ST.

MARY’S ENGLISH SCHOOL

CLASS – XII SUBJECT –BIOLOGY
CH – 3 (HUMAN REPRODUCTION)

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Male and Female Reproductive Systems
● Human beings reproduce sexually and are viviparous.
● In humans, the reproductive phase starts after puberty.
● It involves:
○ Gametogenesis
○ Insemination
○ Fertilisation
○ Implantation
○ Gestation
○ Parturition

The Male Reproductive System

Testes

● Situated within the scrotum, which protects the testes andalso helps in
maintaining the temperature.
● Each testis is 4 to 5 cm in length, and 2 to 3 cm in width, and has about 250
compartments called testicular lobules.
● Testicular lobules have seminiferous tubules which are thesites of sperm
formation.
● Seminiferous tubules are lined by two types of cells:
○ Male germ cells − They undergo meiosis to formsperms.
○ Sertoli cells − They provide nourishment to the germcells.
● Region outside the seminiferous tubules is called the interstitial space,
which contains Leydig cells (interstitialcells). The Leydig cells produce
androgens.
Accessory Ducts and Glands

● Accessory ducts include:

○ Rete testis
○ Vasa efferentia
○ Epididymis
○ Vas deferens
● The seminiferous tubules open into the vasa efferentiathrough the
rete testis.
● The vasa efferentia open into the epididymis, which leads to the vas
deferens. The vas deferens opens into the urethra along with a duct from
the seminal vesicle called theejaculatory duct.
 ● The ejaculatory duct stores the sperms and transports themto the outside
● The urethra starts from the urinary bladder, extends throughthe penis and
opens via the urethral meatus.
● Accessory glands include:
○ A pair of seminal vesicles
○ Prostate gland
○ A pair of bulbourethral glands
● The secretions of these glands make up the seminal plasma,and provide
nutrition and a medium of motility to the sperms.
The Female Reproductive System

● It is located in the pelvic region:

● It includes:
○ A pair of ovaries
○ A pair of oviducts
○ Uterus
○ Cervix
○ Vagina
 ○ External genitalia
○ Mammary glands (not part of the reproductive system,but aids in
child care)

Ovaries

● They are the primary female sex organs. They produce theovum and
other ovarian hormones.
● They are located in the lower abdomen, and are 2 to 4 cm inlength.
● They are connected by ligaments to the pelvic walls and tothe uterus.
● Each ovary is covered by epithelium, and contains theovarian
stroma.
● The ovarian stroma is made up of:
○ Peripheral cortex
○ Inner medulla

Oviducts

● They are also called fallopian tubes.

● They are 10 to 12 cm long, and extend from the ovary tothe uterus.
● The part of each oviduct lying towards the ovary is funnelshaped, and is
called infundibulum. It has finger-like projections called fimbriae.
● The infundibulum leads to the ampulla, and then to the isthmus, which has
a narrow lumen opening into the uterus.
Uterus
 ● It is also called womb, and is pear shaped.
● It is connected to the pelvic walls by ligaments.
● The uterine wall consists of:
○ External perimetrium
○ Middle myometrium
○ Internal endometrium, which lines the uterine cavity
● The endometrium undergoes changes during the menstrualcycle.
Cervix and Vagina

● The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina.

● The cervix and the vagina constitute the birth canal.
External Genitalia

● Consists of:
○ Mons pubis − Fatty tissue covered by skin and pubichair
○ Labia majora − Extends from mons pubis andsurrounds
the vaginal opening
○ Labia minora − Fold of skin beneath the labia majora
○ Hymen − Partially covers the vaginal opening
○ Clitoris − Lies at the junction of labia minora

Mammary Glands

● Present in all female mammals

● It is paired and is glandular.
● Each breast contains 15 to 20 mammary lobes with alveoli
which secrete milk.

● The alveoli open into the mammary tubules, which unite to

 form a mammary duct.

● Many mammary ducts constitute the mammary ampulla,which is

connected to the lactiferous duct.

Gametogenesis
The testis and ovary produce the male and female gametes respectively by
gametogenesis (spermatogenesis in males andoogenesis in females).

Spermatogenesis

● In males, sperms are produced by the spermatogonia (immature germ

cells), which are present in the inner wallsof the seminiferous tubules.
● Spermatogonia increase in number by mitosis. These arediploid.
● Some of the spermatogonia called primary spermatocytes
periodically undergo meiosis.
 ● After the first meiotic division, two haploid and equal
secondary spermatocytes are formed.
● These further undergo meiosis to give rise to four haploid
spermatids.
● These spermatids are converted into sperms by
spermiogenesis.
● The sperm head gets embedded in the Sertoli cells after
spermiogenesis and is released from the seminiferous tubules by
spermiation.
● Spermatogenesis starts at puberty by the action of the gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH), which in turn causes the release of two
gonadotropins called LuteinizingHormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH).
● LH acts on Leydig cells and causes them to release androgens, which
stimulate the process of spermatogenesiswhile the FSH acts on the Sertoli
cells, which help in spermiogenesis.
Structure of a Sperm
 ● A mature sperm consists of:
○ Head
○ Neck
○ Middle piece
○ Tail
● The whole sperm is enclosed in a plasma membrane.
● The head consists of a haploid nucleus and a cap-like
acrosome, which contains enzymes that aid in fertilisation.

