Design for Construction

Safety

Instructor Guide
 This material is for training purposes only.

Disclaimer
This information has been developed by the OSHA Alliance Program’s
Construction Roundtable and the Directorate Cooperative and State Programs
and is intended to assist employers, workers, and others as they strive to
improve workplace health and safety. While we attempt to thoroughly address
specific topics, it is not possible to include discussion of everything necessary to
ensure a healthy and safe working environment in a presentation of this nature.
Thus, this information must be understood as a tool for addressing workplace
hazards, rather than an exhaustive statement of an employer’s legal obligations,
which are defined by statute, regulations, and standards. Likewise, to the extent
hat this information references practices or procedures that may enhance health
or safety, but which are not required by a statute, regulation, or standard, it
cannot, and does not, create different or additional legal obligations. Finally, over
time, OSHA may modify regulations, standards, compliance documents, or
interpretations. To keep apprised of such developments, or to review current
information, you can visit OSHA’s website at www.osha.gov.

Design for Construction Safety 2

 This material is for training purposes only.

INTRODUCTION
The construction industry has one of the highest fatality rates of any industry
sector. In 2009 there were nearly 1,552,000 serious injuries and 834 deaths in
construction. Construction has only 5% of the U.S. workforce, yet has 16.5% of
the fatalities. These statistics have been fairly constant from year to year.

The very nature of the construction process increases the likelihood of an

accident. In general industry, most work tasks take place under one roof, with
one management structure. A construction project is different. An owner
generally hires a design professional and a general contractor. The general
contractor usually subcontracts some or all of the work to specialty trade
contractors. Overall site management can be an enormous task. Construction
projects move fast. The work, the subcontractors, and the material deliveries
must be scheduled so that the project is completed on time and within budget.
Then there are unexpected events and change orders. Site safety adds another
whole layer to the overall task of managing the site.

What ends up happening is that hazards are managed during the construction
process. Unanticipated hazards can arise due to sequencing changes. Workers
may or not be trained. Decisions are made which may or may not prove to be
safe. For example, a worker may tie off on a structural element that is unsound,
or may not tie off at all if there is nothing to tie off to.

Studies have shown that a significant percentage of construction injuries and

fatalities can be traced back to design issues. During the years 2000-2002 22%
of injuries in Oregon, Washington, and California were linked to design. Across
the United States, 42% of construction fatalities were related to design issues
between the years 1990 and 2003. A 1991 study done in Europe found that 60%
of fatalities were the result of decisions made before the site work even began.
These studies and statistics suggest that design professionals can have a
significant impact on construction injuries and fatalities by considering
construction safety hazards in their designs.

In this course we will look at methods to identify and evaluate construction site
hazards. Then we will look at the hierarchy of controls to select the best design
feature to either eliminate the hazard or reduce the risk. Many examples will be
presented which pertain to the 1926 regulations.

Design for Construction Safety 3

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide COURSE GOAL

2 Traditionally, design professionals prepare plans and specifications for
construction projects. They have little involvement in the actual construction
process. The contractors start with the plans and implement whatever means and
methods are required to complete the project. The contractor has to manage
hazards during the work. Certain design details and sometime the lack of other
design details can make a building more hazardous to build.

The goal is to provide contractors, owners, design/build firms, engineers,

architects with information on how to recognize and anticipate construction
hazards and how to eliminate them with well thought out design features.

Slide SPECIFIC COURSE OBJECTIVES

3 The specific course objectives start with methods that can be used to identify
factors which can contribute to construction injuries and fatalities and how to
analyze work sites for hazards. Then the hierarchy of controls is applied to each
hazard. Lastly, examples of how appropriate design features can eliminate or
reduce the risk of injuries.

At the end of the course students will be able to:

• Identify factors which contribute to construction injuries and fatalities

• Explain how to analyze work sites for hazards

• Discuss the hierarchy of controls for construction hazards

• Provide methodology and examples of how appropriate design features

can eliminate or reduce the risk of an injury

Slides COURSE OUTLINE

4-7 First, we will discuss why Design for Construction Safety (DfCS) is needed. We
will look at:

 Construction injury and fatality statistics

 “Conventional” construction

 Design for Construction Safety (DfCS) overview

 Factors that contribute to construction injuries and fatalities

and how DfCS fits in.

Design for Construction Safety 4

 This material is for training purposes only.

Next we will look at Design for Construction Safety Methodology, specifically,

 Identify hazards- Consider Human Factors, Recognized hazards, Hidden

hazards-”What if”

 Assess risk associated with each hazard

 Apply Hierarchy of Controls

We will look at the top three OSHA violations: fall protection, scaffolding, and
ladders and what DfCS can offer in these areas.

OSHA 1926 contains a number of areas that have to be in compliance. We will

look at these areas and how DfCS can be used. DfCS can also be beneficial
when it comes to life cycle considerations. Lastly, We will look at the top three
areas where DfCS can make the most impact.

Slide COURSE MATERIAL INCLUDES

8 The course material that you were handed out includes:

• Group case study exercises

• “What If” analysis exercise
• Risk assessment exercise
• List of standards
• List of references
• Design Solution Sheets for Fall Prevention/Protection

Slide DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

9 DfCS is not how to use safety protective devices or procedures such as fall
protection, personal protective equipment, or confined space entry permits. DfCS
is how to implement permanent design features that eliminate a hazard or reduce
the risk without the need for safety protective devices or procedures. Citing
some specific examples, DfCS is designing permanent features so the fall
protection would not be needed. It’s about designing buildings so that they are
safer to build and maintain. It’s about, for example, avoiding confined spaces so
the confined space entry permits are not needed.

Slide U.S. CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENT STATISTICS

10

Design for Construction Safety 5

 This material is for training purposes only.

Unfortunately, as many of us know, construction is one of the most dangerous

industries to work in. In the U.S., construction typically accounts for just under
200,000 serious injuries and 1200 deaths each year. The fatality rate is
disproportionally high for the size of the construction workforce. But statistics like
these do not tell the whole story. Behind every serious injury, there is a real story
of an individual who suffered serious pain and may never fully recover. Behind
every fatality, there are spouses, children and parents who grieve every day for
their loss.

Because we all recognize that safety is an inherently dangerous business, all of

us—including architects and engineers--must do what we can to reduce the risk
of injuries on the projects we are involved in.

Slide CONSTRUCTION FATALITIES BY OCCUPATION

11 These are some of the construction fatalities based on occupation. As you can
see, contractors that work mostly at height have the largest number of fatalities.
After that, it is fairly evenly divided among all trades.

Slides “CONVENTIONAL” CONSTRUCTION

12-13 Traditionally, design professional prepare plans and specifications so that the
finished building complies with the building code. Their goal is the safety of the
end user and required by codes, regulations, and statutes. There is little
attention paid to how the building will be built. That’s left up to the contractor(s).

Hazards are managed during the construction process. We will see that this is
not the most effective time to deal with hazards. There is a better way. Little
thought is put into the safe maintenance of the building after the owner takes
possession.

Slide TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION PROJECT ARRANGEMENT

14 Now getting back to the main subject, that is how designers can prevent or
reduce construction accidents. Construction is unique from other industries. For
example, in general industry, the designers, assembly workers, management,
and owners are generally all under one roof and all work for the same entity.
There is generally more of a chain of command, responsibilities are more
defined. This is not true in construction. An owner may purchase plans from a
design professional. The owner may then contract with a general contractor,
construction manager, or other agent. Any of these entities may sub-contract out
work. The safety responsibilities become blurred. Some contractors may pass
safety responsibilities onto others. No one follows up. The contractor(s) must
deal with job site safety, scheduling, material deliveries, materials shortages, the
weather, change orders, unexpected conditions, such as, asbestos hidden in a

Design for Construction Safety 6

 This material is for training purposes only.

wall, or a hidden gas line. Many times the individual construction worker is left to
make decisions on their own.

Slide DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION SAFETY (DfCS)

15 Designing for Construction Safety is the process of addressing construction site
safety and maintenance in the design phase of a project. The customary role of
the design professional is protect the safety of the public and to comply with
building codes. Designing for Construction Safety extends this role to include
construction site safety. Well thought out design features can make a building
easier to build and easier to maintain, taking some of the burden for site safety
off the contractor.

Slide DfCS PROCESS

16 There are several DfCS process models. This is one of them. Safety
expectations are addressed in the beginning. There is design professional, trade
contractor, QA, QC, owner, and contractor involvement throughout the design
process. There are multiple reviews and re-designs. This all occurs before the
drawings are finally issued for construction.

This graphic depicts the typical DfCS process. The key component of this
process is the incorporation of site safety knowledge into design decisions.
Ideally, site safety would be considered throughout the design process. It is
recognized, however, that a limited number of progress reviews for safety may be
more practical. The required site safety knowledge can be provided by one or
more possible sources of such safety constructability expertise, including trade
contractors, an in-house employee, or an outside consultant. In the future,
perhaps state and federal OSHA employees may provide such expertise.

One question that sometimes is raised is whether the work product of a DfCS
project looks different from that on standard projects. For now, the answer is
“no.” That is, drawings and technical specifications on DfCS projects will likely at
least initially look the same as typical documents, but they will reflect an
inherently safer construction process. Eventually, it is hoped that construction
documents resulting from a DfCS process will include safety enhancing details
and notes that are not currently found on standard plans and specifications.

Slide WHY IS IT NECESSARY?

17 There are currently no requirements for construction safety in modern building
codes. The only building code construction safety requirement that currently
exists addresses protection of the public during construction.

Slide DESIGN CAN INFLUENCE CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

18

Design for Construction Safety 7

 This material is for training purposes only.

Studies have shown that design professionals can have significant influence on
construction safety. These are some statistics from the US and Europe.
Because we all recognize that safety is an inherently dangerous business, all of
us—including architects and engineers--must do what we can to reduce the risk
of injuries on the projects we are involved in.

Slide OSHA 1926 ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS

19 The involvement of design professionals in the construction process is not a new
idea. There are currently many sections in the OSHA 1926 standards which
require engineering controls in construction projects.

Slide FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO CONSTRUCTION

20 ACCIDENTS
If the world was perfect, there would be no (of few) construction injuries and
fatalities. After all, OSHA regulations and other standards specify what safety
procedures should be done in many if not most circumstances. If only contractors
had enough time to carefully implement them. This is not to blame the worker
when an accident occurs because even the best trained worker has momentary
lapses, misjudges a situation, or makes a mistake. Construction projects move
quickly. These are some of the factors that contribute to construction accidents.
The result is that no decisions or poor decisions are made with regard to safety
and someone gets injured or even killed. These are some of the root causes for
construction accidents. Many of these causes are related to human error, but
could have been prevented if a design feature would have eliminated the need
for a site decision.

Slide WHERE DO DESIGN PROFESSIONALS FIT IT

21 Design professionals fit in by considering construction safety issues during the
construction and maintenance of the facility and addressing them in the design
phase of the project. By anticipating hazards and applying their design skills to
eliminate them, unsafe conditions can be reduced.

Slide CONSIDERING SAFETY DURING DESIGN OFFERS

22
THE MOST PAYOFF
One of the reasons that the DfCS concept is so compelling is that all safety
professionals know that it is much more effective to design safety into a process
than it is to try to manage safety within a process that is inherently unsafe.

This chart has been adapted from the construction management literature. The
ability to influence safety is on the vertical axis and the project schedule is on the
horizontal axis. The chart shows that by including construction site safety as a
consideration (along with production, quality, project scope, etc.) early in the
project’s life cycle, one has a greater ability to positively influence construction

Design for Construction Safety 8

 This material is for training purposes only.

site safety.

This concept is in contrast to the prevailing methods of planning for construction

site safety, which do not begin until a short time before the construction phase,
when the ability to influence safety is limited.

