other. gamete is known as
heteroplanogametic
copulation. The male gamete
enters the oogonium and
fertilizes the egg.
2. E.g. Synchytricum, Olpidium E.g. Blastocladiales Genus- E.g. In Monoblepharis (order
Allomyces Monoblepharidales) this
unique condition is present.

51. Difference between Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy

S.No. Hyperplasia Hypertrophy

1. It is the increase in the size of a tissue or It is an increase in size of an organ due to
an organ due to an increased number of the swelling or enlargement of individual
cells cell.
2. This is the excessive growth of some It is abnormal increase in the size of cell.
plant or even the entire plant.
3. Example is scab disease. Examples are galls, cankers, witche’s
broom, etc.

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 52. Difference between Autoecious Rusts and Heteroecious Rusts

S.No. Autoecious Rusts Heteroecious Rusts

1. Autoecious is pertaining to a fungus, Heteroecious is of dependent organisms,
most often a rust, completing its life cycle spending portions of the life cycle ondifferent
on one host. types of hosts.
2. They do not have alternate host. They need an alternate host.
3. Examples are linseed rust - Melampsora Examples are stem rust of wheat - Puccinia
lini, bean rust, coffee rust, etc. graminis tritici

53. Difference between Microcyclic, Macrocyclic and Demicyclic Rust

S.No. Macrocyclic Rust Demicyclic Rust Microcyclic Rust

1. Those rust which typically Those rust genera which In the microcyclic rust,
produce all the five spores lack the uredinial stage are the teliospore is the only
states are called called demicyclic rust. binucleate spore.
macrocyclic or long-cycled
rust.
2. ⚫ Autoecious ⚫ Autoecious Examples are Puccinia
Macrocyclic Rust: Demicyclic Rust: malvacearum, Puccinia
Puccinia helianthi, Xenodocus heterospora, Puccinia
Uromyces fabae carbonarius chrysanthemi
⚫ Heteroecious ⚫ Heteroecious
Macrocyclic Rust: Demicyclic Rust:
Puccinia graminis Gymnosporangium
tritici, Puccinia juniperi-virginianae
penniseti, Uromyces
dactylidis

54. Difference between Liberation and Dissemination

S.No. Liberation Dissemination

1. The Phenomenon which affects the release The Phenomenon which affects the release,
of fungal spores from its fruiting bodies or dispersal and deposition of fungal spores,
mother source is calledliberation. bacterial spores/cells is called
dissemination.
2. It does nit include dispersal or spread of It includes the release of fungal, bacterial
fungal or other micro organisms spores. spores/cells into the air is through
hydrostatic discharge, wind, rain tap andpuff
splash.

55. Difference between Continuous Epidemics and Discontinuous Epidemics

S.No. Continuous Epidemics Discontinuous Epidemics

1. Continuous epidemics have no break in Discontinuous epidemics have regular
the parasitism. breaks in the parasitism, due to an absence
of host tissue during an adverse season, such
as a temperate winter or tropical dry season.

2. They have no gene-for-gene relationships. They often have a gene-for-gene

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 relationship against some of their parasites.
3. They involve evergreen trees, and some They involve annual plants, some perennial
perennial herbs. herbs, and the leaves and fruits of deciduous
trees and shrubs.

56. Difference between Local Infection and Systemic Infection

S.No. Local Infection Systemic Infection

1. A localized symptom developed by the The infection, which occurs due to spreadin
infection of a pathogen is known as throughout the plant body internally, is
local infection. known as systemic infection.
2. It causes lesser damage than systemic It causes severe damage to the host plant.
infection of the host.
3. Usually entire plant is not kill off. Entire plant may kill off.
4. Localized area affected. The pathogen grows from the point of entry
to varying extents without showing adverse
effects on tissue through which passes.
5. Examples are blights and leaf spots Examples are wilt disease due to bacteria
symptoms. and fungi, white rust of crucifers.

57. Difference between Enzymes and Toxins

S.No. Enzymes Toxins
1. Enzymes are proteins. In chemical term toxins are very varied and
include peptides, glycoproteins,
polysaccharides, organic and fatty acids.
2. Fungi, bacteria and nematodes bring Any compound formed by a pathogen in its
about tissue disintegration through the host and which causes a part or all of a
action of enzymes secreted by them. disease syndrome is called toxin.
3. These enzymes are of different types for Toxins need only be produced in a minute
action on different tissues and chemical amount are mobile within the plants explains
constituents of a cell wall. why sometimes may be produced
at some distance from the site of infection.
4. Examples - Cuticular enzymes, Pectic Toxins are either host specific or non-host
enzymes, Cellulytic enzymes, specific, for example Pathotoxin,Phytotoxin
Hemicelluloses, Lignolytic enzymes, and Vivotoxin.
Proteolytic enzymes, Lipase, etc.

58. Difference between Infection and Infestation

S.No. Infection Infestation
1. Infection is the establishment of a Presence of disease or pathogen in a
parasite within a host plant. population of plant or of pathogen in a
position or material (seed, soil, etc.) where
they cause the possibility of producing
disease is called infestation.
2. Infection is caused by protozoa, fungi, In general, the term "infestation" refers to

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 bacteria, and viruses. parasitic diseases caused by animals such as
arthropods (i.e. mites, ticks, and lice) and
worms.
3. It may not cause disease, if favourable It is directly related to plant disease and
conditions are not available. crop loss.

59. Difference between Host Specific and Non-Specific Toxins

S.No. Host Specific Toxins Host Non-specific Toxins
1. These are also known as selective toxins. These are also known as general toxins.
2. Are those toxins which adversely affect Are those toxins that affect the protoplast of
the specific host of the pathogen not other many unrelated plant species in addition to
hosts. the main host of the pathogen producing the
toxins.
3. These toxins are essential for These toxins affect virulence of the
pathogenicity. pathogen but are not essential for
pathogenicity.
4. Twenty such toxins has been recognized Examples are -
mainly produced by Alternaria and ⚫ Tabtoxin - Pseudomonas syringae pv.
Cochliobolus spp. like - tabaci,
⚫ Victorin or HV Toxin - ⚫ Phaseolotoxin - Pseudomonas syringae
Cochliobolus victoriae, pv. phaseolicola,
⚫ T-toxin - Cochliobolus ⚫ Tentoxin - Alternaria alternata,
heterostrophus, ⚫ Cercosporin - Cercospora spp..
⚫ HC-toxin - Cochliobolus
carbonum,
⚫ AAL-toxin - Alternaria alternata
f.sp. lycopersici

60. Difference between Phytotoxin and Phytoalexin

S.No. Phytotoxin Phytoalexin

1. Phytotoxins are secondary metabolites Phytoalexins are antimicrobial
produced by phytopathogenic substances of low molecular weight
microrganisms (e.g. microfungi, bacteria) produced by plants in response to
playing an important role in plant disease infection or stress, which form part of
development. their active defense mechanisms.
2. Several phytotoxins, at various It is now clear that phytoalexins exhibit
concentrations have showed also different toxicity across much of the biological
interesting biological activities including spectrum, prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
antimicrobial, herbicidal and also
pharmacological properties.
3. The chemical nature of these metabolites Phytoalexins display an enormous
range from low molecular weight diversity belonging to various chemical
compounds, including all classes of natural families such as isoflavones,
products as terpenes, chromanones, isoflavanones, pterocarpans,
butenolides, pyrones, macrolides, isoflavans, flavanones, coumestans,
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 aromatic derivatives, amino acids etc., to furanoacetylenes, phenylpropanoids,
high molecular weight compounds as steroid glycoalkaloids,
proteins, glycoproteins and norsesquiterpenoids /
polysaccharides. sesquiterpenoids, coumarins,
diterpenes, ent-kaurane-related
diterpenoids, acidic sesquiterpenoids,
3-deoxyanthocyanidins,
naphthaldehydes, indoles and
stilbenes.

61. Difference between Pathotoxin, Phytotoxin and Vivotoxin

S.No. Pathotoxins Phytotoxins Vivotoxins
1. Discovered by Wheeler Discovered by Wheeler, Discovered by Diamond
and Luke, 1963. 1975. and Waggoner, 1953.
2. Those toxins which playsan Are phytotoxic substances Those toxins produced in
important causal role in produced by living the infected plant/host by
disease and are produced organism and whose role in the pathogen and/or its host
by the pathogen or disease is merely suspected that function in the
interaction between host rather than established. production of the disease.
and pathogen.
3. When applied on a Role is suspected in causing Partial role in disease
susceptible host in low plant disease because there causing. Reproducible
concentration, should is no relationship between separation of the toxin from
produce all or nearly all the toxin production and the diseased host and
symptoms of the disease. pathogenicity of the disease induction of atleast apartof
Toxin and the pathogen causing agent. disease syndrome when
should have same host applied on healthy plant.
range; same resistance
/susceptibility spectrum.
The pathogenicity of the
pathogen should be
correlated with its capacity
to produce the toxin.
4. These may be specific and They are non-specific. These are generally non-
non-specific. specific.
5. Examples:- Examples:- Examples:-
Tab-toxin: Pseudomonas Alternaric acid: Alternaria Fusaric acid: Fusarium spp.
tabaci solani Pyricularin: Pyricularia
HMT toxin: Dreschlera Cochliobolin: Cochliobolus oryzae
maydis race T spp.

