Unit 12

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
After studying this unit. students will be able to:
• describe the terms used in reflection including normal, angle of incidence, angle of
reflection and state laws of reflection.
• solve problems of image location by spherical mirrors by using mirror formula.
• define the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and
describe the passage of light through parallel-sided transparent material.
• solve problems by using the equation sin i /sin r = n (refractive index).
• state the conditions for total internal reflection.
• describe the passage of light through a glass prism.
• describe how total internal reflection is used in light propagation through optical fibres.
• describe how light is refracted through lenses.
• define power of a lens and its unit.
• solve problems of image location by lenses using lens formula.
• define the terms resolving power and magnifying power.
• draw ray diagram of simple microscope and mention its magnifying power.
• draw ray diagram of compound microscope and mention its magnifying power.
• draw ray diagram of a telescope and mention its magnifying power.
• draw ray diagrams to show the formation of images in the normal eye, a short-sighted
eye and a long-sighted eye.
• describe the correction of short-sight and long-sight.

Science, Technology and Society Connections

The students will be able to:
• describe the use of spherical mirrors for safe driving, blind turns on hilly roads,
dentist mirror.
• describe the use of optical fibres in telecommunications and medical field and state
the advantages of their use.
• describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass and in a camera, projector
and photographic enlarger and draw ray diagrams to show how each forms an image.
• describe the use of lenses/contact lenses for rectifying vision defects of the human eye.
• describe the exploration of the world of micro-organisms by using microscopes and of
distant celestial bodies by telescopes.
GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

Light is the main focus of this unit. We shall describe different Physics of Light
phenomena of light such as reflection, refraction and total
internal reflection. We will learn how images are formed by
mirrors and lenses and will discuss working principle of
compound microscope and telescope.

12.1 REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Reflection of light is illustrated in Fig. 12.1. When a ray of light

We see a page of a book
from air along the path AO falls on a plane mirror M, it is
because light reflects from
reflected along the path OB. The ray AO is called incident ray each part of the page in all
while the ray OB is called reflected ray. The angle between directions, so that some of the
incident ray AO and normal N, i.e., < AON is called the angle light rays from each part of the
of incidence represented by i. The angle between the normal page enter our eye. Because
almost no light is reflected by
and the reflected ray OB, i.e., < NOB is called angle of
the printed words, we “see”
reflection represented by r. them as black areas.
Normal
Incident ray Reflected ray
N
A B
Angle of Angle of For your information
incidence reflection In the early 1700s, there were
two ideas about the nature of
i r o light: particle nature and wave
Plane mirror 90 M
O nature. Newton put forward
Point of incidence the idea of corpuscular nature
of light. According to him, light
Fig. 12.1: Reflection of light consists of tiny, fast-moving
particles. Maxwell formulated
Now we can define the phenomenon of reflection as: the wave theory of light. In
When light travelling in a certain medium falls on the 1802, Thomas Young proved
the wave nature of light
surface of another medium, a part of it turns back in the experimentally. In 1900,
same medium. Planck suggested that light
consists of small packets of
Laws of Reflection energy called photon. Later on
(i) The incident ray, the normal, and the reflected ray at the idea of photon was confirmed
by experiments. Now we know
point of incidence all lie in the same plane. that light has dual nature; light
(ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as well as particle nature.
i.e., i = r.
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Types of Reflection Incident

Nature of reflection depends on smoothness of the surface. rays Reflected rays
For example, a smooth surface of silver reflects rays of light in
one direction only. The reflection by these smooth surfaces is
called regular reflection (Fig.12.2). Most of the objects in
everyday world are not smooth on the microscopic level. The Smooth surface
rough surfaces of these objects reflect the rays of light in Fig. 12.2: Regular reflection
many directions. Such type of reflection is called irregular
reflection (Fig. 12.3).
Incident
rays Reflected rays
12.2 SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A mirror whose polished, reflecting surface is a part of a
hollow sphere of glass or plastic is called a spherical mirror. In
a spherical mirror, one of the two curved surfaces is coated Rough surface
with a thin layer of silver followed by a coating of red lead Fig. 12.3: Irregular reflection
oxide paint. Thus, one side of the spherical mirror is opaque
and the other side is a highly polished reflecting surface.
Depending upon the nature of reflecting surface, there are For Your Information
two types of spherical mirrors as shown in Fig.12.4.
Aperture or opening Radius of
curvature Mirror
Centre of Aperture
curvature R R
Principal axis Principal axis
C C Light rays are reflected in a
Pole plane mirror, causing us to see
Pole
an inverted image.
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
Do you know?
Fig. 12.4: Types of spherical mirrors
Concave Mirror: A spherical mirror whose inner curved surface
Image
is reflecting is called concave mirror. In concave mirror the size
of the image depends on the position of the object. Both virtual
and real images can be formed by a concave mirror.
Mirror
Convex Mirror: A spherical mirror whose outer curved surface
is reflecting is called convex mirror. In convex mirror the size of Real
object
the image is always smaller than the object. Only virtual and
erect image is formed by a convex mirror.
Pole: It is the midpoint of the curved surface of spherical The image you see in a flat
mirror is at the same distance
mirror. It is also called vertex.
behind the mirror as you are in
Centre of Curvature (C): A spherical mirror is a part of a front of it.
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sphere. The centre of this sphere is called centre of curvature.

Radius of Curvature (R): It is the radius of the sphere of which
spherical mirror is a part.
Principal Axis: It is the line joining centre of curvature and
pole of the spherical mirror.
The Principal focus (F): After reflection from a concave
mirror, rays of light parallel to the principal axis converge to a Can you tell?
point F. This point is called “The Principal Focus” of the mirror
(Fig.12.5-a). Hence, Concave mirrors are also called
converging mirrors. Since rays actually pass through this
point, therefore, it is called real focus.
In the case of a convex mirror, rays parallel to the principal axis
after reflection appear to come from a point F situated behind
the mirror. In other words rays of light appear to diverge from F.
This point is called the principal focus of the convex mirror.
Convex mirrors are also called diverging mirrors. The principal
focus of a convex mirror is virtual focus because the reflected rays In this picture you can see clearly
the image of a lion formed inside
do not actually pass through it but appear to do so (Fig. 12.5-b). the pond water. Can you tell
Focal length ( f ): It is the distance from the pole to the which phenomenon of physics is
principal focus measured along the principal axis (Fig12.5). involved here ?
The focal length is related to the radius of curvature by f =R/2.
This means that as the radius of curvature is reduced, so too is
the focal length of the reflecting surface.
R Radial line, normal to
mirror surface
Principal axis F C
C F
Principal axis Focal point
f
Focal length
(b)
(a) f
Focal length Fig. 12.5
Characteristics of Focus of a Concave and a Convex Mirror
F ŎŌQÑŔ Ì ÒǾǾŎǾ F ŎŌŃMQÑ Ì ÒǾǾŎǾ For your information
Convex Mirror Concave Mirror
The focus lies behind the mirror The focus is in front of the mirror
The Focus lies behind the mirror The focus is in front of the mirror
The focus is virtual as the rays of light after reflection The focus is real as the rays of light after reflection
The focus is virtual as the rays of
appear to come
The focus is real as the rays of
converge at the focus
light
from theafter
focus reflection appear to light after reflection converge F
come from the focus. at the focus.

Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors

Like plane surfaces, spherical surfaces also reflect light
Parabolic mirror used in head
following the two laws of reflection as stated for plane lights.
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

surfaces. Fig.12.6 shows how light is reflected by the Spoon as mirror

spherical surfaces of concave and convex mirrors according
to the two laws of reflection.
Normal Reflected Reflected ray Con
N angle cav
em
Incident irro
r
angle r
r
Incident ray i i
or
irr

N
m

i= r
ex

A well polished spoon acts as

nv

i= r
Co

convex (right) and concave

Fig.12.6: Reflection of light by spherical mirrors (left) mirrors.
Physics insight
Activity12.2: Take a convex mirror or a well polished spoon
(using the outside of the spoon, with the convex surface Viewer Radius
bulging outward), and hold it in one hand. Hold a pencil with C
its tip in the upright position in the other hand. Try to look at Centre of
curvature
its image in the mirror. Is the image erect or inverted? Is the Pole
Principal axis
image smaller or larger in size than the object? Move the For a convex mirror, focus and
pencil away from the mirror. Does the image become smaller centre of curvature lie behind
or larger? Guess, whether the image will move closer to or the mirror.
farther from the focus? Point to ponder

12.3 IMAGE LOCATION BY SPHERICAL MIRROR

FORMULA
How can we tell about the nature of image (whether image is real
or imaginary, inverted or erect) formed in a mirror? How can we
tell about the size of the image compared with the size of the
object? To answer these questions, one method is graphical or In large shopping centres, convex
mirrors are used for security
ray diagram. But, we can also answer these questions by using a purposes. Do you know why?
mathematical formula called the mirror formula defined as: For your information
The focal length of a spherical
Mirror formula is the relationship between object distance p, mirror is one-half of the radius
image distance q from the mirror and focal length f of the mirror. of curvature i.e., f = R/2.
Thus we can write mirror formula as: However, we take the focal
1 1 1 length of a convex mirror as
= + .......... (12.1) negative. It is because the rays
f p q
appear to come from the focal
Equation (12.1) is true for both concave and convex point behind the mirror.
mirrors. However, following sign conventions should be Therefore, for a convex mirror,
f = - R/2.
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followed to apply this equation for solving problems

related to mirrors.

Sign Conventions
Quantity When Positive (+ ) When Negative ( – )
Object distance p Real object Virtual object
Image distance q Real Image Virtual image
Focal length f Concave mirror Convex mirror

Activity12.3: Take a concave mirror or a well polished spoon Physics insight

(using inside of the spoon with concave surface bulging Note that the word
inward). Hold it in hand towards a distant object, such as the magnification, as used in
optics, does not always mean
Sun, a building, a tree or a pole. Try to get a sharp, well- enlargement, because the
focused image of the distant object on the wall or a screen. image could be smaller than
Measure the distance of the screen from the mirror using a the object.
metre scale. Can you find out the rough focal length of the For your information
concave mirror? Draw the ray diagram to show the image
formation in this situation. Mirror

Object Image
Example 12.1: A convex mirror is used to reflect light from an
object placed 66 cm in front of the mirror. The focal length of
the mirror is 46 cm. Find the location of the image.
Solution: Given that, p = 66 cm and f = - 46 cm
Using mirror formula, Ray diagram for the virtual
1 1 – 1
= image formation in a plane
q f p
mirror.
1 – 1 – 1
= Do you know?
q 46 cm 66 cm
1 – 1
=
q 27 cm
q = – 27 cm

The negative sign indicates that the image is behind the

mirror and, therefore, is a virtual image.
Example 12.2: An object is placed 6 cm in front of a concave Convex mirrors produce
images that are smaller than
mirror that has focal length 10 cm. Determine the location of objects. This increases the
the image. view for the observer.

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Solution: Given that, p = 6 cm and f = 10 cm

Point to ponder
Using the mirror formula,
1 1 – 1
=
q f p
Apparent
1 1 – 1 position of
=
q 10 cm 6 cm fish Actual position
1 of fish
= – 1
q 15 cm
q = – 15 cm
Why the position of fish inside
The negative sign indicates that the image is virtual i.e., the water seems to be at less
depth than that of its actual
behind the mirror. position?

12.4 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

If we dip one end of a pencil or some other object into water
at an angle to the surface, the submerged part looks bent as
shown in Fig.12.7. Its image is displaced because the light
coming from the underwater portion of the object changes
direction as it leaves the water. This bending of light as it
passes from one transparent medium into another is called
refraction.
Refraction of light can be explained with the help of Fig.12.8.
A ray of light IO travelling from air falls on the surface of a
Fig.12.7: Bending of pencil in
glass block. N Normal water due to refraction
Incident ray
I
Physics insight
Angle of i Incident
incidence i Air Wavefronts
ray
O r Glass
Angle of Refracted λi λi
ray Air
refraction r
R Glass
M λt
Emerging Transmitted
ray E ray
Fig. 12.8: Refraction of light by a glass block
In refraction, the speed of light
changes due to change in the
At the air-glass interface, the ray of light IO changes direction and wavelength. But, frequency
bends towards the normal and travels along the path OR inside and hence the colour of light
the glass block. The rays IO and OR are called the incident ray and does not change.
the refracted ray respectively. The angle ‘i’ made by the incident
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ray with the normal is called angle of incidence. The angle ‘r’ For your information
made by the refracted ray with the normal is called angle of Index of
Substance
refraction. When refracted ray leaves the glass, it bends away Refraction (n)
from the normal and travels along a path ME. Thus Diamond 2.42
Cubic Zirconia 2.21
The process of bending of light as it passes from air into glass Glass (flint) 1.66
and vice versa is called refraction of light.
Glass(crown) 1.52
LAWS OF REFRACTION Ethyl Alcohol 1.36
Ice 1.31
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at
the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. Water 1.33
(ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence ‘i’ to the Air 1.00
sine of the angle of refraction ‘r’ is always
equal to a constant i.e., sin i / sin r = constant = n

where the ratio sin i / sin r is known as the refractive index

of the second medium with respect to the first medium. So
we have Do you know?
sin i red
= n ....... (12.2) orange
sin r yellow
green
blue
It is called Snell's law. violet

Speed of light in a medium

Refraction of light is caused by the difference in speed of light
in different media. For example, the speed of light in air is Violet
8 -1
approximately 3.0 × 10 m s However, when light travels
through a medium, such as water or glass, its speed
decreases. The speed of light in water is approximately Dispersion of light is due to the
1
2.3×108 m s-1,while in glass, it is approximately 2.0 × 108 m s- . variation in refractive index with
the colour. Dispersion in drops of
To describe the change in the speed of light in a medium, we
water separates the colours of
use the term index of refraction or refractive index. sunlight into a rainbow.