Slide DfCS METHODOLOGY

23
DfCS is a five step process. The first step is to identify and anticipate potential
hazards. For each hazard, the risk is assessed. That provides an indication as to
whether or not valuable resources should be spent to address that hazard. Then
the hierarchy of controls is applied. The drawings are then reviewed with the
contractors and owner for additional input. Finally, the drawings are issued for
construction.

Slide STEP #1 IDENTIFY/ANTICIPATE POTENTIAL

24
HAZARDS
The first step is to identify the potential hazards. There are obvious or
recognized hazards. An open sided floor 6 feet or more above the ground is an
obvious fall hazard, for example. There are also hidden hazards which can be
much more difficult to uncover.

Slide CONSIDER HUMAN FACTORS

25 Consider human factors. How can sequencing of work create unplanned
hazards? What sort of situations might a worker find himself/herself in? What
types of distractions might there be on the job? Will the workers be properly
trained? What if they’re not? Will there be inexperienced workers on the job?

Slide RECOGNIZED HAZARDS

26
First, we’ll look at sources for recognized hazards. Recognized hazards are
those which are “obvious” or have been well documented from past experience.

Slide VISIT SIMILAR FACILITIES

27
To help formulate a list of recognized hazards, visit similar buildings or facilities.
Be skeptical about new processes, new equipment, and new facilities. Talk to
people, get feedback. Get information on maintenance. This can also help
uncover hidden hazards which we will discuss in a few more slides.

Design for Construction Safety 9

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide RECOGNIZED HAZARDS-SOURCES INDUSTRY

28 STANDARDS
There are many government agency regulations and industry standards that will
cite recognized hazards. A list of these regulations and standards are provided in
the course material. A survey of these standards and regulations can help you
identify areas that you need to look out for.

Slide RECOGNIZED HAZARDS-SOURCES GOVERNMENT

29
REGULATIONS
These are some of the government agency regulations that can be referred to
help with recognized hazards.

Slide HIDDEN HAZARDS

30
Then there are “hidden” hazards. “Hidden” hazards are just what the name
implies. They are not readily apparent. These are hazards that can arise from
complex interactions or scenarios. For example, a work task is taken out of
sequence. A siding contractor shows up before scaffolding is put in place.
“Hidden” hazards can also be latent. One sub-contractor walks down a planked
walkway not knowing that a second sub-contractor has not finished putting the
planks down.

Slide HIDDEN HAZARDS-EXAMPLES

31
These are some examples of hidden hazards. There could be an
electrical wire buried in a wall that would be uncovered during
demolition. Rotted or decayed structural members are hidden hazards.

Slide “WHAT IF” ANALYSIS

32
There are several analytical techniques that can help you uncover hidden
hazards. One of them is ‘What if” analysis.

Slide HIDDEN HAZARDS - “WHAT IF” ANALYSIS

33
A “what if” analysis is a structured brainstorming session. The be
effective it is important to select the boundaries of the review and
assemble an experience team. Then gather as much information as
you can… video tapes of similar facilities, design documents, how the
various components of the building will be constructed, how the areas
of the building will be maintained.

Design for Construction Safety 10

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide “WHAT IF” SITUATION QUESTIONS

34 In a “what if” analysis the design professional or design team needs to brainstorm
things that can go wrong (“what if”). These are some of the questions you might
pose. Always be thinking “what could go wrong”

Slide “WHAT IF” ANALYSIS TEMPLATE

35
There are many templates that can be used for a “what if” analysis. Here is one
of them. For each question, write down the answer, then assess the likelihood of
it’s occurrence, what the consequences might be, and what the design
recommendation is.

Slide HIDDEN HAZARDS- “WHAT IF” ANALYSIS EXAMPLE

36
This is a sample of “what if” questions that might be included in the construction
highway project. Each of the “what if” scenarios should be followed up by a
design feature that can eliminate the hazard.

******Now, let’s take a break and do a couple of “what if” analysis exercises that
are in Appendix C of you materials *****.

Slide HIDDEN HAZARDS- OTHER METHODS

37 There are many other techniques and sources that can be used to identify hidden
hazards. Here are some of them. Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a reliability and
logic-based methodology. It is used for identifying and analyzing the events that
would lead to an accident.

As you do a walk through, visits other similar facilities or read through standards,
make a checklist. Use this checklist for you design.

Do a plan review. If you gut feeling tells you that something is unsafe, it probably
is.

Read case studies on construction accidents. This might indicate how

sequencing problems or human error may have created an unforeseen hazard.

Fatal Facts and NIOSH FACE reports usually provide background details on
events that lead to an fatality which can provide other information

Slides FATAL FACTS

38-39

Design for Construction Safety 11

 This material is for training purposes only.

The OSHA website has a catalog of “fatal facts” . These can be reviewed to
become familiar with some of the things that occur in construction. Many of these
might be called “Murphy’s Law”.

Slide STEP #2 ASSESS RISK

40
Once the hazard(s) have been identified and a list is made, the next step is to
identify the risk associated with each hazard. Risk is the product of the severity of
an injury times the likelihood of an occurrence. There is no such thing as zero
risk. A risk analysis will identify those hazards that need attention and those that
may not. Also, a risk analysis will allow you to prioritize the hazards.

Slides DfCS RISK ASSESSMENT-ESTIMATE INJURY

41-42
SEVERITY
There are a number of methods to assess risk, some are qualitative and some
are quantitative, some are relatively simple to implement and some are
complicated and time-consuming. A very simple risk assessment is a qualitative
analysis as follows. First, the injury severity is assessed as: severe, serious,
moderate or slight

Slides DfCS RISK ASSESSMENT-ESTIMATE PROBABILITY

43-44
OF HAZARDOUS EVENT
Next the probability of occurrence is estimated, either high, medium, moderate or
low.

Slide DfCS RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

45 Once the severity and the probability have been estimated, this matrix can be
used to assess the risk. The risk ranges from high to negligeable. Design action
ranges from intervention (high) to no action (negligeable).

********Now let’s pause again and do a couple of risk assessment exercises that
are in your Appendix C.*************

Slide STEP #3 APPLY HEIRARCHY OF CONTROLS

46
Once the risk has been determined, the design professional proceeds to
eliminate the risk or reduce it to an acceptable level by using the I. The idea of
designing out hazards dates back to the 1940’s. This design philosophy has been
known as Design for Safety, Safety in Design. It has been used in general
industry for many years and has recently been applied to construction hazards,
hence, Designing for Construction Safety.

Design for Construction Safety 12

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide HIERARCHY OF CONTROLS

47
The design professional proceeds to eliminate the risk or reduce it to
an acceptable level by designing out the hazard as the top priority,
substituting a less hazardous method or material, followed by
engineering controls such as safety devices or isolating the hazard,
then administrative controls followed by personal protective equipment
at the bottom of the priority list.

Warning systems such as back up alarms, beacon lights, and warning

signs are vital in many situations, but really on administrative controls
(training, reaction of workers) to be effective.

You will find that the most effectives controls for safety will also have work quality
benefits and cost savings in the long run.
In Designing for Construction Safety, we will be focusing on design out the
hazard as top priority and providing safety devices as a second priority. Keeping
in mind that DfCS is about designing permanent features into a building that
make it safer to build and maintain. Warning devices, administrative procedures,
and personal protective equipment do not fall into this category, unless there are
design features that can make them easier to implement.

Slide DfCS TEMPLATE

48
Here is a template that you can use for DfCS.

Slide TOP TEN OSHA VIOLATIONS

49 While this whole process may seem over-welming at first. These are
the top ten OSHA violations. Most of them could be influenced by
design features. Let’s start looking at some “low hanging” fruit. The
top three violations related to falls in order can be lumped into fall
protection, ladders, and scaffolds

Slide 1926.501 FALL PROTECTION

50 Statistically, falls account for the greatest number of fatalities in the
construction industry, roughly a third of all workplace fatalities.
Fatal falls, slips, or trips took the lives of 699 workers in 2013. Falls to
a lower level accounted for 574 (82 percent) of those fatalities. In
2013, the height of the fall was reported for 466 of the fatal falls to a
lower level. Of those, about 1 in 4 occurred after a fall of 10 feet or
less. Another one-fifth of the fatal falls occurred from falls of over
30 feet.

Design for Construction Safety 13

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide FATAL FALLS MOST OFTEN FROM

51
This data was taken from BLS 2010 statistics which is the last year that BLS
coded fatal falls this way. This pie chart shows the statically breakdown of all fall
injuries and fatalities. It provides a breakdown as to where the falls are occurring
Even though the data is 2010 it provides useful information as to where falls are
occurring. Ladders, roof edge, and scaffolds are the top three.

Slide CONSIDER PARAPETS

52
Let’s look at what can be done about falls from roof edge. We are following the
Hierarchy of Controls: eliminate the hazard. A parapet wall that also functions as
a perimeter guard can eliminate the need for temporary fall protection during
construction and maintenance. As a designer, you would need to consider the
additional snow loading that might be created with a parapet design.

Slide SPECIFY WINDOW SILLS AT 42 INCHES

53
Here is another example of how certain design features can take the place of
temporary guardrails. If window sills were specified at 42 inches plus or minus 3
inches, temporary guardrails would not be required during construction. Think of
all the 2 x 4 (trees) that would be saved.

Slide SKYLIGHTS
54
The problem with most skylights is that they cannot withstand the live load
associated with a worker stepping on or fall on a skylight. Consider specifying
skylights that can with stand the live impact loads or specify a guardrail or
screen.

Slide SKYLIGHTS
55
We can only guess what the worker on the right was doing before he fell through.

Slide PERMANENT ROOF ANCHORS

56
Many falls occur because a worker does not have a safe place to tie off, and
therefore does not bother to use fall protection, or ties off to a structure that is not
structurally sound. Consider specifying permanent roof anchors so that workers
will always have a safe place to tie off.

Slide PERMANENT ROOF ANCHORS

57

Design for Construction Safety 14

 This material is for training purposes only.

This slide shows another example of permanent roof anchors that could be used
for residential buildings as well. We’ve all seen residential roofers without fall
protection, although that is changing. Permanent roof anchors will provide a safe
place for the roofer on the right to tie off.

Slide STAIRWAYS AND FLOOR OPENINGS

58
Unguarded floor openings, open side floors, and open side stairways are another
source of falls. Many times, temporary guardrails are not put up. Consider
specifying cast-in sockets. These sockets make is easy for contractor to install
temporary guardrails during the construction phase. The sockets can be used for
permanent guardrails later on, or just filled in. This photos shows cast in sockets
on the open side of a stairway.

Slide FLOOR OPENINGS/OPEN SIDED FLOORS

59
Here is another example of how a thoughtful design feature can make is easier to
install temporary guardrails and can be used later for permanent wall systems. It
is a better situation on the right where temporary guardrails are either not
installed, or they are not structurally adequate.

Slide FALLS THROUGH ROOF SURFACE

60
Many time construction materials are stored on a roof. Anticipate the weight and
footprint of construction materials that may be stored on the roof and include that
in dead loads.

Slide FALLS THROUGH ROOF SURFACE

61
Consider adding a safe catwalk to your plans so that workers and future
maintenance personnel will have a structurally sound and safe surface to walk on
when working on the roof.

Slide FALLS FROM OPEN SIDED FLOORS

62
Here is another idea where permanent design features can make it easier to
install temporary fall protection systems. Specifying holes in columns at 42
inches and 21 inches above each floor slab makes it easier to install perimeter
cables during construction.

Slide REDUCE WORK AT ELEVATIONS

63

Design for Construction Safety 15

 This material is for training purposes only.

Less time spent at height means fewer fall accidents. The more that can built on
the ground then hoisted into place means less time working at height. Consider
modular construction. This slide shows a roof system that was built on the ground
then hoisted into place as opposed to the conventional method on the right
where workers are at height, most likely without fall protection, stick building the
roof.

Slide REDUCE WORK AT ELEVATIONS

64
Here is another example of how constructing segmented bridge sections on the
ground then raising them into place can reduce time spent at height

Slide 1926.1053 LADDERS

65
Next we’ll discuss ladders. Falls from ladders occur because a worker used the
wrong portable ladder, a defective portable ladder, or did not use the ladder
properly. Consider permanent, safe stairways or fixed ladders so that the need to
use a portable ladder is eliminated.