62. Difference between Exotoxin and Endotoxin

S.No. Exotoxin Endotoxin

1. Produced by some Gram-positive and Endooxin is the part of cell wall of most

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 Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria.
2. Polypeptide in nature. Lipopolysaccharide in nature.
3. Gene located on plasmid. Genes located on bacterial chromosome.
4. Toxicity is high. Toxicity is low.
5. Exotoxins can get destroyed at 60o-80oC Endotoxins are heat tolerant and relatively
(heat liable). They are unstable except stable at 250oC for one hour.
Staphylococcal enterotoxin.
6. Toxoids can be made by treating with Toxoids cannot be made and there are no
formaldehyde but treated toxins show vaccines available.
immunogenicity. Toxoids can be used as
vaccines.
7. Exotoxins are extremely immunogenic. Endotoxins show weak immunogenicity.
They trigger the humoral responsiveness Endotoxins don’t produce antitoxins.
(antibodies target the toxins). By
stimulation of the immune system,
exotoxins secrete antitoxins to neutralize
the toxin.
8. Enzymes are hyaluronidase, Exnzymes are catalase, fibrolysin, IgA / IgG
collagenase, certain protease, nuclease, proteases
neuraminidase, certain protease,
phospholipase A.
9. Precipitation, ELISA-based methods, Detected by Limulus lysate assay test.
neutralization.
10.

63. Difference between Heterokaryotic and Dikaryotic

S.No. Heterokaryotic Dikaryotic

1. Mycelium containing two genetically Mycelium for spores containing two sexual
different nucleus per cell is called compatible nucleate per cell is known as
heterokaryotic. dikaryotic the secondary mycelium consists
of binucleated cells and develop by fusion
of two uni nucleated
cells.
2. In heterokaryotic cell all nuclei are Common in basidiomycotina fungi. the
independent of each other and the binucleate cell of a secondary mycelium
characteristics of individual depend divide to produce daughter binucleated
upon the proportior of each kind of cells by the simultaneous division of two
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 genes present within the cell this is one nuclei. The basidia develop from such
of the methods of variability in some binucleate cell of the secondary mycelium.
fungi.
3. Example heterokaryotic condition has Example the dikaryotic mycelium of
been demonstrated in many plant Puccinia graminis tritici
pathogenic fungi as such as Fusarium
solani, Rhizoctonia solani, Botrytis
cinerea, Phytophthora infestans.

64. Difference between Physiologically and Ecologically Obligate Parasite

S.No. Physiologically Obligate Parasites Ecologically Obligate Parasites

1. The rust or obligate organisms which Those rust/obligate organisms which
failed to grow in even most complex failed in nature to grow saprophytically(due
media were known as physiologically to lack of competitive saprophytic ability)
obligate parasites but could be grown auxenically were
calledl ecologically obligate parasites
Example- Melampsora lini

65. Difference between Symbiosis and Synergism

S.No. Symbiosis Synergism

1. Association between two unlike An association of two or more organisms
organisms including parasitismacting at one time and affecting exchange
mutualism and communalism is known which one of them alone does not make is
as symbiosis the two organisms beknown known as synergism. The greater given
as symbiosis. simultaneously than would result from
other alone it is an effect produced by two
species together that need the could
produce alone.
2. Examples - Symbiotic nitrogen fixation Examples - Increasing the severity of a
(bacteria and legume root nodule), disease, also increased pesticide activity in
mycorrhizal association, etc. chemical mixtures nematode and fungus
interaction in disease etc.

66. Difference between Synergism and Antagonism

S.No. Synergism Antagonism

1. An association of a two or more A Relationship between different
organisms acting at one time and organisms in which one, partially or
effecting at change which one of them completely inhibits the growth of another or
alone does not make is known as kills it is known as antagonism. Usually
synergism. applied to the effect of a toxic metaboliets
of one organism on another.antagonism is

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 a general term used to denote harmful effect
of biotic environment on a livingorganisms
the mechanism of antagonism could be
competition, antibiosis,
exploitation, etc.
2. Examples - Increasing the severity of a Example - Trichoderma viride and
disease, also increased pesticide activity Rhizoctonia solani or Sclerotium rolfsii
in chemical mixtures nematode and interaction.
fungus interaction in disease etc.

67. Difference between Active Dissemination and Passive Dissemination

S.No. Active Dissemination Passive Dissemination

1. Active or autonomous dissemination ofa The passive dissemination of a plant
bacteria, fungi, virus and nematodes pathogen is accomplished through the
accomplished through the agency of agency of members of animal kingdom
soil, seed and plant organ during normal (man, insect, nematode, farm and wind,
agronomic operations. animal, bird, etc.) and air and water fungi.

2. A few pathogen as nematode, fungal Most plant pathogen are disseminated by

zoospores and bacteria can move very passive method.
short distance on their own from one
plant to another. There is no major role
for external agencies like insects, wind
etc in this type of dispersal.

68. Difference between Disease Triangle and Disease Pyramid

S.No. Disease Triangle Disease Pyramid

1. The three important components of a Time is important in many ways for plant
plant disease - a susceptible host, a disease - development. Adding time to the
virulent and aggressive pathogen and a disease triangle as a fourth dimension gives
favourable environment. The three a disease- pyramid or a disease tetrahedron.
components constitute the traditional The effect of a time on a disease
disease triangle. development becomes apparent when we
consider the importance of time of year
(that is the climatic condition and stage of a
growth when host and pathogen may
coexist), the duration and frequency of a
favourable temperature and rain, the time of
appearance of the vector, the duration of a
cycle of a particular disease the earliness
and the lateness of maturity
of host, etc.

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 2.

69. Difference between Inoculum Potential and Disease Potential

S.No. Inoculum Potential Disease Potential

1. Inoculum potential is the energy growth Diease potential is concerned with the
of a parasite available for infection of a condition of the host.
host at the source of host organ to be
infected.
2. Inoculum potential is an important factor Due to unfavourable environments poor or
in infection. It includes not only the unbalanced nutrition, susceptible stages of
number of infecting propagules per unit growth etc.,the host may be predisposed to
area of the host tissue but also their attack by the pathogen.This process is
aggressiveness.It is a measure of the different from suspectibilty which as
biological energy available for the generally determined.
colonization of a host.
3. Inoculum Potential = Inoculum Density Disease Potential = Proneness ×
× Capacity Susceptibilty

70. Diffference bewteen Inoculation and Inoculum Potential

S.No. Inoculation Inoculum Potential
1. The pathogen or its parts that can cause Inoculum potential is the energy of a growth
infection, the portion of individual of a parasite available for infection at the
pathogen that are brought into contact surface of a host organ to be infected.
with the host is known as inoculum.

2. Inoculum in a bacteria are cells, in avirus Inoculum Potential = Inoculum Density ×

particle itself, in nematode itself, eggs or Capacity
cyst, in fungi vegetative hyphae,
spores, etc.

71. Diffference bewteen Elements of Epidemic and Components of Epidemic

183
S.No. Elements of Epidemic Components of Epidemic
1. Plant disease epidemics develop as a Epidemic developed as a consequence of
result of a timely combination of five interaction of the population of the two
factors such as susceptible host plant, a components - host and a pathogen, as
virulent pathogen and the favourable influenced by environment and human
environment conditions are fairly a long interference over time. The interaction of a
period of time. Besides human activities host and pathogen produce the third
may also help to initiate and develop component - disease. Each of the three
epidemic. These components are known primary components of epidemic (host,
as element of epidemics. pathogen and disease) consists of sub
component. these for host are for
example: annual/perennial/tree; its growth
stages.
Subcomponents of pathogen are:
pathogenicity, virulence, sporulation,
dispersal and survival.
Subcomponents of disease include:
infection, pathogenesis, lesion formation,
infectiousness, spread, multiplication and
survival.

72. Diffference bewteen Seedling Plant Resistance and Adult Plant Resistance

S.No. Seedling Plant Resistance Adult Plant Resistance

1. Seedling plant resistance detected during Adult plant resistance is resistance in adult
the early stages of a plant development. plants that follow susceptibility in a young
Resistance expressed at the seedling plants ,particular seedling. Adult plant
stage remains effectice only while the resistance detected at post seedling stage of
plant is young. Resistance expressed at the development. This may be assessed at a
the stage of development may or may not single time or as its frequently the cases
be expressed in the post seedling stages. over the course of a disease epidemic.
Infection type responses are typically Field resistance often equated with the
determined on a seedling plants and adult plant resistance is considered to be
responses thus detected are usually quantitatively inherited, non specific and
manifest throughout the life of a plant. probably affected by several mechanism.
This resistance is almost certainly vertical
and was lost when the resistance genes
were matched by virulent races of
pathogen.
Some specific resistance genes, such as
gene Sr 2 in wheat giving adult plant
resistance to Puccinia graminis, Lr 13 In
wheat giving adult plant resistance to P.
recondita and R11-R14 in wheat giving
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 adult plant resistance to P. striiformis.