Refractive Index
The refractive index ‘n’ of a medium is the ratio of the speed
of light ‘c’ in air to the speed ‘v’ of light in the medium: Self Assessment
Whether the bending of light
Speed of light in air be more or less for a medium
Refractive Index =
Speed of light in medium with high refractive index?
or c ........ (12.3)
n=
v
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Example 12.3: A ray of light enters from air into glass. The
o
angle of incidence is 30 . If the refractive index of glass is 1.52,
then find the angle of refraction ‘r’.
Solution: Given that, i = 30o, n= 1.52
Using Snell's law, sin i = n
sin r
1.52 sin r = sin 30o
o
or sin r = sin 30 /1.52
sin r = 0.33
-1
r = sin (0.33)
r = 19.3o Normal Refracted ray
o
Hence, angle of refraction is 19.3 . N
12.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION r
When a ray of light travelling in denser medium enters into a Air
Glass
rarer medium, it bends away from the normal (Fig.12.9-a). If i
the angle of incidence ‘i’ increases, the angle of refraction ‘r’ Incident
also increases. For a particular value of the angle of ray
o
incidence, the angle of refraction becomes 90 . The angle of i>c
incidence, that causes the refracted ray in the rarer medium (a)
to bend through 90o is called critical angle (Fig.12.9-b). When
the angle of incidence becomes larger than the critical angle,
no refraction occurs. The entire light is reflected back into the 90
o
Air Refracted ray
denser medium (Fig.12.9-c). This is known as total internal
Glass
reflection of light.
Incident i
Example 12.4: Find the value of critical angle for water ray
(refracted angle = 90o). The refractive index of water is 1.33
and that of air is 1. i=c
Solution: When light enters in air from water, Snell's law (b)
becomes sin r
=n
sin i
or n sin i = sin r
o
n sin i = sin 90 Air No refracted ray
n sin i = 1 Glass
Incident i
But n = 1.33 ray Reflected
Therefore, ray
-1
i = sin [1/1.33] (c) i>c
= sin (0.752) = 48.8o
-1
or Fig. 12.9: Condition for total
o
Critical angle C = 48.8 internal reflection
o
Therefore, critical angle of water is 48.8 .
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12.6 APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Totally Internal Reflecting Prism
Many optical instruments use right-angled prisms to reflect a 45o
beam of light through 90o or 180o (by total internal reflection) B
45o
such as cameras, binoculars, periscope and telescope. One of A
o
the angles of a right-angled prism is 90 . When a ray of light 90o 45o
strikes a face of prism perpendicularly, it enters the prim
without deviation and strikes the hypotenuse at an angle of
45o(Fig.12.10). Since the angle of incidence 45ois greater than B’ A’
critical angle of the glass which is 42o, the light is totally
Fig.12.10: Total internal
reflected by the prism through an angle of 90o. Two such reflection through right angled
prisms are used in periscope (Fig.12.11). In Fig.12.12, the prism
o
light is totally reflected by the prism by an angle of 180 . Two
such prisms are used in binoculars (Fig.12.13).

Optical Fibre
Total internal reflection is used in fibre optics which has
number of advantages in telecommunication field. Fibre
optics consists of hair size threads of glass or plastic through
which light can be travelled (Fig. 12.14). The inner part of the Fig. 12.11: Prism periscope
fibre optics is called core that carries the light and an outer
concentric shell is called cladding. The core is made from
glass or plastic of relatively high index of refraction. The B 45o
cladding is made of glass or plastic, but of relatively low
A
refractive index. Light entering from one end of the core
90o
strikes the core-cladding boundary at an angle of incidence A’
greater than critical angle and is reflected back into the core
B’ 45o
(Fig. 12.14). In this way light travels many kilometres with
small loss of energy. Fig. 12.12
In Pakistan, optical fibre is being used in telephone and
advanced telecommunication systems. Now we can listen
thousands of phone calls without any disturbance.
Air
n = 1.00 cladding n = 1.39
r i >c
core
i n = 1.53
cladding n = 1.39

Fig.12.14: Passage of light through optical fibre Fig. 12.13: Binoculars

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Light Pipe
Light pipe is a bundle of thousands of optical fibres bounded
together. They are used to illuminate the inaccessible places
by the doctors or engineers. For example, doctors view inside
the human body. They can also be used to transmit images
from one place to another (Fig. 12.15).
Projected Fibre bundle
Image
Video
monitor
Endoscope

Lens

Transmitted Fig. 12.16: The Doctors are

image examining a patient with
Fig.12.15: A lens and light pipe can be used together to produce a endoscope
magnified transmitted image of an object

Endoscope
An endoscope is a medical instrument used for exploratory
diagnostics, and surgical purposes. An endoscope is used to
explore the interior organs of the body. Due to its small size, it
can be inserted through the mouth and thus eliminates the
invasive surgery. The endoscopes used to examine the
stomach, bladder and throat are called Gastroscope,
Cystoscope and Bronchoscope respectively. An endoscope
uses two fibre-optic tubes through a pipe. A medical
procedure using any type of endoscope is called endoscopy.
The light shines on the organ of patient to be examined by
entering through one of the fibre tubes of the endoscope.
Then light is transmitted back to the physician’s viewing lens
through the other fibre tube by total internal reflection
(Fig.12.16). Flexible endoscopes have a tiny camera attached
to the end. Doctor can see the view recorded by the camera
on a computer screen.

