AMAR MEMORIAL ST.

GEORGE’S
PREPARATORY SCHOOL

AFFILIATED BY CBSE

SESSION 2024-25

Submitted to:- Submitted by:-

Mr.Gajendra Chauhan Ishan Manu Shukla

Class:12th (PBC)
 CERTIFICATE

THIS TO CERTIFY THAT,

ISHAN MANU SHUKLA of class Xll has completed his project file under
the guidance of Mr. Gajendra Chauhan.He has taken care and shown
sincerity which are the completion of this project.

I hereby certify that this project is upto my expectations & guidance issued
by CBSE

PRINCIPAL SIGN:- _____________________

TEACHERS SIGN;- _____________________

EXAMINERS SIGN;- _____________________

 Activity 1

AIM:-

To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three

(ON/OFF) switches, a fuse and a power source.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three bulb holders, three

ON/OFF switches, a fuse of 1 A, a fuse holder three pin plug,
flexible two coloured insulating copper wire, main switch

THEORY/PRINCIPLE:-

Household Circuit

The electricity of 220 V and 50 Hz is supplied to us for

domestic purposes. In household circuit, all appliances are
connected in parallel with the mains.
Consider 𝑃1, 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4, 𝑃5,….be the power consumed by different

domestic electrical appliances in a circuit.

Then the total power consumed P at any instant is given by
P= 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + …. + 𝑃𝑛

At a potential V, the current/drawn from the mains is given by,

𝑃
𝐼= 𝑉

where, P is in watt, I is in ampere and V is in volt.

Sometimes the terminals of electric appliances get accidentally

connected so a high current is drawn from the circuit which
may burn the appliances, hence, they may get damaged. A fuse
of rating little higher than the current drawn is connected in
series with the appliances.

Whenever high current flows in the circuit the fuse gets burnt
which saves the appliances from damage. A fuse is a short piece
of wire made up of material of high resistivity and low melting
point so that it gets easily melt due to overheating when
excessive current passes through the circuit and hence, the
current flowing in the circuit is stopped
PROCEDURE:-

1. Take three bulbs 𝐵1, 𝐵2, 𝐵3 and connect them in series with
switches 𝑆1, 𝑆2, 𝑆3respectively.

2. 𝐵1–𝑆1,𝐵2–𝑆2and 𝐵3–𝑆3 connections should be parallel with

each other as shown in the circuit , each bulb can be OFF and
ON individually by using its switch connected in series with it.

3. Connect a fuse in series with the set up and connect a plug

and socket at the end of two leads. Also connect a wire from the
earth pin of the plug.

4. Insert the plug in socket provided in the main electric board.

5. Put the switches 𝑆1, 𝑆2 and 𝑆3 ON one by one and observe the
bulb glowing independently of the other bulb.

6. Press all the switches ON simultaneously and observethe

bulbs glowing together

7. Put the switches 𝑆1, 𝑆2, 𝑆3 OFF one by one and observe the
bulbs not glowing.
RESULT:-

The circuit for the connection of three bulbs is completely

installed with safety.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Always make the connections of the switches and fuse with

the live wire.

2. Be careful while working with the mains.

3. Make all the connections tight. While doing so, use an

insulating cover on your hand to keep away from shock.

4. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse.

5. Fuse is a safety device. Never use fuse of much higher rating

than the recommended value. Because if the fuse will be of
higher rating, the high current flows to the electrical appliances
and damage them.

6. Always use that supply which is connected to the distribution

board which divides the power into different circuits.
 Activity 2

AIM:-

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

A voltmeter (0-5 V), an ammeter (0-15 A), a resistor, a rheostat,

a battery, a one-way key, connecting wires and sand paper.

PROCEDURE:-

1. First of all current various components as shown in figure.

2. Open the key K by taking out the plug from it.

3. To measure the current in the circuit, connect the ammeter in

series with the circuit and to measure the potenhal difference
across the resistance, connect a voltmeter in parallel to the
resistance. It should be ensured that the positive terminals of
voltmeter and amimeter must be connected with the positive
terminal of the battery E.