Slide 1926.1053 LADDERS

66
Here is an example of the fixed ladder which eliminates the chance that a worker
uses a portable ladder in an unsafe manner as the worker on the right.

Slide 1926.451 SCAFFOLDING

67
Scaffold accidents occur because of improper access, lack of fall protection, or
unsafe anchor points. Here are several ideas you can use. Gantry systems can
be permanently installed so that scaffolds are not needed when, for example,
servicing atriums and skylights. Davits can be installed so that there will always
be a permanent suspension system whenever scaffolding is needed.

Slide 1926.451 SCAFFOLDING

68
This photo says it all. Consider design feature that eliminate the need for
scaffolding, or, make is easier to use scaffolding.

Slide 1926.121(b)(6) CONFINED SPACES

69
Now we will address some hazards from the 1926 regulations. 1926.21(b)(6)
discusses precautions that should be taken when entering a confined or
enclosed space. 1910.146 can be applied as a best practice regarding confined
spaces. A confined space entry permit is an administrative procedure that is at
the bottom of the hierarchy of controls priority list. The potential problem is that

Design for Construction Safety 16

 This material is for training purposes only.

someone does not use an entry permit, does not use it properly, or unexpected
hazards arise that are not addressed by the permit. Try to avoid confined spaces
whenever you can.

Slide 1926.121 (b)(6)CONFINED SPACES

70
By eliminating the chance of human error in the implementation of the permit, a
worker’s life could be saved.

Slide 1926.52 NOISE EXPOSURE

71
Construction sites are noisy places. Long term exposure to noise can lead to
hearing loss. Noise on a construction site can also create other problems.
Workers may not hear back up alarms or verbal instructions and warnings.
While noise control largely depends on personal protective equipment, there are
some things that a designer can do. Here is an example of commercial sound
panels that can help reduce noise levels. Sound barriers can also be constructed
on the site using scrap materials.

Slide 1926.52 NOISE EXPOSURE

72
Specify quiet pumps, generators, and compressors sot that hearing protection
would not be required.

Slide 1926.52 NOISE EXPOSURE

73 These are some other things that a designed can specify on the drawings and
specifications to help reduce noise levels. Design cast crack inducers in concrete
to avoid the need to saw cut joints. Design cast-in anchors instead of drill and
fix. Avoid vibro compacting.Detail mesh reinforcement to suit bay sizes,
rather than cutting to fit on site. Specify non standard blocks to be cut off site
under controlled conditions

Slide 1926.55 FUMES

74
Specify water based primers, sealers and coatings that do not emit noxious
fumes.

Slide 1926.652 EXCAVATIONS

75
Trenching accidents occur because contractors don’t bother to use shoring and
trench boxes, or so not use them properly. In utility and other similar work,
consider specifying trenchless technology. This eliminates the need for a worker
to be down in the trench.

Design for Construction Safety 17

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide 1926.652 EXCAVATIONS

76
Why take the chance of a trench collapse if you don’t need to!

Slide 1926.756 BEAMS AND COLUMNS

77
A designer’s expertise can be applied to making it easier and safer to erect
structural steel. Avoid hanging connections. Safety seats (see arrow) make it
easier to erect structural steel by eliminating the need for support for girders
during the connection process

Slide 1926.756 BEAMS AND COLUMNS

78
A steel frame might be designed so that it is stable and sound when everything is
in place, but can be unsafe during the erection process. Why leave bracing up to
a contractor that may not have the experience or structural background that an
engineer has. Specify bracing on the bid documents so that the structure does
not collapse mid-way through the erection process like on the right.

Slide 1926.756 BEAMS AND COLUMNS

79
A composite beam might be fine when the concrete has cured, but is an entirely
different animal during the construction phase. The concrete has little or no
structural strength while it is curing, yet still has dead load. Consider how a non-
composite beam and supporting steel members are loading during the
construction and curing process.

Slide 1926.756 BEAMS AND COLUMNS

80
Put the rebar details on the drawing so that there are no questions.

Slide 1926.955 OVERHEAD POWER LINES

81
This was an actual accident whereby an engineer specified water monitoring
wells under power lines. A worker was killed when his equipment came into
contact with the power lines. Consider how a building or facility will be
maintained. Do not specify ground water monitoring wells or other facilities near
or under power lines.

Slide SPRAINS, STRAINS, MATERIAL HANDLING

82
A designer’s expertise can also be applied to sprains, strains, and material
handling injuries. Consider specifying lightweight concrete whenever it is
structurally feasible.

Design for Construction Safety 18

 This material is for training purposes only.

Slide SPRAINS, STRAINS, MATERIAL HANDLING

83
Consider how a building or facility will be maintained. Which pump installation is
easier to maintain? The one of the left which would require the worker to unbolt
the pump through the congestion of piping while standing on a step ladder, of the
one of the left which can be easily disconnected while standing on the floor.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

84
There are many other benefits of DfCS relating to life cycle costs. We will look at
some examples of design feature s that make it easier and safer to maintain
buildings and facilities. Positioning roof top equipment at least 15 feet back from
the roof edge, or on the ground, will eliminated the need for fall protection
whenever the equipment has to be serviced.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

85
Here is an example of roof ties that are easy to remove, and can be re-used in
the future if scaffolding has to be erected to maintain the exterior.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

86
Hearing conservation programs can be costly to the end user, and could lead to
hearing loss if not monitored properly. Consider specifying quiet equipment, or
noise control in mechanical rooms so that hearing conservation program or
personal protective equipment is not needed.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

87
If you specify “quiet” in the beginning, the owner will not have to do costly
retrofitting later.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

88
Somewhere along the line, switchgear has to be maintained. Consider arc
resistant switchgear which directs the arc energy directed away from personnel
instead of at them.

Slide OTHER BENEFITS OF DfCS

89
Maintaining electrical substations means electrical work permits, arc suits and the
risks associated with entering an electrical cabinet. Smart substations eliminates
all of this. The technician can make checks without entering the cabinet.

Design for Construction Safety 19

 This material is for training purposes only.

*********Before we do a wrap up, lets break up into three or four workgroups and
work on some real life case studies that are in your Appendix C.************

Slide COURSE SUMMARY

90
Let’s do a wrap up. These are the main points that we focused on. We identified
the factors which contribute to construction injuries and fatalities. We covered
how to analyze work sites for hazards. We discussed the hierarchy of controls for
construction hazards. Finally we provided methodology and examples of how
appropriate design features can eliminate or reduce the risk of an injury.

Slide ALWAYS CONSIDER THE “BIG THREE”

91
While it may seem overwhelming and very complicated. Falls contribute to nearly
1/3 of all construction fatalities. Consider the “big three”: scaffolds, fall, and
ladders. Design buildings so that scaffolds are not need, or at least there are
solid structures from which to suspends scaffolding when needed. Design the
building so that fall protection is not needed. And lastly, design the building so
that portable ladders are not needed.

Slide OSHA RESOURCES

92
There is a wealth of information on the OSHA website. Appendix A in your course
material has a lot of reference material from a number of sources.

APPENDICES
Appendix A - Reference Material

Appendix B - NIOSH FACE Reports

Appendix C - Work Group Exercises

Appendix D - Sample Job Hazard Analysis Form

Appendix E - Risk Assessment Matrix

Appendix F - DfCS Template

Design for Construction Safety 20

 This material is for training purposes only.

Appendix G - “What If” Analysis Template

Appendix H - Design Solution Sheets

Design for Construction Safety 21

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX A: REFERENCE MATERIAL

1. NIOSH Alerts
NIOSH has issued several Alerts concerning falls in construction, including:

1. Alert: Preventing Falls of Workers through Skylights and Roof and Floor
Openings, NIOSH Publication No. 2004-156 (Aug. 2004). See
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004-156/.

2. Alert: Preventing Injuries and Deaths From Falls During Construction and
Maintenance of Telecommunication Towers, NIOSH Publication No. 2001-156
(July 2001). See http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/2001156.html.

3. Alert: Preventing Worker Injuries and Deaths Caused by Falls From

Suspension Scaffolds, NIOSH Publication No. 92-108 (Aug. 1992). See
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/92-108.html.

2. Worker Health Chartbook (2004)

Citation: Worker Health Chartbook, 2004, NIOSH Publication No. 2004-146. See
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/chartbook/.

Summary: The Chartbook is a descriptive epidemiologic reference on

occupational morbidity and mortality in the United States. It includes a section on
the construction trades. (See Chapter 4 at http://www2a.cdc.gov/niosh-
Chartbook/ch4/ch4-2.asp.) This section includes detailed information on
workplace fatalities and injuries/illnesses for the following trades: brickmasons,
carpenters, drywall installers, electricians, ironworkers, laborers, operating
engineers, painters, plumbers, roofers, truck drivers, and welders and cutters.

3. University of Tennessee Annual Analysis of Construction

Fatalities
The Construction Industry Research and Policy Center at the University of
Tennessee prepares annual reports entitled “An Analysis of Fatal Events in the
Construction Industry.” The reports are funded by OSHA and use IMIS data
supplied by OSHA. They analyze all OSHA-inspected fatal construction
accidents, including fatalities in state plan states.

The reports are available at:

http://bus.utk.edu/cirpc/Research/ConstructionFatalityReports.htm

Design for Construction Safety 22

 This material is for training purposes only.

According to the report, falls have consistently been the leading cause of
construction fatalities. In 2004, the study analyzed 785 fatalities. The following
were the number and percentage of fatalities from various classifications of falls
in 2004:

 Fall from/through roof: 109 fatalities (13.8% of construction fatalities)

 Fall from/with structure (other than roof): 63 fatalities (8.0%)
 Fall from/with ladder: 41 fatalities (5.2%)
 Fall through opening (other than roof): 26 fatalities (3.3%)
 Fall from/with scaffold: 24 fatalities (3.1%)
 Fall from/with platform or catwalk: 20 fatalities (2.3%)
 Fall from /with bucket (aerial lift/basket): 15 fatalities (1.9%)
 Fall, other or unknown: 3 fatalities (0.4)
 Fall from highway vehicle/construction equipment: 2 fatalities (0.3%)

These figures are similar to the averages for 1991-2003, which are:
 Fall from/through roof: 71.3 fatalities (11.3% of construction fatalities)
 Fall from/with structure (other than roof): 52.8 fatalities (8.4%)
 Fall from/with ladder: 25.8 fatalities (4.1%)
 Fall from/with scaffold: 21.2 fatalities (3.4%)
 Fall through opening (other than roof): 16.6 fatalities (2.6%)
 Fall from/with platform or catwalk: 14.4 fatalities (2.3%)
 Fall from /with bucket (aerial lift/basket): 13.2 fatalities (2.1%)
 Fall from highway vehicle/construction equipment: 5.4 fatalities (0.9%)
 Fall, other or unknown: 4.7 fatalities (0.7%)

4. National Association of Home Builders Study

Citation: Residential Construction Fall Fatality Study, NAHB, 1998.
Data source: OSHA IMIS database: all fatal falls in the construction industry
from 1992 to 1995.

Summary: NAHB commissioned this study to determine whether a significant

number of falls regulated under 29 CFR 1926, Subpart M occur in residential
construction relative to non-residential construction or construction as a whole.
The study found that of those fatal falls regulated under Subpart M, 22%
occurred in residential construction. From 1992 to 1995, the fall fatality rate for
residential construction was 7.8 per million workers, while for non-residential
construction it was 19.8 per million workers. The study concluded that the risk of
death from a fall regulated under Subpart M is significantly lower on residential
sites compared with non-residential sites.

The report also includes breakdowns of fatalities by SIC code (residential and
non-residential), fatalities by state, fall fatalities and single-family building permits
by state, and employment in residential construction.

Design for Construction Safety 23

 This material is for training purposes only.