12.7 REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM

Prism is a transparent object (made of optical glass) with
at least two polished plane faces inclined towards
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each other from which light is refracted. A H

In case of triangular prism (Fig.12.17), the emergent ray is not
parallel to the incident ray. It is deviated by the prism from its N G D M
original path. The incident ray PE makes an angle of i e
incidenace ‘i’ at point E and is refracted towards the normal N Er F
as EF. The refracted ray EF makes an angle ‘r’ inside the Q R
prism and travels to the other face of the prism. This ray P S
emerges out from prism at point F making an angle ‘e’. B C
Hence the emerging ray FS is not parallel to the incident Fig.12.17: Refraction through
ray PE but is deviated by an angle D which is called angle a triangular glass prism
of deviation.

12.8 LENSES

A lens is any transparent material having two surfaces, of

which at least one is curved. Lenses refract light in such a way
that an image of the object is formed.
Lenses of many different types are used in optical devices
such as cameras, eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, and
projectors. They also enable millions of people to see clearly
and read comfortably.
Double Plano- Concavo-
convex convex convex
Types of Lenses Fig.12.18: Convex lenses
There are different types of lenses. The lens which causes
incident parallel rays to converge at a point is known as
convex or converging lens. This lens is thick at the centre but
thin at the edges (Fig.12.18). Another type of lens causes the
parallel rays of light to diverge from a point. This is called
concave or diverging lens. This lens is thin at the centre and
thick at the edges (Fig.12.19).

Lens Terminology
Principal Axis: Each of the two surfaces of a spherical lens is a
section of a sphere. The line passing through the two centres
of curvatures of the lens is called principal axis (Fig. 12.20). Double Plano- Convexo-
Optical Centre, C: A point on the principal axis at the centre of concave concave concave
lens is called optical centre (Fig. 12.20). Fig.12.19: Concave lenses

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f
Refraction through prism
Principal focus
Parallel
light rays
C
Opital centre F
D
Light rays after
Principal axis refraction converge
at F
Fig. 12.20: Convex lens
When light passes through
Principal Focus, F: The light rays travelling parallel to the prism it deviates from its
principal axis of a convex lens after refraction meet at a point original path due to refraction.
on the principal axis, called principal focus or focal point F.
Hence, convex lens is also called converging lens. For a concave
lens, the parallel rays appear to come from a point behind the
lens called principal focus F (Fig. 12.21). Hence concave lens is
also called diverging lens. For your information
Focal Length, f : This is the distance between the optical Normal
Light rays
centre and the principal focus (Fig. 12.21).
Base
Base

Principal focus Light rays after System of two prisms

f refraction
resembles a convex lens
diverge from
principal axis
Parallel
light rays F C
Optical centre

Principal axis

Fig. 12.21: Concave lens

Activity 12.4: Place a convex lens in front of a white For your information
screen and adjust its position until a sharp image of a Base
distant object is obtained on the screen. For example, Light rays
we can do this experiment before an open window to get
the image of window on a wall or screen (Fig.12.22). Normals
Base
Measure the distance between the lens and the screen.
System of two prisms
This is the approximate focal length of the lens. Explain. resembles a concave lens
(Hint: Make a ray diagram). What is the nature of image?

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Open window

Convex lens Image

Screen

Stand
Metre rod

Fig.12.22: Approximate method of finding focal length of a convex lens

Power of a Lens

Power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length

in metres. Thus
For your information
Dioptres are handy to use
Power of a lens = P = 1 / focal length in metres
because if two thin lenses are
placed side by side, the total
The SI unit of power of a lens is “Dioptre”, denoted by a power is simply the sum of the
-1
symbol D. If f is expressed in metres so that 1 D = 1 m . Thus, individual powers. For
1 Dioptre is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre. example, an ophthalmologist
places a 2.00 dioptre lens next
Because the focal length of a convex lens is positive, to 0.35 dioptre lens and
therefore, its power is also positive. Whereas the power of a immediately knows that the
concave lens is negative, for it has negative focal length. power of the combination is
2.35 dioptres.

12.9 IMAGE FORMATION BY LENSES

In mirrors images are formed through reflection, but lenses

form images through refraction. This is explained with the
help of ray diagrams as follows:
Image formation in convex lens can be explained with the
help of three principal rays shown in Fig.12.23
Remember it
When dealing with diverging
1. The ray parallel to the principal axis passes through lenses, you must be careful not
the focal point after refraction by the lens. to omit the negative sign
2. The ray passing through the optical centre passes associated with the focal
straight through the lens and remains undeviated. length and the image position.
3. The ray passing through the focal point becomes

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parallel to the principal axis after refraction by the

lens. For your information
Ray 1 You can compare lenses simply
Ray 1
Ray 2 by looking at them.
F F A lens with a long focal length
Object is thin; its surfaces are not very
Ray 3 strongly curved.
Ray 3 Real
A lens with a short focal length
image
is fatter; its surfaces are more
f f strongly curved.

Fig. 12.23: Convex Lens

The ray diagram for concave lens is shown in Fig.12.24.

Ray 1
Ray 1
Physics insight
Ray 3

Object F Virtual F
image Ray 2

A converging lens becomes a

f f magnifying glass when an object
is located inside the lens's focal
Fig. 12.24: Concave Lens length.

Image Formation in Convex Lens

In class VIII, we have learnt image formation by lenses. Let us
briefly revise image formation by convex lens (Fig.12.25).
(a) Object beyond 2F Physics insight

Object F 2F
2F F Image F
F

The image is between F and 2F, real, inverted, smaller than the object.
(b) Object at 2F A diverging lens always has the
same ray diagram, which forms
Object F 2F a smaller image.
2F F Image

The image is at 2F, real, inverted, the same size as the object.
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(c) Object between F and 2F

Object F 2F
2F F
Image

The image is beyond 2F, real, inverted, larger than the object. Approximations
(d) Object at F
The thin lens formula assumes
the lenses have no thickness.
This is a good assumption
Object F when objects and images are
F far away compared with the
thickness of a lens.

No image is formed because the refracted rays are

parallel and never meet.
(e) Object between lens and F

Image
For your information
Object F The study of light behaviour is
called optics. The branch of
F
optics that focuses on the
creation of images is called
geometrical optics, because it is
The image is behind the object, virtual, erect, larger than the object.
based on relationships
Fig. 12.25
between angles and lines that
12.10 IMAGE LOCATION BY LENS EQUATION describe light rays. With a few
rules from geometry, we can
In Fig.12.26, let an object OP is placed in front of a convex lens explain how images are formed
at a distance p. A ray PR parallel to the principal axis after by devices like lenses, mirrors,
refraction passes through focus F. Another ray PC meets the cameras, telescopes, and
first ray at point P’ after passing through the optical centre C. microscopes. Optics also
includes the study of the eye
If this process is repeated for the other points of the object, a itself because the human eye
real and inverted image O’P’ is formed at a distance q from forms an image with a lens.
the lens. p Thin lens
R
P
Image
F O’
O
Object F’ C
f P’
Fig.12.26 q
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What is the size of image formed in a lens for particular

distance of object from the lens? What is the nature of image,
i.e., whether image is real or imaginary, erect or inverted?
Lens formula is a tool that we use to answer all such
questions. We define lens formula as,

The relation between the object and image distance from the
lens in terms of the focal length of the lens is called lens
formula.
1 1 1
= + ......... (12.4)
f p q

Equation (12.4) is valid for both concave and convex lenses.

