Unit 8 – Reproduction

1. Reproduction function
Nutrition and interaction functions ensure the survival of the individual. The reproductive
function allows the perpetuation of the species.
In the human species, reproduction is sexual, that is, it requires the union of two gametes of
different sexes (male and female) to form a new individual. Embryonic development occurs in the
womb, therefore we are viviparous. And descendants are never identical to their parents.

Difference between sex and sexuality

Sex is the set of different physical and physiological characteristics, such as genes,
hormones or the anatomy itself, which allow us to differentiate two sexes, male and female.
Therefore sex is a biological condition.
Sexuality refers to the attraction we feel towards other people and that leads us to seek
relationships and contact with them. This relationship does not have to be oriented toward
reproduction and must always be free and voluntary.

2. Changes throughout the reproductive life

When we are born, our sexual organs are already formed. These correspond to the primary
sexual characteristics. However, this does not mean that we can reproduce yet. For this to be
possible, our sexual organs must mature, that is, be capable of producing gametes (sperm and
eggs).

During puberty, the hypophysis begins to produce sexual hormones, which stimulate the
gonads (testicles and ovaries) to make them mature. These hormones also trigger body changes.
We call these changes secondary sexual characteristics.
In girls breasts and external genitalia develop, hips widen, hair grows in the armpits and
pubes and body fat is redistributed
In boys, bone thickness and muscle mass increase, hair grows on the face, chest, armpits
and pubis, and the voice becomes deeper. The pelvis becomes narrower but the shoulders become
wider and the sexual organs grow.
In addition to physical changes, during the period from puberty to adulthood, which we call
adolescence, psychological and social changes also occur, such as the appearance of sexual
desire, the curiosity to explore one's own body, the need to belong to a peer group or rebellion
against the decisions of the adults in the environment.

After approximately 50 years of age, the activity of the testicles partially decreases and that
of the ovaries decreases completely. This causes physical and psychological changes that in
women are called menopause and in men, andropenia.

3. Male reproductive apparatus and male gametes

The male reproductive system is made up of several organs, ducts and glands.

The testicles are the male gonads, that is, the organs that form male gametes, sperm. Its
interior is full of seminiferous tubules, where sperm and cells that produce male hormones are
formed (androgens). They are outside the abdominal cavity, in a bag of skin called scrotum, since
they need a lower temperature to form sperm.
 The genital tracts are the ducts that carry sperm to the outside. In the epididymis sperm
are formed and mature. They communicate with vas deferens or ductus deferens, which carry the
sperm to the urethra, conduit through which they already go outside.

The annexed glands secrete substances that, together with sperm, will form semen:
● seminal vesicles, which provide nutrition to the sperm.
● prostate, whose secretion helps counteract the acidity of the vagina.
● Cowper's glands or bulbourethral glands, which synthesise the pre-ejaculate, a lubricant
that facilitates the performance of the sexual act.

The penis is the copulatory organ. Inside it there is a spongy

tissue called cavernous bodies that fill with blood, producing the
erection. Below is the corpus spongiosum, surrounding the
urethra. It widens at the end and forms the gland, which is covered
by a fold of skin called the foreskin.
Male gametes: sperm
Sperm are very small and very mobile. Their only task is to deliver their genetic information
stored in the nucleus to the egg. To achieve that, they have different structures:
● Head, with the nucleus and a vesicle called
acrosome, which contains enzymes to
break the wall of the egg.
● Neck, with a centriole to support the
flagellum and many mitochondria to supply
energy.
● Tail or flagellum, formed by a flagellum to
move.

The process by which sperm is formed is called spermatogenesis. It happens in the

seminiferous tubules, where stem cells divide by mitosis to form the sperm. This process starts
when the male hits puberty and lasts his entire life.

4. Female reproductive apparatus and female gametes

The female reproductive apparatus is made up of
several organs and glands:
External genitals or vulva, formed by:
● Mons pubis, soft fatty tissue over the
pubis bone that becomes covered in hair
after puberty.
● Labia majora and labia minora, folds of
skin that cover the internal genital.
● Clitoris, small erectile organ, very
sensitive, with many nerve endings.

Internal genitals:
● The ovaries are the female gonads, where the eggs and female sexual hormones
(oestrogen and progesterone) are produced.
● Fallopian tubes connect the ovaries with the uterus. They are not properly touching the
ovaries, the end closer to the ovaries has fimbriae that create currents to collect the newly
formed egg. This is where fecundation occurs.
● Uterus is a hollow organ with muscular walls that will house the zygote in case of fertilisation
and where the embryo and foetus will develop in case of pregnancy. Its walls have two
layers, one muscular, the myometrium, and other mucous, the endometrium, which
thickens during each menstruation.
● Vagina, muscular conduit that connects with the outside. It is the copulatory organ and the
route of expulsion of the foetus during childbirth.
Female gametes: eggs
Unlike sperm, eggs are larger and
immobile. Each girl is born with about
400,000 future eggs (follicles), but only
about 450 will mature and become eggs.
They are spherical in shape and they are
made up of several layers, the cytoplasm
and a nucleus with a very visible nucleolus.