73. Difference between Gene Pyramiding and Gene Deployment

S.No. Gene Pyramiding Gene Deployment

1. Incorporation of two or more majorgenes Planned geographical distribution of major
in a variety for specific resistance to a gene for specific resistance to disease for
pathogen is known as gene varietal development and production.
pyramiding.
2. All major genes are incorporated in a A number of genes with similar effect used
single cultivar. for control of prevalent races.
3. Provides protection against several new Helps in preventing disease and
races that may develop in the pathogen. maintaining the diversity of major genes in
different geographical areas.

74. Difference between Biotic and Abiotic Stress

S.No. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress

1. The stress caused by biological agent or When the stress is caused by environmental
factors such as disease, insects, and factor or non biologicalfactors it is known
parasitic weeds is known as Biotic as Abiotic stress.
stress.
2. In general biotic stress factors may In general abiotic stress factors do not
create an epidemic condition and cause create an epidemic condition.
much more damage.
3. They may be infectious. They are not infectious.
4. Examples - Blast of Rice Examples - Khaira disease of Rice

75. Difference between Slow Epiphytotics and Rapid Epiphytotics

S.No. Slow Epiphytotics Rapid Epiphytotics

1. Occurs in perennial long lived plants Mostly occurs in annual crops.
such as fruit trees.
2. Pathogen is systemic. Non-systemic pathogen.
3. Most of the characters of a simpleCharacters of a compound interest disease
interest disease are found. are found.
4. The pathogens multiply slowly. Pathogen is having rapid multiplication
rates.
5. Low death rate. High birth rate.
6. Crop sanitation is best method of More affected by environment.
control. Eg., Late blight of potato & blue mold of
tobacco

76. Difference between SAR and ISR

185
S.No. SAR ISR
1. Plastic in nature Elastic in nature
2. Induced by mild strain of pathogen and Mediated by saprophytes and plant
chemical growth promoting rhizobacteria
3. Salicylic acid pathway is involved Salicylic acid, jasmonic acid and ethylene
are involved.
4. Related to resistance against pathogen. Related to resistance against insects and
pathogens.
5.

77. Difference between CCC-DNA and Chromosomal DNA

S.No. CCC-DNA Chromosomal DNA

1. Covalently closed circular DNA is a In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA
special DNA Structure that arises during molecule is packaged into thread-like
propagation of some viruses in the cell structures called chromosomes. Each
nucleus and may remain permanently chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
there. It is ds-DNA that originates in a coiled many times around proteins called
linear form that is ligated by means of histones that support its structure.
DNA ligase to a covalently closed ring.
In most cases, transcription of viral DNA
can occur from the circular from only.
The cccDNA of viruses is also known as
episomal DNA or occasionally as a
minichromosome.
2. Found in prokaryotes Found in eukaryotes
3. cccDNA is present in cytoplasm Chromosomal-DNA present inside nucleus
4. Not associated with histone proteins Associated with histone protein

78. Difference between DNA and cDNA

186
S.No. DNA cDNA
1. DNA refers to a type of nucleic acid, cDNA refers to the DNA that issynthesized
consisting of a double helix, which is held using messenger RNA as the template.
by the hydrogen bonds between the
purines and pyrimidines in the two chains.
2. Refers to deoxyribonucleic acid. Refers to complementary DNA.
3. Synthesized from the existing genomes. Synthesized from the cytosolic mRNA.
4. Synthesized during DNA replication by Synthesized during reverse transcription
the action of DNA polymerase. by the action of reverse transcriptase.
5. Double stranded in nature. Single stranded in nature.
6. Consists of both coding and non coding Only consists of the coding regions or the
sequences of an organism. exons.
7. Contains a large number of base pairs. Contains a few base pair compared to
DNA.
8. Can be used to produce genomic libraries. Can be used to produce cDNA libraries.
9. The total DNA of an organism is called as The total cDNA of an organism is called
the genome. the transcriptome.

79. Difference between Introns and Exons

S.No. Introns Exons

1. Introns are the DNA segments which donot Exons are the DNA segments which encode
encode any amino acid sequence in the a part of an amino acid sequence of a
coding region. complete protein.
2. Belong to the non coding DNA. Belong to the coding DNA.
3. Considered as the bases located between Considered as the bases which encode an
two exons. amino acid sequence of a protein.
4. Found in eukaryotes. Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
5. Stay in the nucleus by splicing out from Leave the nucleus to the cytoplasm after
the mRNA primary transcript during the production of the mature mRNA.
mRNA processing inside nucleus.
6. Found in DNA and mRNA primary Found in both DNA and mRNA.
transcript.
7. The sequences are less conserved. The sequences are highly conserved.

80. Difference between Yeast Artificial Chromosome (YACs) and Bacterial Artificial
Chromosome (BAC)

S.No. Yeast Artificial Chromosome ( YACs) Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC)

1. Yeast artificial chromosomes are A bacterial artificial chromosome is an
genetically engineered chromosomes engineered DNA molecule, used to clone
derived from the DNA of the yeast, DNA segment in bacterial cells (E. coli).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
2. YAC’s are used for cloning very large These vectors are used to clone the DNA
( 1000-2000kb) DNA segments. inserts upto 300kb.
3. They are inefficient. They are inefficient.
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 4. Unlike BAC library, it is not so hard to It is very hard to construct BAC library.
construct YAC library.
5. They are unstable. They are more stable.
6. They tend to contain scrambled inserts, They contain pure inserts.
i.e., composites of DNA fragments from
more than one site.
7. The linear YACs, which tend to break The circular, super coiled BACs resist
under shearing forces. breakage.
8. They are hard to isolate. They are easy to isolate.

81. Difference between Trap and Decoy Crops

S.No. Trap Crop Decoy crop

1. A Trap crop is a plant that attracts Decoy Crop is a plant that stimulates
agricultural pests, usually insects from germination of seeds of a parasitic plant such
nearby main crop. It can save the main as witchweed (Striga spp.), but is not
crop from decimation by pests without susceptible to infection by the parasitic plant;
the use of pesticides.The logic is simple; it helps reduce soil weed seed bank (seed
saving the main crop by providing the populations) of the parasite in soil so a
pests with a crop that's more of their susceptible crop can be planted with less
choice & isn't much expensive to burn a interference by the parasitic plants.
hole in the pocket of the farmer,thereby
saving the crop from pest attack without
the use of pesticides.
2. Trap crops act as hosts. Decoy crops act as stimulators.
3. Trap crops are susceptible to the Decoy crops are not susceptible to the
concerned pests. concerned pest.
4. Examples- Alfalfa planted in strips Example- Planting Celosia argentea in
among cotton, to draw away lygus bugs. sorghum plantations between the sorghum
rows.

82. Difference between Cybrid and Hybrid

S.No. Cybrid Hybrid

1. In certain cases, only the cytoplasmic Somatic hybridization is a technique which
fusion occurs which may be followed by allows the manipulation of cellular genomes
the loss of any one of the nucleus. Thus the by protoplast fusion, as a result ofsomatic
cell becomes uninucleated and such a hybridisation, the product occurredis known
fusion product is known as the cybrid or as somatic hybrids.
heteroplast.
2. Cybrids in contrast to conventional By using a protoplast fusion technology, it
hybrids, possesses a nucleus genomefrom possible to fuse two genotypically different
only one parent but cytoplamsmic gene. by protoplast to obtain para sexual hybrid
protoplast.