However, following sign conventions should be followed
while using this equation to solve problems related to lenses.
Sign Conventions for Lenses Uses of lenses

Focal length:
 f is positive for a converging lens
 f is negative for a diverging lens. Spectacles
Magnifying Glass
Object Distance:
 p is positive, if the object is towards the left side of the
lens. It is called a real object.
 p is negative, if the object is on the right side of the
lens. It is called virtual object.
Image Distance: Microscope Slide
 q is positive for a real image made on the right side of projector
the lens by real object.
 q is negative for a virtual image made on the left side
on the lens by real object.
Example 12.5: A person 1.7 m tall is standing 2.5 m in front of
a camera. The camera uses a convex lens whose focal length Binoculars Camera
is 0.05 m. Find the image distance (the distance between the
lens and the film) and determine whether the image is real or
virtual.

Solution: To find the image distance q, we use the thin lens

equation with p = 2.5 m and f = 0.05 m.
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1 1 1
=
q f p
1 1 1
= –
q 0.05 m 2.5 m
1
= 19.6 m-1
q
or q = 0.05 m
Since the image distance is positive, so a real image is formed
on the film at the focal point of the lens. A camera without lens!
Example 12.6: A concave lens has focal length of 15 cm. At
what distance should the object from the lens be placed so Wall of box
Object as screen
that it forms an image at 10 cm from the lens? Also find the Image
magnification of the lens. Pinhole

Solution: A concave lens always forms a virtual, erect image Even simpler than a camera
on the same side of the object. Given that, q = –10 cm with one lens is a pinhole
f = –15 cm, p = ? camera. To make a pinhole
1 1 1 camera, a tiny pinhole is made
Using the lens formula: = +
f p q in one side of a box. An inverted,
real image is formed on the
1 1 1 opposite side of the box.
= +
p q f

= – 1 1
+
(– 10 cm) (– 15 cm)

= 1 1
10 cm 15 cm
1
= 3 cm – 2 2cm
p 30 cm
1 1
=
p 30 cm
p = 30 cm

Thus, the object distance is 30 cm, on the left side from the
concave lens.
q 10 cm 1
Magnification of the lens is m = = =
p 30 cm 3
(Ignore nagetive sign)
The image is reduced to one-third in size than the object.

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12.11 APPLICATIONS OF LENSES

Now we discuss applications of lenses in some optical devices
such as camera, slide projector and photograph enlarger.
1. CAMERA
A simple camera consists of a light-proof box with a
converging lens in front and a light sensitive plate or film at
the back. The lens focuses images to be photographed onto
the film. In simple lens camera, the distance between lens
and film is fixed which is equal to the focal length of the lens.
In camera, object is placed beyond 2F. A real, inverted and
diminished image is formed in this way as shown in Fig.12.27.

Convex lens
Object to be
photographed Film
Principal axis

Focal Real,
point inverted
image

Fig.12.27: Schematic diagram of camera

2. SLIDE PROJECTOR
Fig.12.28 shows how a slide or movie projector works. The
light source is placed at the centre of curvature of a
converging or concave mirror. The concave mirror is used to Self Assessment
reflect light back in fairly parallel rays. The condenser is made
Where a pen is placed in front
up of 2 converging lenses that refract the light so all parts of
of a convex lens if the image is
the slide are illuminated with parallel rays. equal to the size of the pen?
Concave mirror Slide What will be the power of the
Light source lens in dioptres?
Screen

Condenser lenses Projection lens

Fig.12.28: Diagram of slide projector
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The projection or converging lens provides a real, large and

inverted image. It must be real to be projected on a screen.
The slide (object) must be placed between F and 2F of
projection lens so as to produce a real, large, and inverted
image. Because the image is inverted, the slide must be
placed upside down and laterally inverted so we can see the
image properly.

3. PHOTOGRAPH ENLARGER
In the case of photograph enlarger object is placed at distance of
more than F but less than 2F. In this way, we get a real, inverted
and enlarged image as shown in Fig. 12.29. The working principle
of photograph enlarger is basically the same as that of a slide
projector. It uses a convex lens to produce a real, magnified and
inverted image of the film on photographic paper.
Bulb
Condenser lenses
Photographic
Projection paper
Film lens

Object
Fig.12.29: Diagram of photograph enlarger ho 0
(a) d
12.12 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE Fig.12.30

A magnifying glass is a convex lens which is used to produce

magnified images of small objects. Hence, it is also called Virtual
simple microscope. The object is placed nearer to the lens image
Magnifying
glass
than the principal focus such that an upright, virtual and Object
hi
magnified image is seen clearly at 25cm from the normal eye.
F ho 0
Magnifying Power
Let be the angle subtended at the eye by a small object do
(b)
when it is placed at near point of the eye(Fig.12.30-a). d
If the object is now moved nearer to the eye(Fig.12.30-b), the Fig.12.30: Image formation in
angle on the eye will increase and becomes , but the eye will magnifying glass
not be able to see it clearly. In order to see the object clearly,
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we put a convex lens between the object and the eye, so that
the lens makes a large virtual image of the object at near
point of the eye. In this way, the object appears magnified.
The magnifying power in this case will be:
M =

It can be shown that the magnifying power is given by the

relation:
d
M = = 1+
f
where f is the focal length of lens and d is near point of eye. It
is clear from this relation that a lens of shorter focal length
will have greater magnifying power.
Resolving Power
The resolving power of an instrument is its ability to
Magnifying glass is a lens that
distinguish between two closely placed objects or point forms a virtual image that is
sources. larger than object and appears
In order to see objects that are close together, we use an behind the lens.
instrument of high resolving power. For example, we use
high resolving power microscope to see tiny organisms and
telescope to view distant stars.
12.13 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Compound microscope has two converging lenses, the
objective and the eyepiece and is used to investigate
structure of small objects (Fig.12.31). Following are some
features of compound microscope:
Eye

Coarse
Eypiece focusing
knob
Body tube
Fine
Objective focusing
turret knob
Arm

Objectives Slide with

Stage specimen
Condenser
Lamp
Base
Fig.12.31: Compound microscope

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 It gives greater magnification than a single lens.