5. Center to Protect Workers’ Rights

CPWR is the research, development, and training arm of the Building and
Construction Trades Department, AFL-CIO. CPWR has done several studies
related to construction falls, including the following.

Center to Protect Workers’ Rights, “The Construction Chart Book, Third Edition
(Sept. 2002). See http://www.cpwr.com/chartbook.htm.

McCann M, “Causes of Roofer Deaths” (1999). See

http://www.cpwr.com/pulications/krroofers.PDF.

McCann M, Chowdhury R, “Deaths from Falls in Construction, 1997” (2000).

See http://www.cdc.gov/elcosh/docs/d0400/d000478/d000478.html.

6. Journal Articles

The following are citations to selected journal articles that include statistics and
other analysis on fall fatalities and injuries in construction.

Agnew J, Suruda AJ, “Age and fatal work-related falls,” Human Factors, 35 (4):
731-6, 1993.

Becker P, Fullen M, Akladios M, Hobbs G, “Prevention of Construction Falls by

Organizational Intervention,” Injury Prevention, 7:i64-i67 (2001).

Bobick T, “Falls through roof and floor openings and surfaces, including skylights:
1992-2000, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 130 (6), 895-
907 (2004).

Cattlege GH, Hendricks S, Stanevick R, “Fatal occupational falls in the U.S.

construction industry, 1980-1989,” Accident Analysis & Prevention, 28 (5): 647-
54 (1996).

Derr J, Forst L, Chen HY, Conroy L, “Fatal falls in the US construction industry
1990 to 1999,” J Occup Environ Med., 43 (10): 853-60, 2001.

Tycho K. Fredericks, Osama Abudayyeh, Sang D. Choi, Mike Wiersma, and

Marcia Charles, “Occupational Injuries and Fatalities in the Roofing Contracting
Industry,” J. Constr. Engrg. and Mgmt., 131 (11): 1233-40, 2005

Hsiao H, Simeonov P, “Preventing falls from roofs: A critical review,” Ergonomics,

44 (5) 537-61, 2001.

Design for Construction Safety 24

 This material is for training purposes only.

Janicak, CA, “Fall-related deaths in the construction industry,” Journal of Safety

Research, 29 (1): 35-42, 1998

Lipscomb HJ, Glazner J, Bondy J, Lezotte D, Guarini K, “Analysis of Text From

Injury Reports Improves Understanding of Construction Falls,” Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46(11): 1166-1173 (2004).

Lipscomb HJ, Li L, Dement J, “Work-related falls among union carpenters in

Washington State before and after the Vertical Fall Arrest Standard,” American
Journal of Industrial Medicine, 44 (2): 157-65, 2003.

Nelson NA, Kaufman J, Kalat J, Silverstein B, “Falls in construction: Injury rates

for OSHA-inspected employers before and after citation for violating the
Washington State Fall Protection Standard,” American Journal of Industrial
Medicine, 31 (3): 296-302, 1997.

Rivara FP, Thompson DC, “Prevention of falls in the construction industry:

evidence for program effectiveness,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine,
18 (4 Suppl.): 23-6, 2000.

7. American National Standard Institute (ANSI)

ANSI A10.6-Safety Requirements for Demolition Operations
ANSI A10.8 Safety Requirements for Scaffolding
ANSI A10.13 Safety Requirements for Steel Erection
ANSI A14.2 Safety Requirements for Portable Ladders
ANSI A14.4 Job Made Wooden Ladders
ANSI A10.32-Fall Protection Systems for Construction and Demolition
Operations.
ANSI A145.1 Recommended Practice for Concrete Formwork
ANSI Z49.1 Safety in Welding and Cutting
ANSI A1264.1-Safety Requirements for Workplace Floor and Wall Openings,
Stairs & Railing Systems
ANSI D6.1 Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
ANSI Z93.1 Fire Hazards in Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres
ANSI Z117.1 Safety Requirements for Confined Spaces
ANSI Z244.1 Lockout/Tagout of Energy Sources

8. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

ASTM 04.09 Wood Construction

ASTM D4532 Respirable Dust in Workplace Atmospheres
ASTM F802 Guide for Selection of Certain Walkway Surfaces When Considering
Footwear
ASTM F1647 Standard Practice for Safe Walking Surfaces

Design for Construction Safety 25

 This material is for training purposes only.

ASTM O4.07 Building Seals and Sealants Traffic

ASTM STP 1150 Fire Hazard and Fire Risk Assessment

9. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

NFPA Volume 13, 53M Fire Hazards in Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
NFPA 241 Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations
NFPA 325M Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases & Volatile
Solids
NFPA 654 Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions in the Chemical, Dye,
Pharmaceutical, and Plastics Industries

10. OSHA
OSHA 1926.550 Cranes and derricks
OSHA 1926.251 Rigging Material for Material Handling
OSHA 1926.452 Scaffolds
OSHA 1926.800 Underground Construction
OSHA 1926.52 Occupational Noise Exposure
OSHA 1918.95 Longshoring Operations in the Vicinity of Repair and
Maintenance Work
OSHA 1926.1050-1053 Stairways and Ladders
OSHA 1926.650 Excavations

11. Hearing Loss

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) “Work-Related Hearing
Loss.” Washington, DC: US Dept. of Health and Human Services.
http://www.cdc.gov.niosh/hpworkrel.html

http://www.lhsfna.org/index.cfm?objectid=FE76D86F-D56F-E6FA-
99A606116D8792FC
“Construction Industry Noise Exposures Construction Workers” University of
Washington, Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Services

Construction Noise Worker’s Compensation Board of BC, Engineering Section Report

http://www.elcosh.org/en/document/70/d000054/construction-noise%253A-
exposure%252C-effects%252C-and-the-potential-for-remediation%253B-a-review-and-
analysis.htmlRCS Reference No: 0135-20

National Academy of Engineering Technology for a Quieter America report

(2009)

Design for Construction Safety 26

 This material is for training purposes only.

NoiseCon(2009), AIHce(2010), NHCA (2011)

International Institute of Noise Control Engineering Buy-Quiet Symposium (Paris,

2011)

INCE Product Noise Technical Committee voluntary product noise labeling

initiative

NIOSH (DART) construction sector programs

12. Fall Protection

Guidelines: Roof Anchorages for Fall Arrest Systems. Ontario Ministry of Labor
ANSI/IWCA 1-14.1 Window Cleaning Safety Standard

http://www.canaminternational.ws/www/v4/newslet.nsf/va_redir/joistv5n2?open
(H-frames)

American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) working group E06 WK 17797
“Working Group for the Specification of Human Impact Criteria, with Procedure
for Testing and Rating Plastic-Glazed Unit Skylights and Related Products used
on Commercial Walkable Roofs for Fall-Through Resistance

NYC Title 27 Administrative Code Construction and Maintenance §[C26-503.4]

27-334 Protective guards, 2004:
http://www.nyc.gov/html/dob/downloads/bldgs_code/bc27s5.pdf#page=5

Texas Department of Transportation Manual Notice 2006-1, Section 5, 2006:

http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rlg/bridge_railing_for_pedestrians.ht
m#CHDEHHBF at
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rlg/metal_and_concrete_railing.htm

National Institute of Steel Detailing and Steel Erectors Association of America.

Detailing Guide
for the Enhancement of Erection Safety. 2001. www.nisd.org and www.seaa.net.

ANSI ASC A14.3 American National Standard for Ladders-Fixed - Safety

Requirements

ANSI/ASSE A1264.1 Safety Requirements for Workplace Walking/Working

Surfaces and their Access; Workplace, Floor, Wall and Roof Openings; Stairs
and Guardrails Systems

Design for Construction Safety 27

 This material is for training purposes only.

International Building Code (IBC), International Code Council, Inc.

National Safety Council Data Sheet: Fixed Ladders

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conference

Prevention through Design—a new way of doing business: a report on the
National Initiative on August 22 – 24, 2011 at the Omni Shoreham in
Washington, DC.

Fall Protection in Construction, OSHA Publication 3146, 1998 (Revised).

Fall Protection Hazard Awareness Guide, Construction Safety Council, 2000,

www.buidsafe.org.

Fall Protection Training in the Construction Industry, Associated General

Contractors of America, OSHA 46C3-HT33, 2004, www.agc.org

Fall Awareness in Construction Education and Training, The Construction

EducationFoundation of Associated Builders and contractors, Inc. 2003,
www.abc.org.

Oregon OSHA Workshop Material, Introduction to Fall Protection.

http://www.cbs.state.or.us/external/osha/pdf/workshops/117w.pdf

Tailgate Training for California Construction Workers, State Building and

ConstructionTrades Council, Labors Occupational Health Program,
University of California Berkeley, 2001.

13. Design for Construction Safety (DfCS)

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ptd/

http://www.designforconstructionsafety.org/index.shtml

http://www.safetyindesign.org.uk/design-guides

Design for Construction Safety 28

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX B NIOSH FACE REPORTS

(http://www2a.cdc.gov/NIOSH-
FACE/state.asp?state=ALL&Incident_Year=ALL&Category2=0005&Submit=Sub
mit)

Incident State Title

Hispanic worker dies after fall from step

2009-01 NC ladder while cleaning windows - North
Carolina.

Seventeen year old female laborer falls

2007-10 CT from residential roof and dies nine days
later - Connecticut.

Hispanic construction worker dies while

2007-06 SC operating ride-on roller/compactor - South
Carolina.

Hispanic laborer dies after falling through

a second story floor opening in a single
2007-01 NC
family home under construction - North
Carolina.

Laborer dies when a water truck drifts

2006-06 TN downhill and pins him against a retaining
wall - Tennessee.

Laborer dies after being run over by a

2006-03 VA backing dump truck during a nighttime
paving project - Virginia.

Hispanic carpenter's helper dies after

2006-01 NC crane boom fell on him during disassembly
- North Carolina.

Construction worker dies after being run

2005-11 NC over by a bulldozer at a commercial
construction site - North Carolina.

Design for Construction Safety 29

 This material is for training purposes only.

Hispanic worker dies after falling from a

pile of construction debris in the bed of a
2005-06 NC
trash-style body truck to a paved driveway
below - North Carolina.

Hispanic laborer dies after footing collapse

2005-04 NC
- North Carolina.

Hispanic flagger dies after being run over

2004-10 NC
by a dump truck - North Carolina.

Chain saw operator dies after being struck

2004-07 NC by excavator bucket during site clearing -
North Carolina.

Sixteen-year-old Hispanic youth dies after

falling from a job-made elevated work
2004-06 SC
platform during construction - South
Carolina.

Four construction workers die after

2004-05 OH cantilever launching gantry collapses at
bridge construction site - Ohio.

18-year-old dies after being entangled in a

2003-13 SC
portable mortar mixer - South Carolina.

Hispanic pipe layer dies after being struck

2003-12 SC by excavator (track hoe) bucket on
construction site - South Carolina.

Two Hispanic construction laborers (ages

2003-07 SC fifteen and sixteen) die after trench
collapse - South Carolina.

Hispanic construction laborer dies and two

coworkers are injured after falling 10 feet
2003-05 NC
from an unsecured box on the forks of a
forklift - North Carolina.

Design for Construction Safety 30

 This material is for training purposes only.

Part-time laborer pinned between scissor

2003-01 VA lift work platform railing and doorway
header - Virginia.

Hispanic construction laborer dies after

2002-11 NC
portable silo collapse - North Carolina.

Hispanic dump-truck driver dies after

being caught between frame and dump
2002-08 TN
body of off-road truck while performing
routine lubrication - Tennessee.

Construction laborer dies after being run

2002-03 NC over and crushed by a grader at a road
construction site - North Carolina.

Seventeen-year-old part-time road

2001-10 IN construction laborer dies after being run
over by a water truck - Indiana.

Fourteen-year-old laborer dies after falling

2001-07 AL
through a skylight - Alabama.

Fifteen-year-old laborer dies after falling

2001-04 FL
through a skylight - Florida.