83. Difference between Primary & Secondary Pollutants

S.No. Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants

188
 1. Air pollutant emitted directly from a Air pollutants formed in the atmosphere as
source into the atmosphere. a result of the chemical or physical
interactions between the primary
pollutants themselves or between the
primary pollutants and other atmospheric
components.
2. Sulfure dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide Photochemical oxidants (ozone, nitrogen
(CO), Nitrogen oxides (NO3) and dioxide, sulfur trioxide) and secondary
particulate matter (PM). particulate matter.
3. Chemical reactants characterized with a Chemical products, highly reactive when
direct pollution effect on living beings and photoactivation is involved in the chemical
ecosystem, and with an indirect effect process of their formation.
through the formation of secondary
pollutants.
4. Direct control through the reduction of Complicated control process:
anthropogenic emissions understanding and interrupting the
chemical reactions leading to their
generations

84. Difference Yellow Rain and Acid Rain

S.No. Yellow Rain Acid Rain

1. A powdery, poisonous yellow substance Normal, unpolluted rain wounded contain
reported as dropping from the air in South- almost pure water in w _ hich there would
East Asia and found to be the excrement of be dissolved some CO2, some NH3
wild honey bees contaminated by a fungal originating from organic matter and
+
toxin. The report of “yellow rain” in remote existing in HO as NH4 , & varying but
sections of jungle in Laos (1975- 81), small amounts of cations ( Ca2+, Mg2+,
2-
_which resulted in more than 6,378deaths, K+, Na+) and anions (Cl-, SO4 ).
has been viewed as use of T-2 (The skin- Although the pH of pure water is a neutral
irritating factor) mycotoxin as a biological pH 7.0, the pH of normal, “unpolluted”
weapon. rain is usually pH 5.6, in other words, rain
is already acidic. Such rain, however, is
considered normal & only when the pH of
rain or snow is below pH 5.6, its
considered acidic (Acid
rain).

85. Difference between Cross Protection and Induced Resistance

S.No. Cross Protection Induced Resistance

1. First organism (mild strain) in the plantacts The biotic or abiotic stress initiates the
directly (as an antagonist) against the defense process where by the host plant
second organism (virulent strain of the itself inhibits the challenger.
pathogen.
2. Mild strain acts by any one or a It may be any combination of the forms

189
 combination of antibiosis,competition for of active self defense of plants against
sites,nutrients,hyphal interference or pathogens.
parasitism of the second organism by the
first within the host tissue.

86. Difference between Survey, Surveillance and Vigilance

S.No. Survey Surveillance Vigilance
1. Survey can be defined as a When survey is repeatedly done Vigilance can be difined as a
means of surveillance, to to monitor pests and diseases multiple survey conducted to
get a comprehensive view with an emphasis to minimise monitor the spread and build-
on inspection, examination loss, then it becomes up of a pathogen with an aim
and identification. surveillance. to combat it if there
is a need.
2. Such a survey can be Surveillance can be defined as A good vigilance should be
conducted either when the a constant watch or observation maintained to keep ahead of
incidence has occured or kept over the disease the pathogen.
later. development.

87. Difference between Aerobiological Survey and Climatological Survey

S.No. Aerobiological Survey Climatological Survey

1. Aerobiology deals with the study of micro- Physical parameters have profound
organisms present in the atmosphere and influence on the disease development.
their interaction with the environment, Accepting that matching host and
plants and animals including man. There are pathogen occur, it is then the weather that
various methods and instrumentation decides the disease development. Every
available for aerobiological research andhas plant disease has its own narrow range of
been dealt by Gregory (1973). Once a weather requirements that is ideal for its
relationship between the spores caught and development. Hence, occurrence of an
the severity on ground is established, then endemic can be predicted by justcritically
samplers can be fixed in remote areas and studying the weather chart.
by analysis severity on ground can be
predicted.
2. Such aerobiological survey have great Climatological survey helps to make an
applications in plant disease prediction. intelligent guess on the possible disease
occurrence.

88. Difference between Plasmid-DNA and Chromosomal DNA

S.No. Plasmid-DNA Chromosomal DNA

1. Plasmid DNA is the extra-chromosomal Chromosomal DNA is the genomic DNA
DNA of bacteria. of living organisms.
2. Plasmid DNA is not important for the Chromosomal DNA is extremely
survival of bacteria. important for their survival.
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 3. Plasmid DNA is smaller in size. Chromosomal DNA is larger in size.
4. Provides extra characteristics to bacteria Provides all information for the regular
for survival under harsh environmental well-being of bacteria.
conditions.
5. Bacteria have a variable number of There is only one chromosome in bacteria.
plasmid DNA.
6. Plasmid DNA is always circular. Chromosomal DNA can be either linear or
circular.
7. Plasmid DNA is always double stranded. Chromosomal DNA can be single-stranded
or double-stranded.
8. Plasmid DNA is not packaged with Chromosomal DNA is packaged with
histone proteins. histone proteins.
9. Plasmid DNA do not contain introns or Chromosomal DNA contains both introns
vital genes. and exons as well as all vital genes.

89. Difference between Vegetative and Allelic Incompatibility

S.No. Vegetative Incompatibility Allelic Incompatibility

1. In many fungi, vegetative hyphae of the When hyphae from two colonies that belong
same colony or of two colonies of the to different post-fusion incompatibility
same species, coming in contact with group meet, the hyphae fuse but
each other, often fuse and the fusion is subsequently the protoplasm in the two
called hyphal anastomosis. If, however, fused hyphal compartments and some
hyphae coming in contact not belong to adjacent ones is destroyed and a
different strains of the fungus but of the demarcation zone of sparse and sometimes
same species, no fusion of hyphae takes dark mycelium is produced. Such post
place and the phenomenon is called fusion incompatibility is the result of
vegetative incompatibility. interaction between two alleles of the same
vegetative compatibility locus and is called
allelic incompatibility.

90. Difference between Plasmogamy and Karyogamy

S.No. Plasmogamy Karyogamy

1. Plasmogamy is the fusion of two hyphal Karyogamy is the fusion of two haploid
protoplasts. nuclei in fungi
2. First phase of reproduction is sexual. Second phase of reproduction is sexual.
3. Two nuclei are brought closer with in the
Both the nuclei takes place with in same
same cell. cell.
4. Produces a dikaryotic cell. Produces a cell containing a diploid
nucleus.
5. Generates a cell containing two haploid Generates a cell containing a single diploid
nuclei. nucleus.
6. Zygote or oospore formation is absent. Zygote or oospore having 2N number of
chromosome is formed.
7. Followed by karyogamy. Followed by meiosis.

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 91. Difference between Elicitors and Suppressors
S.No. Elicitors Suppressors
1. Binding components complimentary to the Suppressors are chemical substances,
host lectins present on the surface of the glycoproteins in nature present in the
pathogen are mostly termed as elicitors fungal mycelium.
(N.T. Keen, 1975).
2. Elicitors are cell wall components of the Suppressors are capable of suppressing
pathogen which are capable of inducing phytoalexin synthesis and hypersensitive
phytoalexin synthesis binding sites response in the hosts, induced by the
(lectins) on the host surface. pathogen or elicitors isolated from cell
walls of the pathogens.
3. Elicitors can convert a compatible Suppressors can convert an incompatible
association into incompatible one (no association into a compatible one (disease
disease). appear).
4. Their main function include synthesis and Their main function is to delay or prevent
accumulation of phytoalexins, action of elicitors.
hypersensitive necrosis, production of
glycosyl hydrolases capable of attacking
surface polymers of pathogens, the
synthesis of proteins that inhibit
degradative enzymes produced by
pathogens, the production of activated
oxygen species (oxygen burst) and the
modification of plant cell walls by
deposition of callose, hydroxyproline-rich
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 glycoproteins and/or legnin.

V. Differences between different Instruments and Techniques used in Plant

Pathology
1. Difference between Continuous Culture and Culture

S.No. Continuous Culture Batch Culture

1. A technique used to grow micro organisms A technique used for the production of
in a limited supply of nutrients, which microbes or microbial products in which
declines when these are used up, or some nutrients are continuously supplied to the
other factor becomes limiting fermenter
2. A closed system An open system
3. Internal environment is changed with the Environment is not changed during the
progression of the fermentation process fermentation process
4. Nutrients are added at the beginning of the Nutrients are continuously added
process ; thus they are a limiting factor throughout the process; thus they are not a
limiting factor
5. Lag, log, and stationary phases occur Lag, and log phases are maintained
6. Whole process is stopped when the Process continues and the products are
products are formed continuously removed from the fermenter
7. Yield is low Yield is high
8. Turn over rate is low Turn over rate is high
9. Suitable for the production of secondary Suitable for the production of primary
metabolites such as antibiotics metabolites such as organic acids and
amino acids
10. Labor demand is less Labor demand is more
11. Chance of contamination is less Chance of contamination is more
12. Large fermenters are used Small fermenters are used

2. Difference between Light Microscope and Electron Microscope

S.No. Light Microscope Electron Microscope

1. Illuminating source is the light. Illuminating source is the beam of
electrons.

193
2. Specimen preparation takes usually few Specimen preparation takes usually
minutes to hours. takes few days.
3. Live or Dead specimen may be seen. Only Dead or Dried specimens are seen.
4. Condenser, Objective and eye piece lenses All lenses are electromagnetic.
are made up of glasses.
5. It has low resolving power (0.25µm to It has high resolving power (0.001µm),
0.3µm). about 250 times higher than light
microscope.
6. It has a magnification of of 500X to It has a magnification of 100,000X to
1500X. 300,000X.
7. The object is 5µm or thicker. The object is 0.1µm or thinner.
8. Image is Colored. Image is Black and White.
9. Vacuum is not required. Vacuum is essential for its operation.
10. There is no need of high voltage electricity. High voltage electric current is required
(50,000 Volts and above).
11. There is no cooling system. It has a cooling system to take out heat
generated by high electric current.
12. Filament is not used. Tungsten filament is used to produce
electrons.
13. Radiation risk is absent. There is risk of radiation leakage.
14. Specimen is stained by colored dyes. Specimen is coated with heavy metals in
order to reflect electrons.
15. Image is seen by eyes through ocular lens. Image is received in Zinc Sulphate
Fluorescent Screen or Photographic
Plate.
16. It is used for the study of detailed gross It is used in the study of external
194
 internal structure. surface, ultra structure of cell and very
small organisms.
17.

