*Light:-

-Light is the form of energy that provides sensation of vision.

→ Some common phenomena associated with lights are image formation by

mirrors, the twinkling of stars, the beautiful colours of a rainbow, bending of light by
a medium and so on.

•Properties of light:-

-Light is a Electromagnetic wave, so does not require any medium to travel.

→ Light tends to travel in straight line.

→ Light has dual nature i.e. wave as well as particle.

→ Light casts shadow.

→ Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. Its value is

3 × 10⁸ m/s

→ When light falls on a surface, following may happen:

(i) Reflection

(ii) Refraction

(iii) Absorption

*Reflection:-
The bouncing back of the light to the incident medium after hitting a shiny surface
is called a reflection of light. It is an important phenomenon as it allows us to see
non-luminous objects. –

There are two types of reflection: regular and diffuse(irregular)

a)Regular reflection
Also called specular reflection, this occurs when light reflects from a
smooth surface at the same angle as it hits the surface. Examples of
smooth surfaces include glass, water, or polished metal.
b)diffuse reflection -
Also called irregular reflection, this occurs when light reflects from
a rough surface and scatters in all directions. Most natural surfaces
are rough, so parallel light rays are reflected in many different
directions. This makes it possible to see most illuminated surfaces
from any angle.

{-Non-luminous objects are objects that do not produce their

own light. They can only be seen if they reflect light from a
luminous object.
Ex:-wood,paper,etc
-A luminous object is something that produces its own light or
energy. Luminous objects are visible because they emit their
own light.
Ex:-fireflies, tube light, candle, torch etc.}

Laws of reflection:-
1. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection. It is generally expressed in θ

2. The incident ray, reflected ray, angle of incidence, angle of reflection and normal all
lie in the same plane and also the reflected ray and the incident ray are on the
opposite sides of the normal.
{-The normal line is an imaginary line that extends perpendicular to the surface of the
mirror, from the point where the light ray is incident to it.
-The angle of incidence is the angle formed between the incident ray and the normal
-The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.}

•Image:-
-It is a point where atleast two light rays actually meet or apper meet.
-There are two types of images
a)real image
b)virtual image
There are two types of mirror:-
1.plane mirror
2.spherical mirror
1.PLANE MIRROR
-CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY THE PLANE
MIRROR:-
i) Virtual and erect.
(ii) Size of image is equal to the size of object. (iii) Image is formed
as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
(iv) Laterally inverted.
Lateral Inversion: The right side of the object appears left side of
the image and vice-versa

•Application of lateral inversion:-

Ambulance is usually in a hurry. In order to convey the vehicle in
front that it is an ambulance, it is written laterally inverted. When
the driver of the vehicle in front reads through the rear-view
mirror, the Image of this inscription, through lateral inversion, form
a right oriented image.

2.SPHERICAL MIRROR:-
A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the shape of a piece cut out of a spherical surface.
There are two types of spherical mirrors: concave mirror and convex mirror

A)Concave mirror:-
-If the reflective surface is on the side curved inwards, it is a concave mirror.
-It is also called converging mirror because it converg the light rays at one point.
B)Convex mirror:-
-Similarly, if the reflective surface is curved outwards, it is a convex mirror.
-it is also called diverging mirror because it diverg the light rays falling on it.

•TERMINOLOGIES:-
There are a few basic terminologies that one needs to know while studying spherical mirrors,
and they are:

1.Center of Curvature
The point in the centre of the mirror passes through the curve of the mirror and has the same
tangent and curvature at that point.

2.Radius of Curvature
It’s the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.

3.Principal Axis
The imaginary line passes through the optical centre and the centre of curvature of any lens
or a spherical mirror.

4.Pole
The midpoint of the spherical mirror.

5.Aperture
An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of light actually happens.
It also gives the size of the mirror.
6.Principal Focus
Principal Focus can also be called Focal Point. It’s on the axis of a mirror or lens wherein
rays of light parallel to the axis converge or appear to converge after reflection or refraction.

7.Focus
It’s any given point, where light rays parallel to the principal axis, will converge after getting
reflected from the mirror.

•Ray diagrams:-
-ray diagrams are a visual representation of the propagation of light. They can help us to
understand and visualise multiple situations, such as light being reflected off of a mirror or
changing its direction while moving through a lens.

Ray diagrams can sometimes also be called light ray diagrams. All ray diagrams follow two
basic rules:

Every ray must be drawn as a straight line

Every ray must have an arrowhead pointing in the direction that the light is travelling.

•Rules for drawing ray diagrams for spherical mirrors:

1. An incident ray parallel to the principal axis :

-In the case of a concave mirror, an incident ray parallel to the principal axis passes through
its focus after reflection.
-In the case of a convex mirror, the incident ray after reflection appears to come from the
focus of the mirror.

2. An incident ray passing through the focus :

-In a concave mirror, an incident ray passing through the focus is reflected parallel to the
principal axis.
-In the case of a convex mirror, the incident ray, which appears to move in the direction of
the focus of the mirror, is reflected parallel to the principal axis.

3. An incident ray passing through the centre of curvature :

-An incident ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror reflects back
along the same path, without any deviation.
-In the case of a convex mirror, an incident ray that appears to move towards the direction of
centre of curvature is reflected back along the same path without any deviation.

4. A ray of light incident at the pole of the mirror :

-In a concave mirror, a ray of light incident at the pole gets reflected along a path such that
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
-For a convex mirror, a ray of light incident at the pole gets reflected along a path such that
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

*Uses of Concave mirror:-

1.Shaving mirrors
The curved surface of a concave mirror creates an enlarged, upright image of the face when
held close to the face.
2.Dental mirrors
Concave mirrors allow dentists to see an enlarged image of the tooth.
3.Solar furnaces
Concave mirrors absorb sunlight and focus it at a focal point, generating heat for cooking,
electricity, and heating.
4.Head mirrors
ENT doctors use concave mirrors in head mirrors to provide proper illumination while
inspecting areas.