 The objective lens has a short focal length, ƒo< 1 cm.
 The eyepiece has a focal length, ƒe of a few cm.

Magnification of the Compound Microscope

Magnification can be determined through the ray diagram as
shown in Fig. 12.32. Objective forms a small image I1 inside
the focal point of eyepiece. This image acts as an object for
the eyepiece and the final larger image I2 is formed outside
the focal point of the objective.
L Compound microscops
Eyepiece Objective lens has smaller
Objective focal length, than the
Object eyepiece.
P Eye Distance between the
Fo Fe Q Fe
OF objective lens and the
T o I1
eyepiece is greater than f0+fe .It
R is used to see very small
I2 fo
objects.
Final
image
S fe
d
Fig. 12.32: Ray diagram for compound microscope

The magnification of a compound microscope is given by

L d
M= (1 + )
fo fe
where L is the length of a compound microscope which is
equal to the distance between objective and eye piece, d is
distance of final image from eye, fo and fe are the focal lengths Astronomical telescope
of objective and eye piece respectively. Objective lens has larger focal
length than the eyepiece.
Uses of Compound Microscope Distance between the
A compound microscope is used to study bacteria and other objective lens and the
micro objects. It is also used for research in several fields of eyepiece is equal to f0+fe.
It is used to see distant
sciences like, Microbiology, Botany, Geology, and Genetics. astronomical objects.

12.14 TELESCOPE
Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to observe
distant objects using lenses or mirrors. A telescope that uses
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two converging lenses is called refracting telescope

(Fig.12.33). In refracting telescope, an objective lens forms a
real image of the distant object, while an eyepiece forms a
virtual image that is viewed by the eye. For your information
Terrestrial telescope is similar
to refracting telescope except
with an extra lens between
Focal point Focal point objective and eyepiece.
Objective lens of eyepiece of objective lens

Eyepiece
Image of
Image of
eyepiece
objective
lens
For your information
Fig. 12.33: An astronomical refracting telescope creates a virtual image T h e m a g n i f i cat i o n o f a
that is inverted compared to the object. combination of lenses is equal
WORKING OF REFRACTING TELESCOPE to the product of the
The ray diagram of refracting telescope is shown in Fig.12.34. magnifications of each lens.
When parallel rays from a point on a distant object pass
through objective lens, a real image I1 is formed at the focus
Fo of the objective lens. This image acts as an object for the
eyepiece. A large virtual image I2 of I1 is formed by the
eyepiece at a large distance from the objective lens. This
virtual image makes an angle  at the eyepiece. For your information
A telescope cannot make stars
Magnification of Telescope look bigger, because they are
too far away. But there is
Magnification of a refracting telescope can be determined
something important the
through the ray diagram of Fig. 12.34 and is given by M = f telescope can do – it makes
Objective lens Eyepiece
fe stars look brighter. Dim stars
Observer look bright, and stars that are
0o Fe Fo too faint to see come into view.
0o 0 Without a telescope, we can
see up to 3000 individual stars
I1 in the night sky; a small
telescope can increase this by a
factor of at least 10. So a
telescope is better than the
naked eye for seeing dim stars.
fe fe The reason is that the telescope
fo gathers more light than the eye.
I2 Fig.12.34: Ray diagram of refracting telescope
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12.15 THE HUMAN EYE

The image formation in human eye is shown in Fig.12.35. Retina
Iris
Human eye acts like a camera. In place of the film, the retina Lens
records the picture. The eye has a refracting system Object
containing a converging lens. The lens forms an image on the
retina which is a light sensitive layer at the back of the eye. In
Cornea
the camera, the distance of lens from film is adjusted for Light rays
Image
proper focus but in the eye, the lens changes focal length.
Fig.12.35: Image formation in
Light enters the eye through a transparent membrane called human eye
the cornea. The iris is the coloured portion of the eye and
controls the amount of light reaching the retina. It has an
opening at its centre called the pupil. The iris controls the size
of the pupil. In bright light, iris contracts the size of the pupil
while in dim light pupil is enlarged. The lens of the eye is
flexible and accommodates objects over a wide range of For your information
distances.

Accommodation
The camera focuses the image of an object at a given distance
from it by moving the lens towards or away from the film. The
eye has different adjusting mechanism for focusing the image
of an object onto the retina. Its ciliary muscles control the
We see because the eye forms
curvature and thus the focal length of the lens, and allow
images on the retina at the
objects at various distances to be seen. back of the eyeball.
Distant object

(a)
Relaxed lens
Image on retina
Close object

(b)
Tensed lens Quick Quiz
Image on retina
Fig.12.36: Human eye accommodation
How the size of the pupil of our
eye will change:
If an object is far away from the eye, the deviation of light through (a) in dim light?
the lens must be less. To do this, the ciliary muscles relax and (b) in bright light?
decrease the curvature of the lens, thereby, increasing the focal
length. The rays are thus focused onto the retina producing a
sharp image of the distant object (Fig.12.36-a).
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If an object is close to the eye, the ciliary muscles increase

curvature of the lens, thereby, shortening the focal length.
The divergent rays from the nearer object are thus bent more
so as to come to a focus on the retina (Fig.12.36-b).
The variation of focal length of eye lens to form a sharp image
on retina is called accommodation.
It is large in young people while it goes on decreasing with
age. Defects in accommodation may be corrected by using Normal vision Image
formed
different type of lenses in eyeglasses. In the following Object on Retina
sections, we will describe defect of vision and their remedies.
Lens
Near Point and Far Point
25 cm 2.5 cm
When we hold a book too close, the print is blurred because Near
point
the lens cannot adjust enough to bring the book into focus.
Fig.12.37: Image formation in
The near point of the eye is the minimum distance of an object human eye when object is
from the eye at which it produces a sharp image on the retina. placed at near point.
This distance is also called the least distance of distinct vision
(Fig.12.37). An object closer to the eye than the near point
appears blurred. For people in their early twenties with
normal vision, the near point is located about 25 cm from the
eye. It increases to about 50 cm at the age 40 years and to
roughly 500 cm at the of age 60 years.
The far point of the eye is the maximum distance of a distant
object from the eye on which the fully relaxed eye can focus.
A person with normal eyesight can see objects very far away,
such as the planets and stars, and thus has a far point located at Do you know?
infinity. Majority of people not have “normal eyes” in this sense! Contact lenses produce the
same results as eyeglasses do.
12.16 DEFECTS OF VISION These small, thin lenses are
placed directly on the corneas.
The inability of the eye to see the image of objects clearly is A thin layer of tears between
called defect of vision. the cornea and lens keeps the
The defects of vision arise when the eye lens is unable to lens in place. Most of the
accommodate effectively. The images formed are therefore refraction occurs at the air-
lens surface, where the
blurred. difference in indices of
Nearsightedness (myopia) refraction is greatest.