3. Difference between Simple Microscope and Compound Microscope

S.No. Simple Microscope Compound Microscope

1. Simple microscope is used at a basic Due to an added lens to a compound one,

level, where there is no rigorous professionals use this for research purposes.
requirement of research.
2. There is single lens in simple microscope. There are 3 to 5 objective lenses in a
compound which helps in magnifying algae,
fungi and bacterium.
3. Has only one lens for magnifying objects. Has two sets of lenses for magnifying
195
 objects: eyepiece lens and objective lenses.
4. Its total magnification is limited to the Its total magnification is the multiplication
magnification of the single lens used. of the eyepiece and objectivemagnifications,
hence a highermagnification.

5. Condenser lens is absent. Condenser lens is present which is used to

adjust the intensity of light for magnification
of object.
6. The usage of course, hooks, and knobs is The use of knobs is much, which help in
not that much. focusing and as a result, a clear and concise
image is seen.
7. Light source is natural Illuminator is a source of light which is
helpful when small, minutest pieces needed
to be seen.
8. Stand is small, hollow cylindrical attached Arm is curved and is used to hold the
to the base and is used to hold the microscope.
microscope.
9. Mirror is concave-reflecting type. Mirror is plane at one side and concave at
other side.
10. Has only one adjustment screw that is used Has coarse adjustment screw (for rapid
to move the limb up and down for focusing focusing an object) and fine adjustment
an object. screw (for fine and sharp focusing).
11. Can only be used in simple ways such as Has a wide range of use such as in studying
enlarging small letters while reading. the structure of different objects, e.g. details
of cells in living organisms.

4. Difference between the Principles of Different Microscopy

S.No. Type Principle Requirements Live cells Fixed Cells

1. Bright field Absorbption of Light absorbing stains No Yes
visible light. on a thin specimen.
2. Flurosence Emission of light Cellular molecules Yes Yes
by flurosence labelled with
molecule. fluroscent proteins.
3. Phase Contrast Variations in Relatively flat cells Yes Yes
thickness and
refractive index
within specimen.
4. Differential Gradient of None; may be used on Yes Yes
Interference refractive index thick, unstained
Contrast (DIC) across the specimens.
specimen.
5. Dark field Scattering of Relatively thin, Yes Yes
light. simple speciemen.
6. Polarization Differences in Birefringent (highly Yes Yes
refractive index ordered along a linear
for perpendicular axis) elements in
beams of specimen.
polarized light.

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 5. Difference between Simple Microscope and Compound Microscope

S.No. Moist Heat Sterilization Dry Heat Sterilization

1. Sterilization involving lower temperature Sterilization involving the dry air of higher
and high-pressure of water (steam) is temperature and for the longer time is known
known as Moist Heat Sterilization. as Dry Heat Sterilization.
2. As the name says, it needs steam and There is no use of steam and water.
water.
3. Coagulating protein of the microbes very Oxidation of the protein and other chemical
effectively. bonds present in microbes.
4. This process is performed under pressure. It is performed on direct flame.
5. Autoclaving and Boiling come under Incerination, Bunsen burner (flame), hot air
moist heat sterilization. oven and microwave comes under dry heat
sterilization.
6. Moist heat sterilization takes less time. This process takes more time
comparatively.

6. Difference between Pour Plate Technique and Spread Plate Technique

S.No. Pour Plate Technique Spread Plate Technique

1. A plate prepared by mixing the inoculum A technique used to count or isolate bacterial
with the cooled but still molten medium colonies on the surface of the agar.
before pouring the latter into the Petri dish.

2. Molten agar is poured on the inoculum in Inoculum is spread on the solidified agar on
a Petri dish and gently swirled. a plate by a spreader.
3. Amount of inoculum is 1 ml. Amount of inoculum is 0.1 ml.
4. Colony growth is in and on the medium. Colony growth is only on the surface of the
medium.
5. More area to grow. Less area to grow.
6. Count the number of colony-forming Isolate specific clonal colonies.
bacteria in a sample.
7. Allows the identification of bacteria as Even distribution of colonies.
aerobes, anaerobes or facultative aerobes;
allows the growth of microaerophiles.
8. Picking a colony may interrupt other Does not allow the growth of
colonies. microaerophiles.

7. Difference between Streak Plate Technique and Spread Plate Technique

S.No. Streak Plate Technique Spread Plate Technique

1. Streak plate is a technique that is used to Spread plate is a technique that is usedto
isolate and purify bacteria. enumerate and quantifybacteria colonies in
a sample.
2. Inoculating loop or cotton swab as an A sterile spreader is needed in spread plate
inoculating tool is used in streak plate. techniqueas an inoculating tool.
3. A loopful of the sample is the quantity 0.1 ml or 1 ml of the sample are the
that draws from the sample in streak plate. quantities used in spread plate.
4. Use of micropipette is not necessary. Inoculum is drawn out from the sample by
using a micropipette.
197
 5. Inoculation loop is flamed until it Spreader is dipped in 95% alcohol and
becomes red hot. flamed until alcohol burns out and this is
repeated thrice at a time.
6. Inoculum introduces into a fresh medium Inoculum spreads evenly throughout the
by drawing zig-zag pattern lines in streak surface in the spread plate.
plate.

8. Difference between Selective Media and Differential Media

S.No. Selective Media Differential Media

1. Selective media refers to a type of growth Differential media refers to a type of
of selected micro organisms in the medium growth media that allows the differentiation
of closely- related
microorganisms
2. Used to isolate a particular strain of Used to identify and differentiate closely-
microorganisms related microorganisms
3. Use specific growth characteristics of a Use unique growth patterns of
particular microorganisms to select itfrom microorganisms to differentiate them from
the others others
4. Only allow the growth of a single micro Allow several closely related
organism in the medium microorganisms to grow in the medium
5. Do not use indicators Use indicators

9. Difference between Solid Media and Liquid Media

S.No. Solid Media Liquid Media
1. Solid media contains all the solidifying Liquid media do not contain solidifying
agents like Agar-Agar, gelatin, etc. agent.
2. Solid media are useful for pure culture Liquid media are useful for mortality
isolation, identification, subculturing, study, mass culture preparation etc.
Inhibition test, etc.
3. Examples are Potato Dextrose Agar, Examples are Potato Dextrose Broth,
Nutrient Agar Medium, etc. Nutrient Broth, etc.

10. Difference between Nutrient Agar and Nutrient Broth

S.No. Nutrient Agar Nutrient Broth

1. Nutrient agar refers to a general purpose Nutrients broth refers to a general purpose,
medium that supports the growth of a wide liquid medium that allows the growth of
range of non-fastidious organisms. fastidious organisms.
2. Consists of 2% of agar Does not contain agar
3. Composed of peptone, beef extract, yeast Composed of peptone, beef extract and
extract, agar, and sodium chloride sodium chloride
4. A solid medium A liquid medium
5. Used to grow non-fastidious organisms Used to grow fastidious organisms
6. Poured into petri dishes Poured into test tubes and culture bottles

198
 7. Used for colony formation of micro Used to maintain stocks of micro
organisms organisms

11. Difference between Gel Electrophoresis and SDS-PAGE

S.No. Gel Electrophoresis SDS PAGE

1. Technique used to separate fragments of An analytical technique used to separate
macromolecules such as DNA,RNA and charged molecules based on the size.
proteins based on their size and charge.
2. Composition is equal throughout the Has two gels with different
whole gel; made up of agarose. concentrations; made up of
polyacrylamide.
3. Horizontal run. Vertical run.
4. Sets as it cools. Sets by chemical reaction.
5. Pore size is not uniform; higher theagarose Pore size is uniform; the ratio of
concentration,smaller than pore size acrylamide to bisacrylamide determines
the pore size
6. Concentration is 0.5-2% Concentration is 6-15%
7. Separates 50-20000bp nucleic acids. Separates 5-250000 Da proteins.
8. Generally run under native conditions. Generally run under denaturing
conditions.
9. Simple preparation. A complex process.
10. Stained with ethidium bromide. Stained with coomassie blue staining or
silver staining.