State department of transportation

highway maintenance worker dies after
2001-02 NS
being struck by a car while installing
reflectors on a guardrail.

State Department of Transportation worker

2001-01 NC (Laborer) dies after being struck by motor
vehicle - North Carolina.

Twenty-nine-year-old asphalt compactor

operator dies from crushing injuries
2000-20 NC
received during machine rollover - North
Carolina.

Design for Construction Safety 31

 This material is for training purposes only.

A 16-year-old died after falling 27 feet at a

2000-16 AL
residential construction site - Alabama.

Carpenter dies after being struck by

2000-12 OH uncontrolled concrete bucket when crane
tips over - Ohio.

Construction laborer dies after being

pinned between the bucket of a mini-
2000-10 NC
excavator and an air compressor - North
Carolina.

Three tower painters die after falling 1,200

2000-07 NC feet when riding the hoist line - North
Carolina.

Truck driver dies after the off-highway

truck he was operating rolled over an
2000-05 PA
embankment and came to rest on its top -
Pennsylvania.

Youth laborer dies in trench collapse -

2000-03 MI
Michigan.

Flagger struck from behind and killed by a

2000-02 WI truck intruding into a highway construction
work zone - Wisconsin.

Design for Construction Safety 32

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX C: WORK GROUP EXERCISES

Risk Assessment Work Group Exercise #1
You have determined through a hazard analysis that roofers are exposed to a fall
hazard of twelve feet. The project is expected to last 2 days.

What is the injury severity?

What is the probability of an occurrence over the 2 days?

What is the risk?

Is the risk acceptable?

Risk Assessment Work Group Exercise #2

HVAC workers will have to handle sheet metal. You have determined that they
will be exposed to a laceration hazard from handling the sheet metal that you
specified.

What is the injury severity?

What is the probability of an occurrence?

What is the risk?

Is the risk acceptable?

Is the risk acceptable if the workers are required to wear gloves?

Risk Assessment Work Group Exercise #3

You have specified heavy weight concrete block for a project. Workers must
carry the block a distance to where they will be used.

What is the injury severity?

What is the probability of a back injury?

What is the risk?

Is the risk acceptable?

“What If” Analysis Group Exercise #1

You are preparing renovation plans for an old, existing building. Nothing is known
about the building and there are no “as-built” plans.

Who do you want to be on your “What If’ analysis team?

Design for Construction Safety 33

 This material is for training purposes only.

What are the potential hazards that workers may encounter during this project?

“What If’ Analysis Group Exercise #2

You are designing equipment that will be used to cool computer equipment. You
set out to identify the hazards that could arise.

Who do you want on your “What If” analysis team?

How could the equipment fail? What are the consequences of a failure?

“What If” Analysis Group Exercise #3

You are designing a sprinkler system for an addition to a building. The design
includes a new supply piping from the existing underground supply to the
building. There are several shutoff valves in the current system. You not sure, but
there could be a jockey pump somewhere in the current system. You want to
identify the possible hazards to workers that will be following your plans.

Who do you want on your “What If” analysis team?

What are the possible hazards that could arise from connecting the new
underground piping from the existing supply pipe to where it will connect to the
new sprinkler system?

Work Group Case Study #1

A construction worker penetrated an embedded electrical conduit containing an
energized 120-volt line while hand drilling into a concrete beam to install pipe
hanger inserts. The conduit was 1 inch from the surface.

What could have been done from a design standpoint to prevent this accident?

Design for Construction Safety 34

 This material is for training purposes only.

Work Group Case Study #2

Plant utility worker was fatally injured while performing clean-up duties at a raw
coal reclaim area. Victim either fell through a 56” x 80” opening in a platform or
entered through a coal feeder opening

What could have been done from a design standpoint to prevent this accident?

Design for Construction Safety 35

 This material is for training purposes only.

Work Group Case Study #3

A 20-year-old male drywall mechanic (the victim) died after falling about 10 feet
from an open-sided second floor landing and striking his head on a concrete
floor. The victim was working alone sanding a ceiling constructed of sheetrock.
The victim was operating a sander and apparently unaware of his position in
relation to the open-sided floor. The victim fell about 10-feet, hitting the concrete
floor face first.

What could have been done from a design standpoint to prevent this accident?

Work Group Case #4

A 60-year-old physical plant director for a state university fell 120 feet to his
death. The victim was using the roof of the campus library as an observation
point to inspect campus facilities for wind damage. High wind conditions with
gusts to 30 miles per hour existed at the time of the incident. Campus employees
routinely used the library roof as an observation point because it was the highest
structure on campus and allowed an unobstructed view of the entire campus.
The victim was apparently walking around the perimeter of the roof when he
tripped on a utility vent pipe located near the low parapet of the roof.

What could have been done from a design standpoint to prevent this accident?

Design for Construction Safety 36

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX D: SAMPLE JOB HAZARD ANALYSIS FORM

Job Title: Job Location: Analyst Date

Task # Task Description:

Hazard Type: Hazard Description:

Consequence: Hazard Controls:

Rational or Comment:

Design for Construction Safety 37

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX E RISK ASSESSMENT MATRIX

Severity
Probability Severe Serious Moderate Slight
High High High Medium Low

Medium High Medium Low Low

Moderate Medium Low Low Negligible

Low Low Low Negligible Negligible

Design for Construction Safety 38

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX F DfCS TEMPLATE

Practical Practical All Practical

Significant to Eliminate to Isolate Steps to Minimize Controls

Hazard Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Required

Design for Construction Safety 39

 This material is for training purposes only.

APPENDIX G “WHAT IF” ANALYSIS TEMPLATE

What if? Answer Likelihood Consequences Recommendations

Design for Construction Safety 40

APPENDIX H DESIGN SOLUTION SHEETS

This Appendix contains thirteen (13) DFCS solutions. The design solutions are categorized by design
category (site, envelope, interior, roof) and the nature of the hazard.
 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION WORKPLACE DESIGN SOLUTION #1

DESIGN CATEGORY: SITE
HAZARD: FALLS FROM NON-MOVING VEHICLES
DESIGN SOLUTION: PROVIDE SAFE ACCESS FOR
LOADING AND UNLOADING TRUCKS
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from non-moving vehicles. When a truck is on the road, it
is controlled by DOT regulations. However, when vehicles are stopped for loading and unloading, or when a
trailer is used for storage, the truck bed or trailer is in effect a working/walking surface. While OSHA 1926
excludes trucks and trailers from the agencies definition of ”working/walking surface” thereby exempting these
areas from fall protection requirements, workers are injured or killed in falls from non-moving vehicles. The
same safety precautions that apply to open sided floors six feet above a lower level would also apply in
preventing fall injuries during loading and unloading of trucks. Falls from non-moving vehicles can result in
death or serious injury – about 21 fatalities per year [BLS, 2009] are reported.

SOLUTION
The bed of the truck or trailer should have a safe access, such as a stairway with railings, and guardrails around
all open sides of the truck bed or platforms. Designers working with contractors can provide safe designs for
access stairways, railings, and guardrails for loading and unloading trucks on a construction site, or when a
trailer is used for storage. Permanent or movable stairway/platform/guardrail systems can be designed for
loading and unloading areas of permanent buildings and structures.

The above two photos show how movable platforms with guardrails can be used
around the open sides of a truck bed when loading and unloading trucks

Design for Construction Safety 42

 This material is for training purposes only.

The photo at the right shows a

stairway and platform for
accessing a trailer.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety Regulations
OSHA Construction standards
1926.501(b)(1) Unprotected sides and edge. Each employee on a walking/working surface (horizontal and
vertical surface) with an unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet of more above a lower level shall be protected
from falling by the use of guardrails systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.

1926.502(b)(1) Top edge height of top rails, r equivalent guardrail system members shall be 42 inches plus or
minus 3 inches above the walking/working level.

1926.502(b)(2) Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent intermediate structural
members shall be installed between the top edge of the guardrail system and the walking/working surface when
there is no wall or parapet wall at least 21 inches high.

1926.502(b)(3) Guardrail systems shall be capable of withstanding, without failure, a force of 200 pounds
applied within 2 inches of the top edge, in any outward or downward direction, at any point along the top edge.

1926.1052(a)(2) Stairs shall be installed between 30 deg. and 50 deg. from horizontal.

1926.1052(c)(1) Stairways having four or more risers or rising more than 30 inches (76 cm), whichever is less,
shall be equipped with:

1926.1052(c)(1)(i) At least one handrail; and

1926.1052(c)(1)(ii) One stair rail system along each unprotected side or edge

Design for Construction Safety 43

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #2

DESIGN CATEGORY: INTERIOR/EXTERIOR
HAZARD: FALLS FROM FLOOR OPENINGS
DESIGN SOLUTION: INSTALL GUARDRAILS
HAZARD: FALLS
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from floor openings during the construction
and maintenance activities during the life of a building. Falls from floor openings can result in death or serious
injury – about 6 fatalities per year [BLS, 2009] are reported.

A 20-year-old male drywall mechanic (the victim) died after falling about 10 feet from an open-sided second
floor landing and striking his head on a concrete floor. The victim was working alone sanding a ceiling
constructed of sheetrock. The victim was operating a sander and apparently unaware of his position in relation
to the open-sided floor. The victim fell about 10-feet, hitting the concrete floor face first. A temporary or
permanent guardrail system along the open-sides of the floor would have prevented this tragedy.

SOLUTION
Designers should specify guardrail systems around floor openings except at the entrance to stairways.
Designers should work with contractors to install permanent guardrails as soon as possible in the construction
process so that workers will not be exposed to fall hazards.

Cast-in sockets can be specified around floor openings. The sockets make it easy for contractors to install
temporary guardrails during the construction phase. The sockets can then be used for permanent railings or
filled in.

Falls through floors and floor openings is another major cause of fatalities from falls. Designers can be helpful
here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces.
Designers and contractors working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in
the construction process so that workers are not exposed to unguarded heights.

Falls through floors and floor openings is another major cause of fatalities from falls. Designers can be helpful
here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces.
Designers and contractors working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in
the construction process so that workers are not exposed to unguarded heights.

Falls through floors and floor openings is another major cause of fatalities from falls. Designers can be helpful
here as well. Designers should specify guardrail sys tems along all elevated working/walking surfaces.
Designers and contractors working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in
the construction
This photo process so that
shows cast workers
sockets arethe
along not exposed
open side to unguarded heights.
This photo shows guardrails installed along an
of a stairway, The sockets make it convenient to opening. Installing guardrails early on in the
install temporary or permanent guardrails. construction process can eliminate the risk of a
Falls through floors and floor openings is another major causefall
of fatalities
through anfrom falls. Designers can be helpful
opening.
here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces. put and
contractors working together
Design for Construction Safety 44
 This material is for training purposes only.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety Regulations
OSHA Construction standards
1926.501(b)(1) Unprotected sides and edge. Each employee on a walking/working surface (horizontal and
vertical surface) with an unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet of more above a lower level shall be protected
from falling by the use of guardrails systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.

1926.502(b)(1) Top edge height of top rails, r equivalent guardrail system members shall be 42 inches plus or
minus 3 inches above the walking/working level.

1926.502(b)(2) Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent intermediate structural
members shall be installed between the top edge of the guardrail system and the walking/working surface when
there is no wall or parapet wall at least 21 inches high.
1926.502(b)(3) Guardrail systems shall be capable of withstanding, without failure, a force of 200 pounds
applied within 2 inches of the top edge, in any outward or downward direction, at any point along the top edge.

OSHA General Industry standards

1910.23 (a) Protection for floor openings. (1) every stairway floor opening shall be guarded by a standard
railing constructed in accordance with paragraph (e) of this section. The railing shall be provided on all
exposed sides (except at the entrance to stairway). For infrequently used stairways where traffic across the
openings prevent the use of fixed standard railing (as when located in aisle spaces, etc.) the guard shall consist
of a hinged floor opening cover of standard strength and construction and removable standard railings on all
exposed sides (except at the entrance to stairway).