4. Close the key K by inserting the plug into it and check

whether the voltmeter and ammeter show deflections on the
nght hand side or not.

5. The circuit has been assembled completely. Check the

continuity of assembled circuit by using a multimeter.

Note: With the help of this assembled circuit, one can measure
the unknown resistance by knowing the values ofcurrent and
potential difference.
RESULT:-

The components of the electrical circuit have been assembled

correctly.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1.Take care that the ammeter should be connected in series with

the resistor and the voltmeter should be connected in parallel
with the resistor.

2 Grease/oil or oxide layer on the surface of connecting ends of

wire creates insulation. Rub the insulation with a piece of sand
paper to clean the connecting ends.
However, do not rub the plugs and keys with sand paper to
clean them. Excessive use of sand paper will make the plug untit
to be used with the socket or key.

3 Before connecting the element, the key should be opened.

 Activity 3

AIM:-

To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least

a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark
the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

A battery eliminator or a battery, rheostat, resistor, ammeter,

voltmeter, plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE:-

An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of

circuit are connected in proper order and the components and
devices are in working condition when the key is closed An open
circuit means a break in some part of a circuit due to open key
or broken wire ar bumt out components or loose connections.
The examples of open circuit are shown in the figures.
PROCEDURE:-

Making Correction in the Circuit Diagram

1. Draw the circuit diagram in your notebook as given by your

teacher or from any of the above figures.

2. In the observation table, mark the various components which

are not connected in proper order by (X) and by (✔) which are
in correct order.

3. Next, do the correction in the circuit diagram.

Verification Corrected Circuit Diagram

(or How the Components Should be Connected in a Circuit)

4. Connect all the electrical components according to the

corrected circuit diagram

5. Finally close the key and check whether the corrected circuit
is functioning or not.
OBSERVATIONS-

Table for Mark a (✔) or (x) in Appropriate Column

S.No. Circuit Correct Incorrect

Component Connection Connection
1 Battery/Cell
2 Resistor
3 Rheostat
4 Ammeter
5 Voltmeter
6 Key

RESULT:-

The electrical components assembled as per the corrected circuit

diagram is functional.
PRECAUTIONS:-
(A WAY OF MAKING CONNECTIONS IN THE CIRCUIT)

1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to

the positive terminals of the voltmeter and ammeter. Also, the
negative terminal of the battery should be connected with
rheostat.

2. As a voltmeter is a high resistance device used to measure the

potential difference across the resistor and an ammeter is a low
resistance device used to measure the current flowing through
the circuit. Hence, the ammeter should be connected in series
with the resistor and the voltmeter should be connected in
parallel with the resistor.
 Activity 4

AIM:-

To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a

mixed collection of such items.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

A multimeter, an LED, a junction diode, a resistor and a

capacitor.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE:-

Diode: It is a two-terminal device which conducts only when it

is forward biased and does not conduct when it is reverse biased.

LED:(Light Emitting Diode) It is a special type of diode having

two terminals. The LED conducts when it is forward biased and
does not conduct when it is reverse biased. The LEDs are of
different colours like red, green, white, etc.
Resistor: It is a two-terminal device used to control the current
flow by offering the opposition in its path.

Capacitor: It is a two-terminal device which does not conduct

but stores some charge when DC voltage is applied.

PROCEDURE:-
Identifying the Diode, Resistor and LED (A Two
Terminal Component)

1. Now pick a component having two terminals from the given

mixed collection of items. It could be a resistor, a capacitor, a
diode or an LED.

(i) Look for the component having colour bands of three set of
colours followed by a silver or gold band. This component is a
resistor. One can verify the component by using multimeter
only.

(ii) Ensure that the multimeter is set up in the resistance mode

of highest range. Connect or touch the multimeter terminals to
the component terminals and watch for multimeter deflection.
Also repeat it by reversing the component terminals.
(ii) In both the cases, if equal deflection is shown in the
multimeter scale, then the component is a resistor.

(iv) It on connecting the terminals, the large deflection in the

multimeter scale is observed which gradually returns back to
zero, then the component is a capacitor of large value of
capacitance.