Some people cannot see distant objects clearly without the

aid of spectacles. This defect of vision is known as short sight
or nearsightedness and it may be due to the eyeball being too
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long. Light rays from a distant object are focused in front of

the retina and a blurred image is produced (Fig.12.38-a). Interesting information
Distant object Relaxed lens
Some animals like fish has the
ability to move their eye lenses
(a) Far point of
forward or backward and
nearsighted eye
Image formed in hence, are able to see clearly
front of retina objects around them.
Virtual image formed Diverging lens
Distant object by diverging lens

Far point of
(b)
nearsighted eye
Image formed
Fig. 12.38: Correction of near sightedness on retina
The nearsighted eye can be corrected with glass or contact
lenses that use diverging lenses. Light rays from the distant
objects are now diverged by this lens before entering the eye.
To the observer, these light rays appear to come from far
point and are therefore focused on the retina, thus forming a
sharp image (Fig.12.38-b).
Farsightedness (hypermetropia)
The disability of the eye to form distinct images of nearby
objects on its retina is known as farsightedness.
When a farsighted eye tries to focus on a book held closer
than the near point, it shortens its focal length as much as it
can. However, even at its shortest, the focal length is longer
than it should be. Therefore, the light rays from the book For your information
would form a blurred image behind the retina (Fig.12.39-a).
A thin film can be placed on the
Near point of Tensed lens Image formed lenses of eyeglasses to keep
farsighted eye behind retina them from reflecting
wavelengths of light that are
(a) Object
highly visible to the human
eye. This prevents the glare of
Virtual image formed reflected light.
by converging lens Converging lens

(b)
Near point of Object
Image formed
farsighted eye on retina
Fig. 12.39: Correction of farsightedness

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This defect can be corrected with the aid of a suitable

converging lens. The lens refracts the light rays and they
converge to form an image on the retina. To an observer,
these rays appear to come from near point to form a sharp
virtual image on the retina (Fig.12.39-b).

SUMMARY
 When light travelling in a certain medium falls on the surface of another
medium, a part of it turns back in the same medium. This is called reflection of
light. There are two laws of reflection:
i. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
ii. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (i.e., i = r).
 Like plane surfaces, spherical surfaces also reflect light satisfying the two
laws of reflection.
 In mirrors, image formation takes place through reflection of light while in
lenses image is formed through refraction of light.
 The equation relating the distance of the object p from the mirror/lens,
distance of the image q and the focal length f of the mirror/lens is called
mirror/lens formula, given by 1 1 1
= +
f p q
 Magnification of a spherical mirror or thin lens is defined as “the ratio of the
image height to the object height.” i.e., Image height hi
Magnification m= =
Object height ho
 Power of a lens is defined as “the reciprocal of its focal length in metres”. Thus Power
of a lens = P = 1 / focal length in metres. The SI unit of power of a lens is “Dioptre”,
-1
denoted by a symbol D. If f is expressed in metres so that 1 D = 1 m . Thus, 1 Dioptre
is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 metre.
 The refractive index ‘n’ of a material is the ratio of the speed of light ‘c’ in air to the
speed of light ‘v’ in the material, thus
Speed of light in air c
n= =
Speed of light in medium v
 The bending of light from its straight path as it passes from one medium into another
is called refraction.
 Refraction of light takes place under two laws called laws of refraction. These are
stated as:
i. The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal at the point of incidence
all lie in the same plane.

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ii. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence ‘i’ to the sine of the angle of refraction
‘r’ is always equal to a constant i.e., sin i= constant.
sin i sin r
where the ratio is equal to the refractive index of the second medium with
sin r
respect to the first medium.
i.e., sin i = n
sin r
This is also called Snell's law.
. o
 The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction becomes 90 is called critical
angle. When the angle of incidence becomes larger than the critical angle, no
refraction occurs. The entire light is reflected back into the denser medium. This is
known as total internal reflection of light.
 A simple microscope, also known as a magnifying glass, is a convex lens which is
used to produce magnified images of small objects.
 A compound microscope is used to investigate structure of small objects and has
two converging lens, the objective and the eyepiece.
 Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to observe distant objects using
lenses or mirrors. A telescope that uses two converging lenses is called refracting
telescope. A telescope in which the objective lens is replaced by a concave mirror is
called reflecting power telescope.
 The magnifying power is defined as “the ratio of the angle subtended by the image as
seen through the optical device to that subtended by the object at the unaided eye”.
 The resolving power of an instrument is its ability to distinguish between two closely
placed objects.
 The ability of the eye to change the focal length of its lens so as to form a clear image
of an object on its retina is called its power of accommodation.
 The disability of the eye to form distinct images of distant objects on its retina is
known as nearsightedness. The nearsighted eye can be corrected with glass or
contact lenses that use diverging lenses. Light rays from the distant objects will
diverge by this lens before entering the eye.
 The disability of the eye to form distinct images of nearby objects on its retina is
known as farsightedness. This defects can be corrected with the aid of a suitable
converging lens. The lens refracts the light rays more towards the principal axis
before they enter the eye.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct answer from the given choices:
i. Which of the following quantity is not changed during refraction of light?
(a) its direction (b) its speed
(c) its frequency (d) its wavelength
ii. A converging mirror with a radius of 20 cm creates a real image 30 cm from the
mirror. What is the object distance?
(a) -5.0 cm (b) -7.5 cm
(c) -15 cm (d) -20 cm
iii. An object is placed at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror. The image
produced by the mirror is located
(a) out beyond the centre of curvature.
(b) at the centre of curvature.
(c) between the centre of curvature and the focal point
(d) at the focal point
iv. An object is 14 cm in front of a convex mirror. The image is 5.8 cm behind the mirror.
What is the focal length of the mirror?
(a) -4.1 cm (b) -8.2 cm
(c) -9.9 cm (d) -20 cm
v. The index of refraction depends on
(a) the focal length (b) the speed of light
(c) the image distance (d) the object distance
vi. Which type of image is formed by a concave lens on a screen?
(a) inverted and real (b) inverted and virtual
(c) upright and real (d) upright and virtual
vii. Which type of image is produced by the converging lens of human eye if it views a
distant object?
(a) real, erect, same size (b) real, inverted, diminished
(c) virtual, erect, diminished (d) virtual, inverted, magnified
viii. Image formed by a camera is
(a) real, inverted, and diminished
(b) virtual, upright and diminished
(c) virtual, upright and magnified
(d) real, inverted and magnified
ix. If a ray of light in glass is incident on an air surface at an angle greater than the critical
angle, the ray will
(a) refract only