*Other uses:-
Vehicle headlights, Searchlights, Makeup mirrors, Microscopes, Telescopes, Flashlights, and
Ophthalmoscope(instrument used to examine eye)
*Uses of convex mirror:-
(1)Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirrors in vehicles because
→ they always give an erect though diminished image.
→ they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.
(ii) Convex mirrors are used at blind turns and on points of merging traffic to facilitate
vision of both side traffic.
(iii) Used in shops as security mirror.

*Sign convention for reflection of spherical mirror:-

(i) The object is placed to the left of the mirror.

(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.

(iii) All distances measured in the direction of incident ray (along + X-axis) are taken as
positive and those measured against the direction of incident ray (along – X-axis) are taken
as negative.

(iv) Distance measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are taken as positive.

(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis are taken as negative.

Object distance from pole:-u

Image distance from pole:-v
Focal length for convex mirror:-always positive

Focal length for Concave mirror:-always negative

*Mirror formula:-
1/v + 1/u = 1/f

Where,
V = Image distance
U = Object distance
F = Focal length

*Magnification of spherical mirror:-

--It is the ratio of the height of image to the height of object.

M = Height of image/Height of object

⇒ m = hi/ho
Also,
M = -v/u

-m=hi/ho =-v/u

→ If ‘m’ is negative, image is real.

→ If ‘m’ is positive, image is virtual.
→ If hi = ho then m = 1, i.e., image is equal to object.
→ If hi > ho then m > 1 i.e., image is enlarged.
→ If hi < ho then m < 1 i.e., image is diminished.

• Magnification of plane mirror is always + 1.

‘+’ sign indicates virtual image.
‘1’ indicates that image is equal to object’s size.

• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and less than 1, it is a convex mirror.

• If ‘m’ is ‘+ve’ and more than 1, it is a concave mirror.

• If ‘m’ is ‘-ve’, it is a concave mirror

*REFRACTION:-
→ Refraction is bending of light when it enters obliquely from one transparent medium to
another.

→ Speed of light is maximum in vaccum. It is 3 × 10⁸ m/s.

*Some examples of refraction:-

→ The bottom of swimming pool appears higher.

→ A pencil partially immersed in water appears to be bent at the interface of water and air.
→ Lemons placed in a glass tumbler appear bigger.
→ Letters of a book appear to be raised when seen through a glass slab
Laws of Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
(ii) Snell’s law: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is
a constant, for a light of given colour and for a given pair of media.

Sin i/sin r=constant

Refractive index (n):

--The ratio of speed of light in a given pair of media
N = Velocity of light in medium 1/Velocity of light in medium 2

→ n21 means refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium.
N21 = v1/v2(v=speed of light)

→ n12 means refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium.
N12 = v2/v1

• Absolute Refractive Index: Refractive index of a medium with respect to vaccum or air.
N = (c/v) x c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s.

→ Refractive index of one medium is reciprocal of other’s refractive index in a given pair.
N12 = 1/n21

→ Refractive index of diamond is the highest till date. It is 2.42. It means speed of light is
½.42 times less in diamond than in vaccum.

• Optically denser medium: Out of two given media, the medium with higher value of
refractive index.

• Optically rarer medium: Out of two given media, the medium with lower value to refractive
index.

→ When light enters obliquely from a rarer to a denser medium, it bends towards the
normal.

--When light enters obliquely from denser to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal.

Spherical lens:
A transparent medium bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are curved.
There are two types of lens:-
1.concave lens
2.convex lens
*Concave Lens*
-Thinner at the center
-thicker at the edges,
-it diverges light rays.
-used in devices like microscopes and cameras to correct vision.
-it is also called diverging lens
*Convex Lens*
Thicker at the center
-thinner at the edges
-it converges light rays.
-used in magnifying glasses, eyeglasses, and cameras to focus light
-also called converging mirror
*Optical centre –
The optical centre of the lens is defined as the point which lies on the principal axis through
which the rays of light pass without any deflection.
Or it can be defined as the central point of the lens through which a ray of light passes
without suffering any deviation.
Rules for image formation by convex lens

1) A ray of light parallel to principal axis of a convex lens always pass through the focus
on the other side of the lens.

ii) A ray of light passing through the principal focus will emerge parallel to principal
axis after refraction
iii) A ray of light passing through the optical center will emerge without
any deviation.
Rules for Image Formation by Concave Lens

(i) A ray of light parallel to the principal axis appear to diverge from the
principal focus located on the same side of the lens.
ii) A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of a concave lens will
emerge parallel to principal axis.

iii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of a lens will emerge
without any deviation.
--Sign convention for spherical lenses

• Sign conventions are similar to the one used for spherical mirrors, except that
measurements are taken from optical center of the lens.

• Focal length of convex lens = Positive

Focal length of concave lens = Negative

Lens Formula
1/v – 1/u = 1/f

Magnification
M = hi/ho = v/u

-Power of a lens

→ It is defined as the reciprocal of focal length in meter.

→ The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays is expressed in terms of

power.

Power (P) = 1/v – 1/u = 1/f

→ SI unit of Power = dioptre = D

→ 1 D = 1 m-1

→ 1 dioptre is the power of lens whose focal length is one meter.

→ Power of convex lens = Positive

→ Power of concave lens = Negative

→ Power ∝ 1/(focal length or thickness)

→ Power of a lens combination (P) = P1 + P2 + P3 .........