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
-Consider specifying perimeter beams around floor openings. The beams would provide a convenient tie
off point for workers during construction.
-Consider adding drawing notes to plans specifying that floor openings and holes should be protected
with either a secured cover or guardrail.

Design for Construction Safety 45

 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN
This material SOLUTION
is for training purposes only. #3
DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF
HAZARD: FALLS FROM ROOF EDGE
DESIGN SOLUTION: MINIMIZE NEED TO GO ONTO ROOF
OR NEAR ROOF EDGE
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from a roof edge during the construction
and maintenance activities during the life of a building. Falls from roof edge can result in death or serious
injury – about 47 fatalities per year [BLS , 2008] are reported.

SOLUTION
Designers should try to minimize the need to go onto a roof and/or near the edge of a roof. Mechanical
equipment should be placed at ground level whenever possible. This eliminates the need to go onto the roof
during installation and routine maintenance. Roof vents, mechanical equipment, and communication equipment
should be located at least 15 feet back from the roof edge to provide an additional safety factor. The 15 foot
distance reduces the risk of a fall when servicing equipment. Specify permanent guardrails when equipment
must be closer to the roof edge. Specify multiple roof anchors to provide convenient tie off points when
workers must be near the roof edge.

This photo shows equipment located on a roof.

This photo shows permanent roof anchors.
Positioning equipment at least 15 feet back from the roof
Specifying multiple roof anchors will provide
edge will reduce the risk of falling when installing and
convenient tie off points when working near the
servicing the equipment
edge of the roof.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety Regulations
OSHA Construction standards
1926.501(b)(1) Unprotected sides and edge. Each employee on a walking/working surface (horizontal and
vertical surface) with an unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet of more above a lower level shall be protected
from falling by the use of guardrails systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.

1926.502(b)(1) Top edge height of top rails, r equivalent guardrail system members shall be 42 inches plus or
minus 3 inches above the walking/working level.

Design for Construction Safety 46

 This material is for training purposes only.

1926.502(b)(2) Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent intermediate structural
members shall be installed between the top edge of the guardrail system and the walking/working surface when
there is no wall or parapet wall at least 21 inches high.
1926.502(b)(3) Guardrail systems shall be capable of withstanding, without failure, a force of 200 pounds
applied within 2 inches of the top edge, in any outward or downward direction, at any point along the top edge.

1926.502(d)(15) Anchorages used for attachment of personal fall arrest equipment shall be independent of any
anchorage being used to support or suspend platforms and capable of supporting at least 5,000 pounds per
employee attached, or shall be designed, installed, and used as follows:
(i) as part of a complete personal fall arrest system which maintains a safety factor of at least two; and
(ii) under the supervision or a qualified person

1926.502(f) Warning line systems. Warning line systems and their use shall comply with the following
provisions:
(1)The warning line shall be erected around all side of the roof work area.
(i) When mechanical equipment is not being used, the warning line shall be erected not less than 6 feet
from the roof edge.
(ii) When mechanical equipment is being used, the warning line shall be erected not less than 6 feet from
the roof edge which is parallel to the direction of mechanical equipment operation, and not less than
10 feet from the roof edge which is perpendicular to the direction of the mechanical equipment
operation.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
-Try to specify roof materials that do not require frequent inspections
-Position gutters so that they can be cleaned using cherry pickers or other safe access areas
-Specify durable seals at roof penetrations to minimize the need for reactive maintenance
-Consider designing roof parapets, at least 39 inches high, to serve as permanent guardrails along the
roof edge. Additional snow load on the roof structure should be considered when considering parapets.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

-Eliminating the need to go onto a roof and/or near a roof edge can reduce maintenance costs during the life
cycle of the building since fall protection or warnings lines would not be needed.

Design for Construction Safety 47

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #4

DESIGN CATEGORY: ENVELOPE/INTERIOR
HAZARDS: FALLS FROM STRUCTURAL STEEL
DESIGN SOLUTION: BEAM COLUMNS
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from structural steel during the construction of a building.
CONSTRUCTION
Falls WORKPLACE
from structural steel can result in death or serious injury – about 36 SOLUTION
DESIGN fatalities per year [BLS, 2008] are
reported.
FALL HAZARD: FALL FROM STRUCTURAL STEEL
DESIGN SOLUTION: BEAM COLUMNS
SOLUTION
Designers can specify features that make it safer and easier to erect structural steel. For example, hanging
HAZARD: FALLS
connections should be avoided. Safety seats at column connections would eliminate this by providing support
for girders during the connection process.

Perimeter safety cables should be installed as soon as the metal decking has been installed. Specifying holes in
columns at 42 inches plus or minus 3 inches and 21 inches above each floor slab make it easy to install cable or
wire perimeter cables.

Specify holes in columns at 21 and Design safety seats (see arrow) at column
42 inches above the floor slab. This design connections. The safety seats eliminate
feature makes it easy to install cable or hanging connections making the
wire perimeter cables.gh floors and floor opening connection process easier.. Designers and contractors working together
should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in the construction process so that workers are not Falls through floors and floor openings is another major cause of fatalities from falls.
Designers can be helpf

Design for Construction Safety 48

 This material is for training purposes only.

here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces. Designers and contractors working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as
possible in the construction process so that workers are not

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety Regulations
OSHA Construction standards
1926.760(a)(1) Except as provided by paragraph (a)(3) of this section, each employee engaged in a steel
erection activity who is on a walking/working surface with an unprotected side or edge more than
15 feet above a lower level shall be protected from fall hazards by guardrail systems, safety net systems,
personal fall arrest systems, positioning device systems or fall restraint systems.

1926.760(a)(2) On multi-story structures, perimeter safety cables shall be installed at the final interior and
exterior perimeters of the floors as soon as the metal decking has been installed.

1926760 (3) Perimeter safety cables shall meet the criteria for guardrail systems in 1926.502.

Other Applicable Design Guidelines:

National Institute of Steel Detailing and Steel Erectors Association of America. Detailing Guide
for the Enhancement of Erection Safety. 2001. www.nisd.org and www.seaa.net.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
- Shop welded connections should be specified whenever possible instead of bolts or field welds to
avoid dangerous positions during erection.
-For bolted beam connections, provide an extra hole into which a spud wrench or other object can be
inserted to provide continual support for the beam during installation of the bolts
-Be familiar with the physical constraints for making connections. Try to avoid tight spaces and provide
ample room for tools used in making connections.

Design for Construction Safety 49

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #5

DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF
HAZARD: FALL FROM ROOF
DESIGN SOLUTION: ROOF ANCHORS
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from roofs during the construction and maintenance
activities over the life of a building. Falls from roofs result in about 121 fatalities per year [BLS, 2008]
Permanent anchors provide a convenient, safe place to tie off when personal fall arrest systems are needed.
They also reduce the chance a worker will not use a personal fall arrest system because there is no approved
place to anchor, or the worker connects to something that may not be structurally sound or certified by a
registered Professional Engineer (PE).

SOLUTION
Planning the construction and future maintenance of a building can identify areas where permanent anchors
should be installed. There are many vendors that design and install roof anchors. Anchors should be capable of
sustaining a load of at least 5000 pounds without fracture or failure in the most adverse loading direction. The
potential for material degradation due to environmental factors such as temperature, salt, and humidity should
be considered.

There are many different methods of securing an anchor to a structure in order to meet the load requirements.
Through-bolting with a backup plate is the preferred installation method. An H-frame can be designed and
installed between bar joints when installing roof anchors to bar joists. Once installed it is generally the
responsibility of the building owner to inspect and maintain roof anchors to ensure their continued reliable
performance.

Figure 1 Planning the construction and future Figure 2 Residential roofing has a high
maintenance of a building can identify areas incidence of falls. Residential roof anchors
where permanent anchors should be installed. properly installed provides a place for
workers to anchor to during future
maintenance.

Design for Construction Safety 50

 This material is for training purposes only.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety Regulations
OSHA Construction standards
1926.502(d)(15)Anchorages used for the attachment of personal fall arrest equipment shall be independent of
any anchorage being used to support or suspend platforms and capable of supporting at least 5,000 pounds per
employee attached, or shall be designed, installed, and used as follows:
(i) as part of a complete personal fall arrest system which maintains a safety factor of at least two;
and
(ii) under the supervision of a qualified person

Other applicable standards and guidelines

Guidelines: Roof Anchorages for Fall Arrest Systems. Ontario Ministry of Labor
ANSI/IWCA 1-14.1 Window Cleaning Safety Standard
http://www.canaminternational.ws/www/v4/newslet.nsf/va_redir/joistv5n2?open (H-frames)

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
-Roof anchors should be inspected by a qualified person on an annual basis. The report of this inspection should
be included in the building’s logbook and distributed to contractors prior to starting work.
-Anchors should be re-certified when there is re-roofing or renovating, or at periods
not to exceed 10 years. The report of this inspection shall be included in the building’s logbook.
-If the structural integrity of a roof anchor becomes suspect at any time, a test procedure shall be
performed under the approval of a registered Professional Engineer (PE).
-Post installation testing should include applying a minimum static load equal to half the maximum
capacity of the anchor in the most adverse loading direction that the load might be applied.. For
example, an anchor designed for a 5000 pound ultimate load should be tested at 2500 pounds.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

-A well thought out plan for roof anchors can be beneficial during maintenance because workers will have a
structurally sound, certified, convenient place to tie off . The proper purpose of the anchor must be provided for
contractors and workers. Any other use must be approved by the owner’s representative.

Design for Construction Safety 51

 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #6
This material is for training purposes only.
DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF/INTERIOR
HAZARD: FALL FROM LADDERS
s th

DESIGN SOLUTION: SPECIFY FIXED LADDERS OR

STAIRWAYS
Fixed ladders are used to access an upper level landing or a roof. Overall, falls from ladders is the number one
cause of fatalities 129 fatalities per year [BLS, 2010]. Portable ladders can be hazardous when placed
improperly, not secured, or used inappropriately. This fixed ladder design solution reduces the risk of serious
falls from unstable ladders during maintenance activities or when accessing a roof, platform, mezzanine, or
upper level of a building.

SOLUTION
Designers can contribute to reducing falls from ladders by specifying fixed ladders or stairways whenever
possible. This would eliminate the need for a portable ladder when accessing a roof, work platform, mezzanine,
or upper level. The chance that a worker may use a defective ladder, an improper ladder, or not use the ladder
properly is eliminated. Many building codes require a stairway or alternating tread device for roof access in
commercial buildings.

Fixed ladders should be specified to access a Industrial stairs are preferred to access a work
work platform, mezzanine, upper level, or roof. platform, mezzanine, upper level or roof.
Ladder climbing devices can be rail or cable Alternating tread devices can be specified if space
systems outdoors and SRL’s indoors. A cage is is limited.
not a positive fall stopping device although it
does some positive reassurance. A ladder
climbing device should be designed to provide
positive stopping of a fall from a fixed ladder in
a short distance.
Design for Construction Safety 52
 This material is for training purposes only.

Design details on industrial stairs can be found in OSHA 1910.24 and ANSI/ASSE A1264.1.
Details for fixed ladders can be found in OSHA 1910.27, 1926.1050-1053 and ANSI ASC A14.3. An important
feature of all ladder designs is provision of 7” space behind rungs for proper foot placement. Hands should use
horizontal rungs or grab bars for reliability in case of a fall.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Applicable US Safety Regulations

OSHA General Industry standards for industrial stairs see 1910.24

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9696

OSHA General Industry standards for fixed ladders see 1910.27

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9719

Other Applicable Standards and Publications:

ANSI ASC A14.3 American National Standard for Ladders-Fixed - Safety Requirements
ANSI/ASSE A1264.1 Safety Requirements for Workplace Walking/Working Surfaces and their
Access; Workplace, Floor, Wall and Roof Openings; Stairs and Guardrails Systems
International Building Code (IBC), International Code Council, Inc.
National Safety Council Data Sheet: Fixed Ladders
Handhold coupling: Ph.D. thesis of Justin Young, University of Michigan December 2010

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Design professionals and contractors should work to coordinate the installation of fixed ladders for structures,
and preferably stairways as early as possible in the construction process. This would provide safer means of
access for estimators in electric, plumbing, tile work, to each floor level rather than using portable ladders, job-
made ladders, or other means.

rough

Design for Construction Safety 53

 CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #7
This material is for training purposes only.
DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF
HAZARD: FALLS FROM ROOF OPENING
DESIGN SOLUTION: SPECIFY ROOF HATCH SAFETY
SYSTEM

This design solution protects against the serious risk of falls through roof hatches. The roof hatch constitutes a
floor or roof opening which should be protected. A climber can also fall if there are no graspable handholds to
use when transitioning from the ladder or stairway to the roof. In 2008, 19 workers died as a result of falling
through a roof surface (BLS).