12. Difference between Direct and Indirect ELISA

S.No. Direct ELISA Indirect ELISA

1. Steps involved→ Steps involved→
(a)antiobodies to the virus (a)virus preparation or sap
(b))virus preparation or sap (b)antiobodies to the virus
(c) antibodies to the virus to which (c) antibodies against the antibody protein of
molecules of a particular enzyme have the animal in which the virus antibody was
been attached produced
(d) a substrate for the enzyme i.e., a (d) a substrate for the enzyme
substance that the enzyme can
breakdown and cause chage in colour
2. Antibody or antigen is immobilized on a Antigen is bound to bottom of a microtiter
solid surface plate
3. Amount of bound antigen or by antibody Specific antibody (primary antibody) is
respectively is detected by color changes added that binds to the antigen
in the case of enzyme-linked detection An enzyme-linked secondary antibody is
added.
Intensity of colour produced is
proporational to the amount of bound
primary antibody

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 13. Difference between PCR and Southern Blotting

S.No. Particulars PCR Southern Blotting

1 Discovery Kary Mullies (1983) E.M.Southern (1975)
2 Purpose Amplification and specific Confirmation of specific DNA
sequencing of DNA and RNA (by fragments.
RT-PCR)
3 Steps 1.Denaturing 1.Depurination
Included 2.Annealing 2.Denaturation
3.Extension 3.Neutrilisation
4.Hybridization
4. Enzyme used Taq polymerase
5 Hybridisation No hybridisation Hybridisation which is known as
DNA probe
6 Radioactive No Yes
detection

14. Difference between Northern, Southern & Western Blotting

S.No. Southern Blotting Northern Blotting Western Blotting

1. A procedure for identifying A procedure used to detect A blotting procedure usedto
specific sequences of DNA specific sequences of RNA by identify specific aminoacid
hybridization with sequences in proteins.
complementary DNA
2. Developed by Edward Developed by Alwine and Developed by Georgestark’s
M.Southern in 1975 colleagues in 1979 group at Stanford university
in 1979
3. Detects specific DNA Detects specific RNA Detects specific proteins
sequence sequences
4. Involves Agrose gelInvolves denaturing Involves SDS PAGE
electrophoresis formaldehyde agarose gel
5. Involves capillary transfer Involves capillary transfer Involves electric transfer
6. Uses DNA probes Uses cDNA probes Uses Primary and
secondary antibodies
7. Used to identify specific gene Used in gene expression Used in disease diagnosis
sequences and in DNA analysis
fingerprinting

15. Difference between Native PAGE and SDS-PAGE

S.No. Native PAGE SDS-PAGE

1. Separation is based upon charge,size and Separation is based upon the molecular
shape of macro-molecules weight of proteins
2. Useful for separation and/or purification The most common method for
of mixture of proteins. determining molecular weight of proteins.

200
3. This was the original mode of Very useful for checking purity of protein
electrophoresis. samples.

201
 New
Phosphine and methyl bromide as fumigants: advantages (highlighted) and disadvantages.

Phosphine Methyl bromide

Easy to transport Refillable cylinders are expensive to transport

Difficult to apply, requiring special equipment

Easy to apply
and skill

Good penetration and distribution Distribution rather poor

Taint, residues and loss of viability in treated Sorption occurs and may cause taint, bromide
seeds are generally negligible residues and loss of viability in treated seeds

Slow acting, particularly at low temperatures Rapidly toxic and widely effective even at
and humidities* lower temperatures

Flammable: spontaneously explosive ignition

Non-flammable
can occur in some circumstances

High acute mammalian toxicity but low chronic Dangerous acute and chronic poison with
toxicity delayed symptoms

Fairly easy to detect Very easy to detect

Rapidly lost by leakage unless fumigation

space is well sealed and gas tight soon after Needs very good seeing before application
application

* Not recommended for use at temperatures below 12°C.

202
S.No. Characteristic Features Phomopsis species Phoma species
1. Mycelium Immersed, branched, septate, Immersed, branched, septate,
hyaline to pale brown hyaline to pale
brown
2. Conidiomata Eustromatic (true stroma—host Immersed, or semi-immersed,
tissue incorporated into the sometimes erumpent,
pycnidium), immersed, brown to unilocular, brown, globose,
dark brown, separate or separate or aggregated, mostly
aggregated and conflfluent, thin-walled pale- to medium-
globose, ampulliform or brown textura angularis
applanate (flflattened),
unilocular to multilocular
3. Ostioles Single or several in complex Single or several, central, not
conidiomata, circular, papillate
often papillate
4. Conidiophores Branched and septate at the base, Present in only two species
occasionally short, more
frequently multiseptate and
filiform, hyaline, formed from
inner cells of the locular walls
5. Conidiogenous cells Enteroblastic, phialidic, Enteroblastic, phialidic,
determinate, integrated, rarely integrated or discrete,
discrete, hyaline, cylindrical, ampulliform to doliform
aperature apical on long or short (barrel-shaped), hyaline,
lateral and main branches of the collarette minute, periclinalwall
conidiophores, collarette, markedly thickened
channel and periclinal thickening
minute
6. Conidia Two basic types, but in some Hyaline, aseptate or
species with intermediates occasionally singly septate,
between the two; alpha conidia thin-walled, often guttulate
hyaline, fusiform straight, (with oil droplets), ellipsoid,
usually biguttulate; beta conidia cylindrical, fusiform, pyriform
hyaline, filiform, straight or or globose
more often hamate(hooked),
egutullate (without guttules),
aseptate

203
S.No. Phomopsis species
Alpha-Conidia Beta-Conidia
1. Hyaline, fusiform straight, usually Hyaline, filiform, straight or more often
biguttulate hamate (hooked), egutullate (without
guttules), aseptate
2. 2.0 to 2.5 mm long by 5.8 to 6.0 mm wide 0.4 to 0.5 mm long by 18 to 22 mm wide

3.

S.No. Type of Colony Phomopsis species

W-Type G-Type
1. Surface view White, aerial hyphae, scattered A few aerial hyphae, white to grey
relatively large stroma, irregular and formed abundant relatively
pycnidial locules small pycnidial stroma with
irregular pycnidial locules
2. Reverse view Whitish and occasionally had pale Grey or brownish grey
pink, brown and or grey zones
3. Sporulation Both alpha and beta conidia formed Only alpha conidia formed on PDA
on PDA medium medium

4. Virulence Less virulent More virulent

204
S.No. Sunflower
Alternaria leaf spot Septoria leaf spot
1. Caused by Alternaria helianthi Caused by Septoria helianthi
2. Symptoms: Dark brown lesions on leaves Symptoms: Water-soaked circular or
surrounded by a yellow halo; lesions angular spots on leaves with a greasy,
coalesce and become irregularly shaped greenish appearance on lower leaves;
lesions are usually gray with a darker
and cause leaves to become blighted;
margin; some lesions may have a narrow
plant becomes defoliated and dies. yellow border; tiny black fungal fruiting
bodies (pycnidia) may be present in the
lesions.

3. Disease emergence favors hot weather Disease will develop rapidly during
and frequent rainfall. periods of moderate to warm weather with
high rainfall.
4. Characteristic muriform conidia are The diagnostic is the presence of black
produced by the conidiophore which is fruiting bodies (pycnidia) within the leaf
arranged in acropetal manner. spots.
5. Fungus may survive in crop debris or on Little is known about the survival and
suitable weed hosts; disease can be spread of the pathogen which causes the
transmitted through infested seed. disease; spores are believed to be spread
by splashing water.
6. Management: Prune out infected leaves; Management: Plant high quality seed
use adequate plant spacing to reduce which is free of diseases; rotate crop away
humidity around plants and promote from sunflower for a period of 3 years,
good air circulation; disease can be especially if overhead irrigation is used;
managed by application of appropriate fungicides are rarely required for the
foliar fungicide. treatment of Septoria leaf spot.

S.No. White Rust of Mustard

Local Infection Systemic Infection
1. Caused by Albugo candida Caused by Albugo candida and
Peronospora parasitica
205
 2. Local infection appears as pustules or Systemic infections result in abnormal
“blisters” filled with sporangia on leaves, growth, distortion, and sterility of flowers
smaller stems, and floral parts. Pustules or inflorescences. These abnormalities (or
hypertrophy) are known as stagheads and
measure approximately 1 to 2 mm in
consist mostly of thick-walled oospores.
diameter and are white or creamy yellow.
3.

S.No. Mating type of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

“a”-Cells α-Cells
1. “a” cells activate genes which produce a- Similarly, α cells activate genes which
factor and produce a cell surface receptor produce α-factor and produce a cell
(Ste2) which binds to α-factor and surface receptor (Ste3) which binds and
triggers signaling within the cell. “a” cells responds to a-factor, and α cells repress the
also repress the genes associated genes associated with being an “a”
with being an α cell. cell.

206
 2.

Two haploid yeast of opposite mating types secrete pheromones, grow projections and
mate.