Note: If a capacitor having small value of capacitance is given,

then there is no deflection in the multimeter scale rather the
pointer remains at zero position.

(v) If the multimeter shows some deflection in one direction

with the emission of light from the component and much less or
zero deflection in other direction (or an unequal deflection with
emission of light), then the component is LED

(vi) If the multimeter shows some deflection in one direction

but with no emission of light from the component and much
less or zero deflection in other direction, then the component is
a diode.
 2 Record your observations by writing the name of the device
having two, three and more than three terminals and label each
component by a different alphabet eg A, B, C, D, E... Also write
the name of the device or component which conducts in one
direction, in two directions and which does not conduct. One
can take an idea by observing the deflection of the multimeter
on reversing the terminals of multimeter touching the terminals
of component.

Note: You must use analog multimeter instead of digital

multimeter. If digital multimeter is being used, then deflection
can be observed from the reading

OBSERVATIONS:-

Table for Checking the Number of Terminals

S.No Number of Alphabet marked Name of

terminals on the device device
1 Two
2 Three
3 More than Three
 Table for Checking the State of Conduction

S.No State of Emmision Device Name of

Conduction of light Code device
1 Conducts in one No
direction only
2 Conducts in one Yes
direction only
3 Three-terminal
device conducts
in one direction
only between
central terminal
and either of the
remaining
terminals
4 Conducts in both
direction
5 Does not conduct
gives an intial
deflection which
decays to zero
Result:-

A diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor are identified one by

one from a given mixed collection of such items

PRECAUTIONS:-

In addition to general precautions which are necessary while

using a multimeter, some are discussed below:

1. Preferably use an analog multimeter and not the digital

multimeter so that the deflection shown by the pointer can be
observed.

2. While checking out any component clean its leads properly by

using sand paper so that the insulation can be removed.
 Activity 5

AIM:-

Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in

case of a diode and an LED and check whether a given
electronic component (e.g. diode) is in working order.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

A multimeter, a diode, an LED, plug key, a battery, a resisiance

box, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE:-

Analog Multimeter Used in Resistance Mode

Multimeter is an instrument used for measuring current in

amperes, voltage in volts and resistance in ohm. Therefore, it is
also known as AVO meter. The figure shows a circuit for
multimeter used to measure the resistance.
To Check the Unidirectional Flow of Current in
Junction Diode and LED

When the diode is in forward bias mode, a substantial current in

order of mA will flow in the circuit. But when the diode is in
reverse bias mode, almost negligible current in the order of µA
will flow in the circuit.

Checking the Working Order of Given Electronic

Component

A diode or LED is in working order, if it allows the current to

flow when it is in forward biased. A transistor conducts only
when base-emitter junction is forward biased and does not
conduct when the junction is reverse biased. If the current flows
or does not flow in both biasing, then the transistor is damaged.
An IC has minimum of eight legs on a single silicon chip but its
working function can be tested out by an IC tester only, instead
of multimeter
PROCEDURE:-

1. If the diodes, transistors and connecting wires are not used

for a long time, then they may have some insulating layers on
their surface. In order to remove insulation, clean their ends
with the help of a sand paper till they shine.

Adjustment of the Multimeter

2. Touch the two metal ends or probes of multimeter with each

other.

3. Observe that multimeter shows zero resistance. If it is not so,

adjust the zero adjust knob to bring the pointer on zero reading.

4. Now set the multimeter to the high range of resistance by

using selector switch.

Identification of Diode to Check its Working Order and

Unidirectional Flow of Current

5. Touch the positive lead or probe of the multimeter to the one

terminal (say 1) of diode and the negative probe to the other
terminal (say 2) of diode. Observe the value of resistance
whether it is high or low.

6. If high value of resistance is observed, it shows that the diode

is in reverse bias mode and the terminal connected to the
negative probe of the multimeter is p-type of diode and the
other terminal is n-type. In this way, the diode is in proper
working condition.

7. Interchange of probe touching the terminals 1 and 2 of diode

indicates that it is in forward bias offering a low value of
resistance. Observe the low value of resistance. This shows the
unidirectional flow of current.