SOLUTION
The use of 42 inch high guardrails around the open sides of the roof hatch reduces the risk of falling through
the hatchway opening. Additionally, hatch access grab bars can be built or added, and access made with an
integral swing gate which opens away from the ladder opening. Grab bars should extend 42 inches above the
roof level to allow the climber to confidently step onto the roof and to the side. Consideration should be given
when mounting a hatch on an outside wall without a 42 inch high parapet. Consider relocating hatches on an
inside wall for structural support or a guardrail added for protection at the roof edge.

For new roof hatches, the answer is to specify the roof hatch safety system as soon as possible. The new
hatches can provide for a standing access either out onto the roof or into the opening which fits the human
condition and walking posture in work situations such as access to and from roofs. Existing hatches can be
retrofitted in the same way.

This photo shows a guardrail, swing This photo shows horizontal grab
gate, and grab bars bars

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Applicable US Safety Regulations

OSHA General Industry standards:

1910.23(a). Ladderway roof and floor opening to be guarded.

1910.23(a)(3)(i). Hinged floor opening cover.

Design for Construction Safety 54
 This material is for training purposes only.

1910.23(a)(2)(ii). Removable railing.

1910.23(a)(8). Cover of standard strength (200 lbs).

OSHA Construction regulations:

1926.502(a)(13). Guardrails, swing gates, offset railings to avoid walking into floor openings.

1926.502(i). Covers used for laying over holes in floors, roofs, etc. must meet 200 lbs strength.

1926.1053(a)(24). Side rails shall extend 42” above the landing served by the ladder.

1926.1053(a)(27). Horizontal grab bars spaced by continuation of rung spacings, or vertical grab bars shall have
the same lateral spacing as the side rails*.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

 Roof hatches should be installed into roof openings as soon as possible and the roof hatch lid kept closed
unless an access is made.
 Roof hatch locks should be compatible with balance and stability such as using an offset platform or rest
platform. ANSI A14.3-2008 Section 9.2.1.
 Roof hatch ladder rung centers should be coated with skid resistant material having a wet friction
coefficient of 0.5 minimum.
 Roof hatch ladders should be checked for structural strength sufficient for attachment of retractable
lifelines for safer access up the ladder and providing a back-up to stability while opening the hatch lock.
 Roof hatch location on interior building walls for support. IBC 2009 Section: 1009.13.2.
 ANSI A14.3-2008 Section 5.3.4.3 requires additional handholds for safety while accessing hatch
openings including grab bars that can be grasped.
 Research conducted by the University of Michigan Center for Ergonomics indicates that free falling
arrest is most successful and reliable when holding horizontal handholds and that free falling with
vertical handholds is not successful in arresting falls. See article referenced below.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

A safe roof hatch system will make it safer to access the roof for maintenance during the life cycle of the
building

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES

University of Michigan Center for Ergonomics, Ann Arbor, MI: Researchers have performed several studies
investigating the ability of workers to climb and hold onto various designs of handholds, rungs, and rails. See
October 2009 article in the journal Human Factors: “Hand/handhold coupling: effect of handle shape,
orientation, and friction on breakaway strength,” by Justin Young, Charles Woolley, Tom Armstrong and James
Ashton-Miller. Additional articles are forthcoming.

Design for Construction Safety 55

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #8

DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF
HAZARD: FALLS THROUGH SKYLIGHT
DESIGN SOLUTION: SPECIFY NON-FRAGILE
SKYLIGHTS AND/OR
This design solution protects against the risk of serious falls through skylights during construction,
SKYLIGHT
maintenance, and demolition activities over the life of a GUARDS
building. Falls through skylights can result in death or
serious injury – from 13 to 23 fatalities a year occurred between 2006 and 2010 (BLS, 2010). Skylight use, also
HAZARD:
called FALLS
daylighting, is increasingly associated with green design and energy conservation measures.

A 51- year-old roofer died from injuries sustained after falling 30 feet through a skylight. The roofer was part of
a crew removing tar and gravel built-up roofing. He positioned a wheelbarrow full of gravel alongside a
skylight while he talked to one of the company managers. As he turned to resume work, he fell through the
skylight onto the concrete floor.
Guardrails or skylight screens would have prevented this terrible tragedy.

SOLUTION:
For new skylight installations, use best available criteria to specify products that can withstand the live load
associated with a construction or maintenance worker inadvertently stepping on or falling on a skylight. An
alternative approach is to specify that guards or screens designed to handle these loads be attached over each
skylight, or that a guardrail be provided around the perimeter of the skylight installation. Existing fragile
skylight installations can be upgraded by installing screens or guards. Screens are recommended for plastic
dome skylights and light transmitting panels as they can degrade over time.

This photo shows a skylight This photo shows a non-fragile skylight

guard model

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety and Health regulations

OSHA General Industry standards (apply to completed buildings):

1910.23(a)(4) – Every skylight floor opening and hole shall be guarded by a standard skylight screen or a fixed
standard railing on all exposed sides.

Design for Construction Safety 56

 This material is for training purposes only.

1910.23(e)(8) - Skylight screens shall be of such construction and mounting that they are capable of
withstanding a load of at least 200 pounds applied perpendicularly at any one area on the screen. They shall
also be of such construction and mounting that under ordinary loads or impacts, they will not deflect downward
sufficiently to break the glass below them. The construction shall be of grillwork with openings not more than 4
inches long or of slatwork with openings not more than 2 inches wide with length unrestricted. (emphasis
added)

OSHA Construction standards (apply to buildings under construction):

1926.501(b)(4)(i) - Each employee on walking/working surfaces shall be protected from falling through holes
(including skylights) more than 6 feet (1.8 m) above lower levels, by personal fall arrest systems, covers, or
guardrail systems erected around such holes.

1926.502(i)(2) …[C]overs shall be capable of supporting, without failure, at least twice the weight of
employees, equipment, and materials that may be imposed on the cover at any one time. (emphasis added)

(NOTE: If the skylight itself meets the cover criteria in 1926.502(i)(2), OSHA will treat the skylight itself as a
cover. OSHA does not explicitly specify the type of load (static vs. dynamic) to be imposed for the twice-the-
weight requirement.)

Other information
American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) working group E06 WK 17797 “Working Group for the
Specification of Human Impact Criteria, with Procedure for Testing and Rating Plastic-Glazed Unit Skylights
and Related Products used on Commercial Walkable Roofs for Fall-Through Resistance” has been formed to
develop procedures and criteria for fall through resistance. ASTM Fall Protection Test Standard Development
Work Group (E06.51.25 WK17797) has been charged with developing a skylight fall protection test standard.

EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT OR USE:

The American Architectural Manufacturers Association (http://www.aamanet.org) includes skylight information
and links to other groups and manufacturers. Several skylight manufacturers offer models engineered to resist
impacts exceeding the OSHA criteria (e.g., to 1200 foot pounds).

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

 Non-fragile skylights may have secondary design benefits related to snow loads, wind loads, and hail resistance.
 Additional construction safety measures are needed during skylight installation to guard against falls through
the hole created for the skylight.
 Signs to notify and warn building occupants and maintenance personnel about skylight locations and other roof-
related hazards should be posted at roof entry points.
 Heat and smoke vents are normally smaller than skylights and are designed to open automatically in fire
situations to vent smoke and heat. Skylight-type precautions may be warranted for larger diameter smoke vents.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

Designing a skylight that can withstand the live load of a person falling on it or that has a guard or screen will
eliminate the need for safety precautions when maintenance is done on the roof during the life cycle of the
building. Safe skylights can also be a positive feature when considering garden roof tops.

Design for Construction Safety 57

 This material is for training purposes only.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES

 NIOSH, 2004. Preventing Falls of Workers through Skylights and Roof and Floor Openings:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004-156/
 BLS, 2008 (As cited in Should an Impact Resistance Standard Cover All Skylights? US Glass Network News:
http://www.usgnn.com/newsSkylight20080430.htm)
 NIOSH, 2003. Roofer's Family Member Helping at Work Site Dies After Falling Through Skylight:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/or/03or001.html
 NIOSH, 2006. Truck Driver Killed After Falling Through Unprotected Skylight:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/mi/06mi006.html
 FM Global, 2006. Approval Standard for Skylights: http://www.fmglobal.com/assets/pdf/fmapprovals/4431.pdf
 AAMA Skylight Council Position Paper on Fall Protection, 2008:
http://www.aamanet.org/upload/Skylight_Council_Position_Paper_rev_Dec_08.pdf

Design for Construction Safety 58

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #9

DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF
HAZARD: FALLS FROM ROOF EDGE
DESIGN SOLUTION: SPECIFY SUFFICIENT WALL HEIGHT TO
ALLOW PARAPETS TO FUNCTION AS FALL PREVENTION
HAZARD: FALLS

This design solution protects against the risk of serious falls from roofs or platforms during construction,
maintenance, and demolition activities over the life of a building. Falls from roofs can result in serious death or
injury - there were161 fatal falls from roofs reported in 2007 [BLS, 2009]. A parapet is a low wall or railing
used to protect the edge of a platform or roof. Parapets are not used on every building, but where they are used
they can be designed to provide fall protection. Parapet/guardrail combinations are also commonly used on
bridges.

SOLUTION:
Specify parapet wall heights to be at least 39 inches high and strong enough to support 200 pounds. This allows
the parapet wall to function as an effective barrier against falls. The International Building Code requires that
parapet walls be at least 30 inches high (IBC 704.11.1) for fire spread, but this height is insufficient to meet
regulatory requirements and insufficient to function as an effective perimeter guard against falls.

A parapet that can function as a perimeter guard also eliminates the need to provide temporary fall protection
for construction and maintenance activities on the roof thus reducing total costs over the building life cycle.

This photo shows a parapet wall installed

This photo shows a parapet wall around
on a bridge
the roof edge

Design for Construction Safety 59

 This material is for training purposes only.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Applicable US Safety and Health Regulations

OSHA Construction standards

1926.501(b)(1) “Unprotected sides and edges.” Each employee on a walking/working surface (horizontal and
vertical surface) with an unprotected side or edge which is 6 feet (1.8 m) or more above a lower level shall be
protected from falling by the use of guardrail systems, safety net systems, or personal fall arrest systems.
Unprotected sides and edges is defined as meaning any side or edge (except at entrances to points of access) of
a walking/working surface, e.g., floor, roof, ramp, or runway where there is no wall or guardrail system at least
39 inches (1.0 m) high.

Other information

Various local building codes may address parapet design and height. For example, since 1968 buildings in New
York City more than twenty-two feet in height with roofs flatter than twenty degrees have been required to be
provided with a parapet not less than three feet six inches (42 inches) high, or be provided with a 42 inch railing
or fence, or combination [§[C26-503.4] 27-334 Protective guards].