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(b) reflect only

(c) partially refract and partially reflect
(d) diffract only
x. The critical angle for a beam of light passing from water into air is 48.8 degrees.
This means that all light rays with an angle of incidence greater than this angle
will be
(a) absorbed
(b) totally reflected
(c) partially reflected and partially transmitted
(d) totally transmitted

REVIEW QUESTIONS
12.1. What do you understand by reflection of light? Draw a diagram to illustrate
reflection at a plane surface.
12.2. Describe the following terms used in reflection:
(i) normal (ii) angle of incidence (iii) angle of reflection
12.3. State laws of reflection. Describe how they can be verified graphically.
12.4. Define refraction of light. Describe the passage of light through parallel-sided
transparent material.
12.5. Define the following terms used in refraction:
(i) angle of incidence (ii) angle of refraction
12.6. What is meant by refractive index of a material? How would you determine the
refractive index of a rectangular glass slab?
12.7. State the laws of refraction of light and show how they may be verified using
rectangular glass slab and pins.
12.8. What is meant by the term total internal reflection?
12.9. State the conditions for total internal reflection.
12.10. What is critical angle? Derive a relationship between the critical angle and the
refractive index of a substance.
12.11. What are optical fibres? Describe how total internal reflection is used in light
propagating through optical fibres.
12.12. Define the following terms applied to a lens:
(i) principal axis (ii) optical centre (iii) focal length
12.13. What is meant by the principal focus of a (a) convex lens (b) concave lens?
Illustrate your answer with ray diagrams.
12.14. Describe how light is refracted through convex lens.
12.15. With the help of a ray diagram, how you can show the use of thin converging lens as a
magnifying glass.
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12.16. A coin is placed at a focal point of a converging lens. Is an image formed? What is its
nature?
12.17. What are the differences between real and virtual images?
12.18. How does a converging lens form a virtual image of a real object? How does a
diverging lens can form a real image of a real object?
12.19. Define power of a lens and its units.
12.20. Describe the passage of light through a glass prism and measure the angle of
deviation.
12.21. Define the terms resolving power and magnifying power.
12.22. Draw the ray diagrams of
(i) simple microscope (ii) compound microscope (iii) refracting telescope
12.23. Mention the magnifying powers of the following optical instruments:
(i) simple microscope (ii) compound microscope (iii) refracting telescope
12.24. Draw ray diagrams to show the formation of images in the normal human eye.
12.25. What is meant by the terms nearsightedness and farsightedness? How can these
defects be corrected?

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
12.1. A man raises his left hand in a plane mirror, the image facing him is raising his right
hand. Explain why.
12.2. In your own words, explain why light waves are refracted at a boundary between
two materials.
12.3. Explain why a fish under water appears to be at a different depth below the surface
than it actually is. Does it appear deeper or shallower?
12.4. Why or why not concave mirrors are suitable for makeup?
12.5. Why is the driver's side mirror in many cars convex rather than plane or concave?
12.6. When an optician's testing room is small, he uses a mirror to help him test the
eyesight of his patients. Explain why.
12.7. How does the thickness of a lens affect its focal length?
12.8. Under what conditions will a converging lens form a virtual image?
12.9. Under what conditions will a converging lens form a real image that is the same size
as the object?
12.10. Why do we use refracting telescope with large objective lens of large focal length?

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
12.1. An object 10.0 cm in front of a convex mirror forms an image 5.0 cm behind the
mirror. What is the focal length of the mirror? Ans. (-
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GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

10 cm)
12.2. An object 30 cm tall is located 10.5 cm from a concave mirror with focal length
16 cm. (a) Where is the image located? (b) How high is it?
Ans. [ (a) 30.54 cm (b) 87.26 cm]
12.3. An object and its image in a concave mirror are of the same height, yet inverted,
when the object is 20 cm from the mirror. What is the focal length of the mirror?
Ans. (10 cm)
12.4. Find the focal length of a mirror that forms an image 5.66 cm behind the mirror of an
object placed at 34.4 cm in front of the mirror. Is the mirror concave or convex?
Ans. (-6.77 cm, Convex mirror)
12.5. An image of a statue appears to be 11.5 cm behind a concave mirror with focal
length 13.5 cm. Find the distance from the statue to the mirror. Ans. (77.62 cm)
12.6. An image is produced by a concave mirror of focal length 8.7 cm. The object is
13.2 cm tall and at a distance 19.3 cm from the mirror. (a) Find the location and
height of the image. (b) Find the height of the image produced by the
mirror if the object is twice as far from the mirror.
Ans. [(a) 15.84 cm, 10.83 cm (b) 5.42 cm]
12.7. Nabeela uses a concave mirror when applying makeup. The mirror has a radius of
curvature of 38 cm. (a) What is the focal length of the mirror? (b) Nabeela is
located 50 cm from the mirror. Where will her image appear? (c) Will the
image be upright or inverted? Ans. [(a) 19 cm, (b)
30.64 cm, (c) upright]
12.8. An object 4 cm high is placed at a distance of 12 cm from a convex lens of focal length
8 cm. Calculate the position and size of the image. Also state the nature of the image.
Ans. (24 cm, 8 cm, image is real, inverted and magnified)
12.9. An object 10 cm high is placed at a distance of 20 cm from a concave lens of focal
length 15 cm. Calculate the position and size of the image. Also, state the
nature of the image. Ans. (-8.57 cm, 4.28 cm, image is virtual, erect
and diminished)
12.10. A convex lens of focal length 6 cm is to be used to form a virtual image three times
the size of the object. Where must the lens be placed? Ans.
(4 cm)
o
12.11. A ray of light from air is incident on a liquid surface at an angle of incidence 35 .
Calculate the angle of refraction if the refractive index of the liquid is 1.25. Also
calculate the critical angle between the liquid air inter-face. Ans.
o o
(27.31 , 53.13 )
12.12. The power of a convex lens is 5 D. At what distance the object should be placed from
the lens so that its real and 2 times larger image is formed. Ans.
(30 cm)
67 Not For Sale – PESRP