5. The menstrual cycle

Each ovary contains many follicles, each containing an egg in different stages of maturation.
During each menstrual cycle, hypophysis hormones (FSH and LH) and ovarian hormones
(oestrogen and progesterone) will cause the content of a single follicle to grow and mature, which
will be called egg once it leaves the ovary. In addition, those hormones will also produce changes
inside the uterus to prepare it in case of fertilisation.
The menstrual cycle lasts approximately 28 days and, depending on the different processes
that occur on different days, we divide it into two, ovarian cycle and uterine cycle.

The ovarian cycle refers to events that

occur in the ovary.
1. Follicular phase: At the beginning of
the cycle, the hormone FSH
(follicle-stimulating hormone) from the
hypophysis stimulates the maturation of
several follicles, and those follicles will begin
to produce oestrogen. (14 days)
2. Ovulation: When one of the follicles
(Graafian follicle) contains a mature egg
(approximately day 14), it is released into
the fallopian tubes.
3. Secretory or luteal phase: the
empty follicle does not disappear, it
becomes the corpus luteum by the action
of the hypophysis hormone LH (luteinizing
hormone). This corpus luteum releases
progesterone and oestrogen. If there is no
fertilisation, after 10-12 days, it degenerates,
stops producing hormones and the cycle
restarts.

The uterine cycle or endometrial cycle refers to the changes that occur in the uterus. It
has three phases:
1. Menstrual phase: the beginning of the cycle coincides with the end of the previous one.
During menstruation, the walls of the uterus that had thickened waiting for the fertilised egg,
detach, causing hemorrhages. (4-5 days)
2. Proliferative phase: The oestrogen produced by the maturing follicles in the ovary help
 repair the walls of the uterus after menstruation. (11 days)
3. Secretory phase: from day 14, after ovulation, the progesterone produced in the corpus
luteum makes the walls of the uterus start to thicken waiting for a fertilised egg. If there is no
fertilisation, the low concentration of female hormones causes the mucosa to degenerate,
restarting the cycle. (12 days).

6. Fertilisation
The fertilisation consists of the union of gametes to form an egg cell or zygote. For the
sperm to reach the egg and fertilise it, a series of previous steps must occur.
1. They have to reach from the male reproductive apparatus to the female reproductive
apparatus. This occurs during intercourse, when the penis releases about 300 million sperm
through ejaculation.
2. These travel towards the fallopian tubes, where the mature egg will be waiting. Sperm cells
have a lifespan of approximately 5 days, so if they arrive and an egg does not appear in that
time, they die. In the same way, the egg only lives for about 48 hours. If the egg leaves the
ovary and in that time it does not find sperm, it also dies.
3. Once they reach the egg, all the sperm cells surround it.
4. Egg and sperm are recognized as being of the same species and the sperm releases the
contents of its acrosome to break the membrane of the egg and access its interior.
5. In the moment one sperm cell manages to enter, the egg produces a fertilisation membrane
so that no more sperm can enter.
6. This process takes between 12 and 24 hours.
7. Inside the egg, the nuclei of the egg and sperm fuse to form the zygote, which begins to
divide while moving towards the uterus, forming the morula and then the blastocyst.
8. If there is fertilisation, the corpus luteum does not disappear, it continues to produce
progesterone so that the fertilised egg can nest without problem in the uterus.

7. Development of pregnancy and childbirth

Once the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and is implanted in its wall, it will undergo even
more divisions to form the embryo and other necessary structures for its development, such as the
placenta, umbilical cord and amnion.
Initially it will feed on the reserve substances (yolk) that the egg had, but later, once
implanted, the egg forms the placenta, which connects the blood of the mother with the blood of the
embryo. Nutrients and oxygen go from the mother to the embryo and waste products go the other
way. The umbilical cord connects embryo and placenta. The amnion is the membrane that
protects the embryo during pregnancy and contains amniotic fluid.
 In humans, gestation or pregnancy lasts 280 days (40 weeks) approximately. We can divide
this time into three quarters, in which the future individual will go through different stages.
1. In the 1st quarter, the body and the internal organs are formed and. The heart begins to
beat. In the 2nd month it begins to have a human form, so we begin to call it foetus and the
face, arms, legs and fingers can already be distinguished. It measures about 55 mm.
2. In the 2nd quarter, all the organs are already formed, although immature. It has nervous
reflexes (it kicks) and the sex can now be identified. Measures about 30 cm and weighs
around 700 g.
3. In the 3rd trimester, the organs finish maturing and the foetus grows very quickly. At the
end, it is placed face down and the head fits into the pelvis.