Various state codes may also address guardrail and parapet heights for highway bridges. For example, the Texas
Department of Transportation specifies a 42 inch guardrail (24 inch parapet with 18 inch guardrail) for bridge
railings for pedestrians [Manual Notice 2006-1, Section 5]

AVAILABLE EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT OR USE:

No specific parapet products were found as they are commonly constructed as part of the building. There may
be combination parapet and guardrail products available for bridges.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
 Parapet design must also consider other potential uses. For example, some parapets may be designed to support
window-washing scaffolds or for use as an anchorage with personal fall arrest systems.
 Parapets must be maintained over the life of the building. Older parapets may need bracing.
 A parapet wall may change the snow or pond loading on a roof. The designer should take this into account
when considering a parapet roof as additional structural framing may be required.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

A parapet can also eliminates the need to provide temporary fall protection during maintenance activities on the
roof thus reducing total costs over the building life cycle. A parapet roof can also be an important feature when
considering garden roofs.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SOURCES

 BLS, 2009. Table 1. Fatal occupational injuries by event or exposure, 2006-2007:
http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.t01.htm
 NIOSH, 1991. University Employee is Fatally Injured in 120-foot Fall from Roof:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/co/91co020.html
 NIOSH, 1993. Roofing Estimator Dies After Falling 14 Feet From The Roof of a Shopping Center Strip Mall:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/face/stateface/nj/93nj094.html
Design for Construction Safety 60
 This material is for training purposes only.

 NYC Title 27 Administrative Code Construction and Maintenance §[C26-503.4] 27-334 Protective guards,
2004: http://www.nyc.gov/html/dob/downloads/bldgs_code/bc27s5.pdf#page=5
 Texas Department of Transportation Manual Notice 2006-1, Section 5, 2006:
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rlg/bridge_railing_for_pedestrians.htm#CHDEHHBF at
http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/rlg/metal_and_concrete_railing.htm

Design for Construction Safety 61

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFTY DESIGN SOLUTION #10

DESIGN CATEGORY: ROOF/ENVELOPE
HAZARD : FALLS FROM HEIGHT
DESIGN SOLUTION:PRE-FABRICATION AND
ASSEMBLY AT GROUND LEVEL TO REDUCE
OVERALL TIME EXPOSURE AT HEIGHT
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from a height during the construction
and maintenance during the life of a building. Falls from height can result in death or serious injury – about 22
fatalities per year [BLS , 2008] are reported.

SOLUTION
This design solution reduces the total exposure to falls from heights by a factor of greater than 70% when
installing the large duct and attachments typical to coal plant air quality projects by pre-fabricating and
assembling the duct sections on the ground.

The duct goes through an assembly line set-up where insulation and insulation covering is installed from a
scaffold inside a large tent. The duct then has catwalks, permanent lighting, handrails and miscellaneous
attachments installed while at ground level. When the duct is lifted into place very little high work is then
required to join the sections. The scaffolding is much safer and able to be easily maintained inside the tent than
if the scaffold had to be built from the ground up to insulate the duct if it was installed without insulation. The
permanent lighting, handrails, cable trays installed at ground level greatly reduce the exposure to heights that
would be required otherwise. so that workers are not

Figure 1-This photo shows the C Section Figure 2 – This photo shows work
of duct going into the tent. inside the tent.

Design for Construction Safety 62

 This material is for training purposes only.

Figure 3- Insulated before raising into place Figure 4 - Different piece, but see the
permanent catwalk on left side
installed before lift.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Applicable US Safety Regulations

1926.501 Duty to have fall protection

Link: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10757

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
The method is appropriate for many situations in heavy construction. In addition to prefabricating fall
prevention measures eliminating much of the need the need for fall protection, productivity is greatly enhanced
by installing components at ground level. Working at heights is not only more hazardous, but is also slower than
working at ground level. When the guardrails, cable trays, lights or other components are installed with the duct
on the ground, if some elevated work is required it’s usually brief and performed from an aerial lift which is
inherently safer than working from a scaffold 100 or more feet in the air.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

By installing permanent catwalks, guardrails, and handrails future maintenance costs are reduce since personal
fall protection would not be needed and the units would be more assessable.

Design for Construction Safety 63

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #11

DESIGN CATEGORY: ENVELOPE/INTERIOR
HAZARDS: FALLS FROM STRUCTURAL STEEL
DESIGN SOLUTION: CONSIDER ACTUAL CONSTRUCTION
LOADS

ThisCONSTRUCTION
design solution reduces the riskWORKPLACE DESIGN
of serious falls from structural SOLUTION
steel during the construction of a building.
Falls from structural steel can result in death or serious injury – about 36 fatalities per year [BLS, 2008] are
FALL
reported. Not HAZARD:
included in these FALL FROM
statistics are STRUCTURAL
injuries and STEEL
fatalities that have results from structure failures
DESIGN
because the design SOLUTION: BEAM
professional did not consider COLUMNS
actual construction loads in the structural design. The actual
loads during construction
HAZARD: FALLS could be higher than the building code requirement.

SOLUTION
Building codes requires sizing structural members based on the dead load of the construction materials and the
live load resulting from occupancy. However, structural failures have occurred because the designer did not
consider the actual construction loads or processes. For example, Figure 1 below shows a typical composite
beam construction. The steel beam is proportioned based upon composite action. But, during construction the
structure does not act like a composite structure. Designers should consider how the structure behaves during
construction as well as the when it is complete. The weight of construction vehicles, pallets of bricks, lumber
and other materials should be considered in addition to the building code requirements when sizing structural
members.

Figure1Typical Composite Construction Figure 2 Structural collapse from weight of

equipment

Design for Construction Safety 64

 This material is for training purposes only.

strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in the construction process so that workers are not
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
US Building Codes
See for example, International Building Code, International Code Council

Other Applicable Design Guidelines:

National Institute of Steel Detailing and Steel Erectors Association of America. Detailing Guide
for the Enhancement of Erection Safety. 2001. www.nisd.org and www.seaa.net.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
-Avoid exterior slender columns
-Show reinforcement details on drawings

Design for Construction Safety 65

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #12

DESIGN CATEGORY: SITE
HAZARD: FALLS DUE TO SCAFFOLD COLLAPSE
DESIGN SOLUTION: DESIGN PERMANENT FEATURES INTO
THE BUILDING THAT MAKE IT EASIER AND SAFER TO
USE SCAFFOLDING
This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls due to scaffold collapse. Scaffolding is a temporary
structure used to support workers and material during the construction, repair, or maintenance of buildings and
structures. Design professionals generally do not concern themselves with scaffolding, thinking it is the
responsibility of the contractor(s). Falls from scaffolding ranks second in the number of construction fatalities
due to falls, about 46 each year (BLS, 2009). A percentage of these falls are due to scaffold collapse. In August
of 2009, a 42-year-old construction worker at a Brooklyn apartment building plunged four stories to his death
when a scaffold suddenly collapsed.

SOLUTION
Designers should consider permanent features that will make it easier and safer to erect scaffolding. For
example, scaffold needs to be laterally supported to resist wind and other lateral loads. An important element of
the scaffold system is the building tie which connects the scaffold to the structure. Permanent building ties such
as the one shown in the figure below not only can be reused if scaffolding is needed in the future, but is stronger
than relying on the strength of day old veneer. A metal bracket is permanently connected to a concrete floor
deck or steel. An eye bolt threads into the bracket to provide a building tie. The tie is easily removed by simply
unthreaded the eye bolt and can be reused in the future.

Davits can be installed around the perimeter of the roof to provide a permanent suspension system for self
powered platforms and single man cages. Davit sockets can be recessed below the pavers and the davits can be
bolted in place only when needed. Monorail systems can be installed along the building profile. These systems
can be used to suspend work platforms and be aesthetically pleasing at the same time. Gantry systems can be
designed to maintain atriums and skylights

Figure 1 This photo shows how building ties Figure 2 This photo shows how
can be designed so that they are easier to remove davits can be installed to provide
and can be reused. a permanent suspension system.
Design for Construction Safety 66
 This material is for training purposes only.

Figure 3 This photo shows how Figure 4 Gantry systems can be

monorail systems can be installed designed to maintain atriums and
along a building profile. They can skylights.
be used to suspend work platforms.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

OSHA 1926 Subpart L-Scaffolds

http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10916

ANSI/ASSE A10.8 Safety Requirements for Scaffolding

Scaffold and Access Industry Association SAIA http://www.saiaonline.org/AboutSIA

N.C. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Division

http://www.nclabor.com/osha/etta/indguide/ig38.pdf

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
 When it is not possible to provide tying points or other permanent features, allow sufficient room in the
design so that outriggers or buttresses can be used to secure the scaffold.

 Try to provide as much information regarding material weights to the contractor. This will make it easier
for the contractor to control the load on the scaffold system.

 Consider potential scaffold loads when designing parapet walls and structural steel.

 Consider designing permanent tie back anchors that can be used to secure building maintenance systems
and boatswain chairs. The anchors can be wall mounted, flush, or “U” mounted, and can be designed to
reduce architectural visibility.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

Permanent, reusable tying points and other building features provide a life cycle benefit because they can be
used when scaffolding is needed for future repairs and maintenance.

Design for Construction Safety 67

 This material is for training purposes only.

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY DESIGN SOLUTION #13

DESIGN CATEGORY: SITE
HAZARD: FALLS FROM STATIONARY FLATBED TRAILERS
DESIGN SOLUTION: TRANSPORTABLE ANCHOR POSTS

This design solution reduces the risk of serious falls from stationary flatbed trailers. When a truck is on the
road, it is controlled by DOT regulations. However, when vehicles are stopped for loading and unloading the
flatbed trailer is in effect a working/walking surface. While OSHA 1926 excludes trucks and trailers from the
agencies definition of ”working/walking surface” thereby exempting these areas from fall protection
requirements, using the same safety precautions that apply to open sided floors six feet above a lower level to
loading and unloading of flatbed trailers makes sense. Many truck drivers and ironworkers unloading the steel
have been seriously injured falling from flatbeds while removing tiedown straps and misstepping or being hit by
swinging suspended steel. Falls backwards from the deck usually result in severe head injury. BLS data shows
that in 2010 76 workers were killed and 9,330 workers suffered a day way from work injury as a result of
falling from a nonmoving vehicle. In that same year, 1,190 workers suffered a day away from work injury as a
result of jumping from nonmoving vehicles.
SOLUTION
This solution alternative reduces 5-8’ fall hazards from stationary flatbed trailers when delivering steel shapes
(beams and girders) to construction sites. Transportable anchor posts positioned at each end of the trailer enable
harness access with fall protection as demo shows. The centering of the anchorage point is achieved by sliding
under the trailer using the appropriate sized wheels for the environment allowing fork lift access. However if the
site crane is removing the steel then the equipment can be moved over slightly to avoid collision.

The photo to the left shows anchor posts

with harness access being used by
workers to unload steel from a flatbed
trailer.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Fall protection for unloading trailers at construction sites should comply with 1926.501(b)(15) and
502(d)(15/16).

ANSI A10.32-2004 equipment requirements including anchorage strength will be satisfied by this arrangement
as will ANSI Z359.1-2007.

Design for Construction Safety 68

 This material is for training purposes only.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Other designs besides that shown are wheeled to suit the terrain and transported by pick up in collapsed form.
The hoists can be manual to lift the rail. The SRL’s run on the small steel I-beam by trolley to remain overhead
for ironworker access. The SRL is pulled down by a tag line which is stuffed in a pocket after the SRL
snaphook is attached to their harness back D-ring. Specification: approx 3600 lbs, height 18 ft.

LIFE CYCLE SOLUTION BENEFITS

This solution is a simple procedure for many work sites and can be set up quickly. The application should be
reliable for many years with sturdily built equipment.

Design for Construction Safety 69

 This material is for training purposes only.

-A

h floors and floor openings is another major cause of fatalities from falls. Designers can be helpful here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces.
Designers and contractors working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in the construction process so that workers are not Falls through floors and floor openings is
another major cause of fatalities from falls. Designers can be helpful here as well. Designers should specify guardrail systems along all elevated working/walking surfaces. Designers and contractors
working together should strive to put permanent guardrails up as early as possible in the construction process so that workers are not exposed to unguarded heights.

Design for Construction Safety 70