Difference between generative, skeletal, or binding hyphae

S.No. In basidiomycete taxonomy, hyphae that comprise the fruiting body can be identified
as generative, skeletal, or binding hyphae
Generative hyphae Skeletal Hypae Binding Hyphae
1. Generative hyphae are Skeletal hyphae are of two Binding hyphae are thick-
relatively undifferentiated basic types - the classical walled and frequent
and can develop form is thick-walled and very branched. Often, they
reproductive structures. long and the other fusiform resemble deer antlers or
They may be embedded in skeletal hyphae unlike typical defoliated trees because of
mucilage or gelatinized skeletal hyphae these are the many tapering
materials. swollen centrally and often branches.
exceedingly broad, hence
giving the hypha a fusiform
shape.
2. Generative hyphae are Compared to generative Compared to generative
characterized by a thin cell hyphae, Skeletal hyphae are hyphae, binding hyphae
wall occasionally characterized by a long and have been shown to have a
developing slightly thick cell wall, but having few thicker cell wall and tend to
thickened walls, usually septa compared to generative be highly branched.
have greater number of septa hyphae and also clamp
and may or may not have connection is lacking.
clamp connections.
3.

207
 A - inflated generative hyphae; D - unbranched skeletal hypha E - highly branched ligative
B - non-inflated generative (binding) hypha
hyphae with clamp connections
C - generative hyphae without
clamp connections
4.

Difference between monomitic, dimitic, and trimitic hyphae

S.No. Based on the generative, skeletal and binding hyphal types, in 1932 E. J. H. Corner
applied the terms monomitic, dimitic, and trimitic to hyphal systems, in order to improve
the classification of polypores
Monomitic hyphae Dimitic Hypae Trimitic Hyphae
1. Monomitic, having hyphae Dimitic, having hyphae of Trimitic, having hyphae of
of one kind (generative two kinds (generative and three kinds (generative,
hyphae which are skeletal hyphae which are skeletal and binding (or
branched, septate, with or thick-walled, aseptate, and ligative) hyphae which are
without clamp- of limited length, with thin- aseptate, thick-walled,
connections, thin- to thick- walled apices, generally much branched, either
walled, and of unlimited unbranched but when Bovista-type with tapering
length; they give rise both terminal they can develop branches or coralloid; they
to other hyphal types and arboriform branching or bind the skeletal and
to the hymenium) taper) or generative and generative hyphae
binding (see below) together).
2.

monomitic hyphal system, dimitic hyphal system, with

with thick-walled generative and skeletal trimitic hyphal system, with
generative hyphae hyphae generative, skeletal and
ligative hyphae

dimitic hyphal system, with

generative and ligative
(binding) hyphae e.g.,
Laetiporus
3.

208
 4.

Difference between Edible and Poisonous Mushroom

S. No. Edible Mushroom Poisonous Mushroom

1. Edible mushrooms have smooth and On the contrary, poisonous mushrooms,
more or less white caps with no visible for instance, the toxic fly agaric has a
or noticeable raised warts or scales. different colored cap (usually red with
white spots) which has conspicuous scales
and raised lumps.
2. Most of the edible mushrooms have Poisonous species, however, have convex
bun-shaped or convex caps and caps while young and flattens as the
sometimes with a wide low-hump. mushroom matures.
Other edible mushrooms such as
chanterelles have caps that are concave
and wavy or even trumpet-shaped.
3. The cap of many edible mushrooms Toadstools or poisonous varieties do not
stretches from the stem as it grows have this ring around the stem.
developing a ring of tissue around the
stem also known as the annulus.
4. The base of the stem of edible On the other hand, many poisonous
mushrooms is narrow or not thick like mushrooms usually have a noticeably
the rest of the stalk. swollen base. The Amanita muscaria, for
instance, has a bulbous base.
5. The gills on the cap of a young edible On the contrary, poisonous mushrooms
mushroom cap are usually pink in have white gills that do not change colour
colour. However, the pink colour throughout their entire lifecycle.
changes as the mushroom mature to
brown or black.
6. You will find most of the edible The poisonous mushroom’s gills,
mushrooms with gills attached to the however, are attached to the stalk and will
cap and not to the stalk. remain there even after you’ve removed it
from the base.
7. When you cut the mushroom, it does not When you cut the mushroom, it turns either
stain green or purple. green or purple.
8. When you taste a piece of the mushroom, When you taste a piece of the mushroom,
it does not burn or sting the tongue. it burns or stings the tongue.
9. Edible mushrooms have pleasant odour. Poisonous mushrooms have bad odour.
10. It has sweet taste. It tastes bitter.
11. There is presence of worms. There is no presence of worms.
12. There is no scale on the cap. There is presence of scales on the cap.

209
Difference between Leaf Spots of Marigold caused by Alternaria, Cercospora and Septoria
S.No. Marigold
Alternaria Leaf Spot Cercospora Leaf Spot Septoria Leaf Spot
1. Caused by the fungus Caused by the fungus, Caused by the fungus,
Alternaria helianthi (leaf Cercospora Septoria tageticola.
spot), Alternaria tagetica megalopotamica.
(flower blight disease) and
Alternaria zinnae
(inflorescence blight).
2. एक अनमु ान के अनसु ार इस रोग के यह रोग, गेंदा के फूल की गणु वत्ता को र्ारत के मैरीगोल्ड रोपण क्षेत्र में, इस
पररणामस्वरूप फूल की उपज में 55- कम करता है और उपज के संदर्भ में रोग की गंर्ीरता लगर्ग 30-70%
60% तक की हानन होती है । आनथभक नक ु सान का कारण बनता है और यनद रोगज़नक़ के नलए
है। अनक ु ू ल पररनस्थनतयााँ होंगी तो यह
100 प्रनतशत तक पहचाँ सकती है।
2. अल्टरनेररया लीफ स्पॉट (अल्टरनेररया सकोस्पोरा पणभ धब्बा रोग के लक्षण रोग के लक्षण मख्ु य रूप से पनत्तयों
हेलियनथी) के लक्षणों के अनसु ार, पनत्तयों पर गोलाकार धब्बे के रूप में पर नदखाई देते हैं लेनकन ये डंठि
पनत्तयों पर र्रू े रंग के परिगलित नवकनसत होते हैं (लगर्ग 1/8 इचं (petiole), तने और बाह्यदिपंज
(necrotic) धब्बे बनते हैं, जो आकार का व्यास) नजनके कें द्र िाख-धूसि रंग (calyx) पर र्ी नवकनसत हो सकते
में बढ़ जाते हैं और परू े पणभ को संक्रमण के होते हैं जो गहरे र्रू े या लाल- हैं । संक्रनमत पौधों की परु ानी पनत्तयों
से क्षनतग्रस्त कर देते हैं नजसके बैंगनी सीमाओ ं से नघरे रहते हैं । पर छोटे, पानी से लथपथ वृत्ताकार
पररणामस्वरूप वनस्पनत के नवकास में धब्बे नदखाई देते हैं । इन धब्बों का
कमी आती है । कें द्र धसू र रंग में बदल जाता है और
पणभ धब्बा तथा पष्ु प झल ु सा रोग के बढ़ने पर गहरे र्रू े रंग का हो
रोग (अल्टरनेररया टैगेलटका) उच्च जाता है । धब्बों के कें द्रों में, कुछ
उपज वाली सगु नं धत गेंदे की नकस्मों के आसानी से नदखाई देने वाले गहरे र्रू े
पणू भ दोहन में एक प्रमख ु जैनवक बाधा रंग के , छोटे नबंदु जैसे संरचनाएं
बन गया है। संक्रमण के कारण, पत्ती का नदखाई देती हैं, नजन्हें नपननननडआ के
समय से पहले नगर जाना तथा अतं में रूप में जाना जाता है । कई धब्बों के
परू ा पौधा मर जाता है । नदखने के बाद, प्रर्ानवत पनत्तयााँ पीले
अल्टरनेररया ल़िन्ने से गेंदे रंग की हो जाती हैं जो बाद में र्रू े रंग
का पष्ु पक्रम दोष होता है नजसमें में बदलकर नसकुड जाती हैं और
पष्ु पक्रम पर लम्बे-लम्बे घाव बन जाते अंततः नगर जाती हैं।
हैं तथा पनत्तयों पर हल्के र्रू े से गहरे र्रू े
रंग के , बडे अननयनमत धब्बे क्षेत्र सनहत
नदखाई देते हैं।
.3. Characteristic muriform चाबक ु -जैसे (whip-like) इस रोग की नैदाननक नवशेषता पत्तों
conidia are brown, ovoid or कोनननडया, लघु कॉननडीओफोरस के धब्बों के र्ीतर काले फलने वाले
obclavate, with or without पर अके ले पैदा होते हैं। नपंडों (नपननननडआ) की उपनस्थनत
210
 beak, also have elongated, कोननडीओफोरस गहरे र्रू े रंग के , है।
beak-like apical cells, पटलमय या अपटलमय
geniculate, often produced in (aseptate), सीधे या लचीले होते हैं
acropetal chains and नजनमें घटु ने की तरह जोडदार झक
ु ाव
sometimes solitary, may have होता है ।
longitudinal as well as
transverse septa, some have
smooth and some have
roughened walls.
4. Management is common for all three spot diseases:-

• Keep leaves dry.