Childbirth happens when the baby is fully formed and it is the exit of the fully formed baby
through the mother's vagina. It is usually triggered when the amnion breaks and the amniotic fluid
comes out, although this can happen once labour has begun. It occurs in three phases:
1. Dilatation, the upper part of the uterus contracts, forcing the cervix to shorten in length and
dilate in diameter. The ligaments of the pelvis relax to allow the hip to widen.
2. Expulsion. The contractions are now very intense and push the foetus to the outside. The
head comes out first and then the rest of the body. Once outside, the umbilical cord is cut
and the scar left is the navel.
3. Delivery, during which the placenta and other structures that have remained in the uterus
come out.

During the days following delivery, the mother will begin to produce breastmilk. Until then, it
produces a substance called colostrum, which contains nutrients and a large amount of antibodies.
It usually takes about 40 days for the mother's body to fully recover. The uterus returns to its
normal size and the rest of the organs that were displaced by the foetus also return to their original
place.

Multiple pregnancy
In the human species, a pregnancy with more than one foetus is unusual, but when a
multiple pregnancy occurs, it is usually two
foetuses, which are called twins. They can be
of two types:
1. Dizigotic twins, which come from two
eggs fertilised by two different sperm.
For it to occur there must be double
ovulation. These twins look as similar
to each other as any two siblings and
they can be of the same or different
sex.
2. Monozygotic twins, which come from
a single zygote that has divided into
two cells that have separated. Each
cell produces an individual, but the two
are genetically identical, that is, they
are clones.
8. Infertility
When two people fail to have a pregnancy naturally after a year of sexual relations we talk
about infertility. The process depends on two people, so the cause can be in either of them.
● It may be due to a lack of gamete production.
● It can be due to immature or malformed gametes (in the case of sperm).
● There may be obstructions in the vas deferens or fallopian tubes that prevent the passage
of gametes.
● Sperm can reach the uterus, but be incompatible with vaginal mucus.
● There may be alterations in the uterus that prevent the implantation of the zygote.

Today there are techniques to help these couples who cannot conceive naturally or people
without a partner who want to have children. The most common are:
● Artificial insemination, artificially introducing man's semen into the woman's uterus during
ovulation. Sometimes, in addition, women undergo hormonal treatment to stimulate
ovulation.
● Invitro fertilisation (IVF), extracting eggs from the woman, fertilising them in the laboratory
with the man's semen and transferring them to the woman's uterus.

9. Contraceptive methods
The human being is the only animal that enjoys its sexuality and reproduction separately.
Since ancient times, methods have been sought to be able to separate them effectively, that is,
being able to have sexual relations without having them end in pregnancy. With the advancement of
medicine and technology, these methods have become increasingly refined. Broadly speaking, there
are two types of contraceptive methods:
● Natural, based on the changes that occur in the female menstrual cycle, that is, trying to find
out which days she is most fertile to avoid them. These include methods such as the one
that measures the woman's body temperature, the Ogino method, which tries to predict what
day ovulation will occur, or the coitus interruptus, or ejaculate outside the vagina. These
methods have a very low efficiency, since calculating a woman's fertile period is
complicated, especially if she has irregular periods.

● artificial, based on different techniques or devices, with a much higher effectiveness. We

distinguish several types of methods:
○ Barrier methods, which prevent the contact between sperm and eggs.
■ Male condom, which is placed on the erect penis and collects the semen from the
ejaculate. It’s the only method that also protects against STD.
■ Female condom, which is placed inside the vagina and prevents sperm from
entering the uterus.
■ Diaphragm, disc of latex which is placed inside the vagina covering the cervix.
■ intrauterine device (IUD), which is placed inside the uterus, preventing the rise of
sperm and the implantation of the zygote.

○ Chemical methods, which prevent the formation of gametes or their survival.

■ Hormonal, such as contraceptive pills, transdermal patches, vaginal ring and
subdermal implant. All of them prevent ovulation through the use of hormones.
■ Spermicides, which make it difficult for sperm to survive. These are always used in
association with other barrier methods.
■ Emergency contraception, also known as the morning after pill. This type of
contraception is used to stop pregnancy after unprotected sex. It works by preventing
or postponing ovulation. If ovulation has already happened, they are not effective.
This is why it it so important to take them as soon as the unprotected relation
happens.

○ Surgical methods:
■ Tube ligation. Irreversible operation that cuts and sews the tubes so that the eggs
do not reach the uterus.
■ Vasectomy. Reversible operation that cuts and sews the vas deferens so that sperm
do not go outside.

Contraceptive method Effectiveness

Male condom 98%

Female condom 95%

Diaphragm 94%

IUD 99%

Contraceptive pill 99,7%

Transdermal patches 99,7%

Vaginal ring 99,7%

Subdermal implant 99,95%

Spermicide 71%

Tube ligation 99,5%

Vasectomy 99,5%
9. Sexually transmitted diseases
They are those that are transmitted through certain sexual practices or by contact with
secretions such as semen or vaginal fluid. In some cases, such as AIDS, the disease can be
transmitted to the foetus if the pregnant woman suffers from it. In other cases, contagion occurs
through contact with the other person's blood, through transfusions, sharing a syringe or razor
blades…