● The middle piece contains several mitochondria, whichproduce

energy for the motility of the sperm.
● Sperms released by the seminiferous tubules aretransported
by the accessory ducts.
● Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, andprostate are
essential for maturation and motility of sperms.
Oogenesis
 ● The ovum is formed by the process of oogenesis.
● It starts during embryonic growth and millions of gametemother cells
(oogonia) are formed in the foetal ovary.
● These cells undergo meiosis, but get temporarily arrested atthe prophase
and are called primary oocytes.
● Before reaching puberty, a large number of primary oocytesdegenerate
and the remaining ones get surrounded by layers of granulosa cells and
new theca and are called secondary follicles.
● The secondary follicles are then converted into tertiary follicles that have
characteristic fluid-filled cavity called antrum. At this stage, the primary
oocyte present within the tertiary follicle completes meiosis, which results
in the formation of haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny polar body.
● This tertiary follicle further changes into the Graafian follicle. The
secondary oocyte is surrounded by the zonepellucida.
● Then the Graafian follicle ruptures to release the ovum by
ovulation.

Menstrual Cycle & Fertilisation

● Menstrual cycle is the reproductive cycle in all primates andbegins at
puberty (menarche).
● In human females, menstruation occurs once in 28 to 29 days. The cycle of
events starting from one menstruation tillthe next one is called the
menstrual cycle.
● During the middle of the menstrual cycle, one ovum isreleased
(ovulation).
● The cycle starts with the menstrual flow (3 to 5 days), caused due to the
breakdown of the endometrium of the uterus. Blood vessels in liquid state
are discharged, but thisoccurs only when the ovum is not fertilised.
● It is followed by the follicular phase.In this phase, theprimary follicles
mature into the Graffian follicles. This causes the regeneration of the
endometrium.
 These changes are brought about by ovarian and pituitary hormones. In this
phase, the release of gonadotropins (LHand FSH) increases. This causes
follicular growth and the growing follicles produce oestrogen.

● The LH and FSH are at their peak in the middle of the cycle (14th day), and
cause the rupture of the Graffian follicles to release ovum. This phase is
called the ovulatory phase.
● The remains of the Graffian follicles get converted into thecorpus
luteum, which secretes progesterone for the maintenance of the
endometrium.
● In the absence of fertilisation, the corpus luteum degenerates,
thereby causing the disintegration of theendometrium and the
start of a new cycle.
● In humans, the menstrual cycle ceases to operate at the ageof 50 years.
This phase is known as the menopause.
Fertilisation and Implantation

● During coitus, the semen is released into the vagina, passesthrough the
cervix of the uterus and reaches the ampullary-isthmic junction of the
fallopian tube.
● The ovum is also released into the junction for fertilisation tooccur.
● The process of fusion of the sperm and the ovum is knownas
fertilisation.
● During fertilisation, the sperm induces changes in the zonapellucida and
blocks the entry of other sperms. This ensures that only one sperm
fertilises an ovum.
● The enzymatic secretions of the acrosomes help the sperm
 enter the cytoplasm of the ovum.

● This causes the completion of meiotic division of the secondary

oocyte, resulting in the formation of a haploidovum (ootid) and a
secondary polar body.
● Then, the haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploidnucleus of
the ovum to form a diploid zygote.
● Mitosis starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct
(cleavage) and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cellscalled blastomeres.
● The 8−16 cell embryo is called a morula, which continues todivide to form
the blastocyst. The morula moves further into the uterus.
● The cells in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer
trophoblast and an inner cell mass.
● The trophoblast gets attached to the uterine endometrium,and the
process is called implantation. This leads to pregnancy.
● The inner cell mass gets differentiated to form the embryo.

Pregnancy, Parturition and Lactation

Pregnancy

● After implantation, the trophoblast forms finger-like projections called

chorionic villi, surrounded by the uterinetissue and maternal blood.
● The chorionic villi and the uterine tissue get integrated to form the
placenta, which helps in supplying the developingembryo with oxygen and
nutrients, and is also involved in
 the removal of wastes.

● The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilicalcord. The

placenta acts as an endocrine gland, and produces the human chorionic
gonadotropins, human placental lactogen, oestrogen, progesterone and
relaxin (later stages of pregnancy).
● These hormones support foetal growth and help in the maintenance of
pregnancy. Hormones like oestrogen, progestogen, cortisol, prolactin,
etc., are increased severalfolds in the maternal blood.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) gets
differentiated into the ectoderm, mesodermand endoderm, which give
rise to the different tissues. Thisability of the inner cell mass is due to the
presence of multi-potent cells called stem cells.
● Most of the major organs are formed at the end of 12 weeksof pregnancy;
during the 5th month, the limbs and body hairare formed; by the 24th week,
the eyelids separate and eyelashes are formed. At the end of nine months,
the foetusis fully formed.
Parturition and Lactation

● Human pregnancy has the duration of 9 months. Thisduration is

called the gestation period.
● At the end of this period, vigorous uterine contractions leadto the delivery
of the foetus. This process is called parturition.
● Parturition is a neuro-endocrine mechanism, and is started
 by the signals from the developed foetus and the placenta,which produce the foetal
ejection reflex.

● This causes the release of oxytocin from the pituitary, whichcauses stronger
uterine contractions.
● This leads to the expulsion of the baby along with theplacenta.
● During pregnancy, the mammary glands undergo differentiation, and
milk is produced during the end ofpregnancy.
● The milk produced during the first few days of lactation is known as colostrums.It
contains several antibodies that aidthe newborn to develop resistance.

P a g e 14 | 17
P a g e 15 | 17
P a g e 16 | 17
P a g e 17 | 17