• Plant resistant cultivars.
• Remove and destroy infected leaves.
• To keep the disease under check the marigold crop should be sprayed with Dithane M-
45 fungicide @ 0.2% and and Carbendazim @ 0.05% at fortnightly intervals starting
from the first appearance of disease symptoms.

Ascochyta Phoma
It is generally slow growing and may take 14 Colonies of Phoma grow very rapidly on
– 21 days to cover a standard 9 cm Petri plate culture media (Larone, 1995).
(4-6 mm/day) (Harveson et al. 2011)
Colonies of the isolates on artificial media Colonies are flat, spreading, powdery to
were flat, submerged with sparse mycelium. velvety, and often largely submerged in the
There were variations in colony colour in medium. From the front, the colour is
different isolates as the pathogen grew to initially white and later becomes olive grey
advanced stages. The mycelium was pale with an occasional tint of pink. From the
cream at first but later turned greyish white reverse, it is dark brown to black. Some
or green to greenish dark and creamy white. species (particularly, Phoma cruris-hominis
However, most of the isolates were greyish and Phoma herbarum) produce a reddish-
white (Baite et al. 2016). purple to yellowish-brown diffusible
pigment which is readily visible from the
reverse (de Hoog et al. 2000).
Pycnidia often arranged in concentric rings Distribution of pycnidia on infected portion
within those lesions and abundant (Davidson is scattered as well as concentric (Davidson
et al. 2009; Harveson et al. 2011; Baite et al. et al. 2009).
2016).
211
The pycnidium is spherical or pear-shaped Pycnidia are the large, immersed, erumpent
with a single opening called an ostiole. The or with beak piercing the epidermis, round to
pycnidia contain numerous hyaline spores pyriform, lenticular to globose; thin
embedded in a mucilaginous matrix. In the membranous; asexual fruiting bodies which
presence of free moisture, the material within
are 70-100 µm in diameter. They are dark in
the pycnidia absorbs water, becomes wet and colour and bear peg-like phialides at their
swollen, causing conidia to ooze out the inner lining. Pycnidia have one to several
ostiole in a slimy mass (Davidson et al. openings (ostioles) on their surface from
2009). which the masses of small conidia in slime
are released outside (Grimes et al. 1932;
Larone, 1995; de Hoog et al. 2000; Williams
et al. 2006).
Conidial ooze from pycnidia was cream or Conidia ooze in a pale white to pinkish
light brown in colour (sometimes carrot red) coloured matrix (Aveskamp et al. 2008).
(Davidson et al. 2009; Casas et al. 2012)
The conidia were oval to oblong, straight to Conidia are unicellular, hyaline, and oval-
slightly bent at one or both ends, hyaline, shaped. Each conidium typically has two oil
occasionally two-celled, rounded at both droplets inside.
ends under compound microscope.
Conidia develop on short conidiophores Conidiophore short or almost obsolete
(Baite et al. 2016). (Stevens, 1921; Grimes et al. 1932)

Some Ascochyta spp. produce Some Phoma species produce brown

chlamydospores which are resist- ant chlamydospores that are arranged singly or
structures important in survival (Wallen and in chains. These chlamydospores may be
Jeun, 1968). unicellular or multicellular and
“alternarioid” (resembling Alternaria) in
appearance.

212
Diagnostic characters of Phoma exigua var. diversispora, Phoma exigua var. exigua and Stagnosporopsis bortensis on
Phaseolus beans
P. exigua var. P. exigua var. Stagnosporopsis
diversispora exigua hortensis
Synonym Phoma diversispora Ascochyta Ascochyta
phaseolorum boltshauseri
Disease Black node disease Speckle disease Blotch or leaf spot
(proposed) (proposed) disease (proposed)
Symptoms Black nodes, dark, Small specks and Reddish leaf spots,
brown, black or spots, later coalesced dark reddish-brown
greyish stems, and sometimes with lesions on stems and
crowded with concentric rings, on pods. Plant in focus
pycnidia, large leaf older leaves, stems of attack may be
spots with concentric and pods. severely stunted.
rings, branches and
whole plants killed,
even when in full Sometimes pycnidia Usually, pycnidia on
growth; pods may on the leaves the leaves
turn black at both
ends and have
concentric rings of
pycnidia.
Microscopic Numerous black Sometimes pycnidia Usually, pycnidia on
characters pycnidia on stems on the leaves the leaves
and petioles,
sometimes also on
leaves and pods.

Pycnidia about 150 Pycnidia about 150 Pycnidia about 100-

mm conidia mm conidia 200 mm conidia
continuous 6.8 (5.0- continuous mostly 5- continuous, one, two,
9.8) × 2.7 (2.3 – 3.2) 7 × 2.5-3.0 𝜇m, or three septate, 10-
𝜇m, occasionally one ocassionally one or 27 × 2.5 – 6.5 𝜇m
or two septate two septate
Microscopic Conidia as above Conidia as above Conidia continuous
structures in vitro 3.5-8.5 × 1.5-2.5
𝜇m, one or rarely two
septate 9-11 × 3 𝜇m
Discoloration of None (no E Green (E production) None (no E
culture medium with production) production)
1 N NaOH (E-test)

213
 Mycosphaerella Didymella
Species belonging to Mycosphaerella were Pseudothecia immersed, rarely superficial,
characterized as having pseudothecial separate or gregarious, globose to flattened,
ascomata that can be immersed or ostiolate, 80–450 µm, with 2–5(–8) layers of
superficial, embedded in host tissue or pseudoparenchymatal cells. Asci bitunicate,
erumpent, having ostiolar periphyses, but cylindrical to clavate or saccate, 8-spored;
lacking inter-ascal tissue at maturity. asci arising from a broad hymenium among
Ascospores are hyaline, but in some cases pseudoparaphyses. Ascospores mostly
slightly pigmented and predominantly 1- hyaline, or brownish, 1-septate spores
septate, although taxa with 3-septate (didymospores) or multiseptate dictyospores.
ascospores have been recorded.

Difference between teleomorphic stages of Rhizoctonia spp.

S. No. Comparison between the Perfect Stages of Rhizoctonia spp.

Multinucleate Rhizoctonia spp. Binucleate Rhizoctonia
spp.
Thanatephorus Waitea Ceratobasidium
1. The perfect stage of the A few multinucleate The perfect/sexual stage
multinucleate Rhizoctonia Rhizoctonia spp. viz., R. of binucleate (sometimes
solani. zeae and R. oryzae have uninucleate) Rhizoctonia
Waitea as their spp. (Syn. Ceratorhiza).
telomorphic/perfect
basidiomycetous stage.
2. The young vegetative Hyphae are Microscopically they
hyaline hyphae of multinucleate, colourless have colourless hyphae,
Thanatephorus become when young or later on 3 to 9 μm wide, without
brown with age. Cymose become salmon in colour, clamp connections.
hyphae just above basal often irregular, 2.5-11 μm
hyphae, sometimes swollen wide, without clamp
but commonly less than connections.
twice the width of adjacent
hyphae at sub-basal septum
(Roberts, 1999). Somatic
hyphae in Thanatephorus
are constantly wider (more
than 10 µm in diameter)
(Roberts, 1999) than in
Ceratobasidium, a closely
214
 related genus in the family
Ceratobasidiaceae.
3. Thanatephorus applies to Basidiocarps are effused, The basidiocarps (fruit
most parasitic fungi (as in thin, web-like, smooth, bodies) are effused, thin,
the case of R. solani) with white to pale ochre. and whitish. The basidia
hypochnoid, sometimes Basidia are often are ellipsoid to broadly
gelatinized basidiomata constricted about the club-shaped, 9 to 14 by 8
possessing a hymenium middle, with four short to 12 μm, bearing four
made up of successive sterigmata. sterigmata.
layers of basidia rising
from vertically branching.
4. It forms club-shaped Basidiospores are The basidiospores are
basidia with four apical smooth, oblong to ellipsoid and broadly
sterigmata on which oval, cylindrical, 8-12 by 3.5-5 fusiform (spindle-
hyaline basidiospores are μm, colourless to pale shaped), measuring 6 to
borne. Basidiospores ochre. 11 by 4 to 6 μm.
(sexual spores)
occasionally produced on
infected plants.
5. Sclerotia (if present) Sclerotia are reddish, Pale brown sclerotia are
irregular shape, light to pinkish orange to brown, sometimes produced,
dark brown in color, not 0.5–3 mm wide. measuring 0.5 to 3 mm
differentiated into rind and across.
medulla.

Gummy stem blight and black spot of cucurbits

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