8. If in both the cases of steps (15) and (17), the low value of
resistances is observed then the diode is damaged. On the other
hand, if the high value of resistances is observed, this indicates
the diode is discontinuous or open.

9. Now replace the diode by an LED and repeat the steps (15) to
(18) to know whether it is in proper condition or not and
further check for the unidirectional flow of current. Here, you
find that an LED also allows the flow of current when it is
forward biased and emits light as well.
10. A multimeter is not used to check an IC. An IC tester is
used for this purpose.

RESULT:-

1. The given diode's working order has been checked using

multimeter.

2. The unidirectional flow of current in a junction diode and

LED has been realised.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Set the multimeter using selector switch for appropriate

range.

2. Allow a suitable range of electric current through the

electronic component otherwise they may get damaged. 3.

3.Before using the multimeter, its zero adjust knob should be

adjusted to give zero reading.
4.While checking the resistance of a component, avoid touching
both the metal ends of multimeter leads. There may be some
error in the measurement of resistance due to presence of body
resistance in parallel with component resistance.
 Activity 6

AIM:-

To observe the diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:-

Two razor blades, a source of light (sodium lamp), one adhesive

tape, a piece of black paper, a screen, two glass slides.

THEORY/PRINCIPLE:-

Diffraction of Light

The phenomenon of bending of light around the small hole and

spreading into the region of geometric shadow is called the
diffraction of light. Diffraction is an evidence of wave nature of
light. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light
waves from different points of same wavefront
Observing the Diffraction of Light

Take two razor blades and hold them in such a way that their
edges are parallel and form a narrow slit (separation being of the
order of wavelength of light 2) in between. Look through the
slit on the glass bulb. With slight adjustment of slit, a
diffraction pattern of central bright band having alternate
bright and dark bands of decreasing intensity and fringe width
is observed.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Take a glass plate and fix a black paper on the top surface of it
by using adhesive tape.

2. Cut out a narrow slit in the central part of the black paper.

3. Place two razor blades side by side quite close to each other
over the narrow slit. Next, place a sodium lamp with a straight
filament at a distance about 2 m behind the fine slit of the
blades.
4. Place a screen nearly 15 cm ahead from the slit and by the
adjusting the blades placed over the slit, observe the light falling
on the screen from the narrow slit. The light coming from the
slit will spread and it bends around the corners and dark and
bright fringes will be observed.

5. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for a laser pencil. Note the changes
observed in the fringes.

RESULT:-

Light waves incident on very small apertures bend around the

corners which indicates the phenomenon of diffraction.

PRECAUTIONS

1. The slit should be fixed at a minimum distance of 2 m from

the source of light.

2. Always use monochromatic light for diffraction pattern.

3. The space between the edges of blade should be minimum

and the blades should be held parallel to each other. The paper
pasted on the glass plate should be dark black.
 Acknowledgment

I am equally grateful to my teacher Gajendra Chauhan sir.

He gave me moral support and guided me in different matters
regarding the topic. He was very kind and patient while
suggesting the outlines of this project and correcting my
doubts. I thank him for her overall support.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents who helped
me a lot in gathering information, collecting data, and guiding
me from time to time in making this project.

Despite their busy schedules, they gave me different ideas for

making this project unique...

THANK YOU
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

LABORATORY MANUAL OF PHYSICS

BY- ARIHANT

ARIHANT PRAKASHAN (SERIES)

BY-Dr. SK SINHA,
ER.AKASH SHUKLA

WEBSITES:-
● www.wikipedia.com
● www.cbseindia.org
● www.brainly.com

THANK YOU
 INDEX

➤ Activity -1: To assemble a household circuit comprising three

bulbs, three (ON/OFF) switches, a fuse and a power source.

➤ Activity -2: To assemble the components of a given electrical

circuit.

➤ Activity -3: To draw the diagram of given open circuit

comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in
proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.

➤Activity -4: To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a

capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.

➤Activity -5: Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow

of current in case of a diode and an LED and check whether a
given electronic component (e.g. diode) is in working order.

➤ Activity -6: To observe the diffraction of light due to a thin

slit.

➤ Bibliography