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CHAPTER 1 1.1 HISTORY OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

For the first time in the history of Nobel Prizes, in 1959 Richard.P.Feynman of the Southern California was awarded the Noble Prize for his work in Nanotechnology. But people at that time were pessimistic about his theory of manipulating atoms. People often muddle up Nanotechnology with Science Fiction. It often comes as a surprise to learn that the Romans & Chinese were using nanoparticles thousands of years ago. Of course, people were not aware that they were using nanotechnology and as they had no control over particle size, or even any knowledge of the nano scale. The icons of this revolution are Scanning Tunneling Microscopes [STM] and Atomic Force Microscope [AFM] that are capable of creating pictures of individual atoms and moving them from place to place.

1.2 EVOLUTION
1. The word Nano comes from Greek word nanos meaning dwarf. The term Nano is the factor of one billionth. 2. Albert Einstein first proved that each molecule measures about a nanometer (a billionth of meter) in diameter. 3. Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University proposed the word Nano. 4. In 1950 an electrical engineer Arthur Von Hippel first proposed the word molecular technology. 5. The Nano world was exposed through a lecture delivered in 1959 by Feynman with the help of Nano technology and Nano scale engineering. He said that there is a possibility to implement very small motors. 6. In 1981 members of IBM Institute George Binning and Henrich Rober manufactured scanning tunneling microscope (STM). There is a fortune to observe very minute atoms. This is one of the developments of Nano technology.

1.3 INTRODUCTION
Imagine a technology so powerful that it will allow such feats as desktop manufacturing, cellular repair, artificial intelligence, inexpensive space travel, clean and abundant energy and environmental restoration; a technology so portable that every one can reap its benefits; a technology so fundamental that it will radically change the economic and political systems; a technology so imminent that most of people will see its impact within the lifetimes. Such is the promise of nanotechnology. Albert Einstein first proved that each molecule measures about a nanometer (a billionth of a meter) in diameter. In 1959, it was Richard P. Feynman who predicted a technological world composed of self-replicating molecules whose purpose would be the production of nano-sized objects. Almost a hundred years after Einsteins insight and 40 years after Feynmans initial proposition, the nanometer scale looms large on the research agenda. The semiconductor industry is edging closer to the world of nanotechnology where components are miniastured to the point of individual molecules and atoms. A push is well underway to invent devices that will manufacture anything at almost no cost, by treating atoms discretely, like computers treat bits of information. This would allow automatic construction of consumer goods without traditional labour, like a Xerox machine produces unlimited retyping the original information. Electronics is fuelled by miniasturisation. Working smaller has led to the tools capable of manipulating individual atoms, just as the proteins in a potato manipulate the atoms of soil, water and air to make copies of themselves. The shotgun marriage of chemistry and engineering called nanotechnology is ushering in the era of self replicating machinery and self-assembling consumer goods made from cheap raw atoms.

CHAPTER 2 2.1 Definition

A technology is defined as nano technology only if it involves all of the following: 1. Research range. 2. Creating and using structures, devices and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their small and/or intermediate size. 3. Ability to control or manipulate on the atomic scale. OR Nano-technology is the production technology to get the extra high accuracy and ultra fine dimensions, i.e., the preciseness and fineness on the order of 1 nm (nanometer), 10 9 meter in length. The name of Nanotechnology originates from this nanometer. In the processing of materials, the smallest bit size of stock removal, accretion or flow of materials is probably of one atom or one molecule namely 0.1~0.2 nm in length. Therfore, the expected limit size of fineness would be of the order of 1 nm. Accordingly, Nano-technology mainly consists of the processing of separation, consolidation and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule. Needless to say, the measurement and control. OR Nanotechnology can best be considered as a catch-all description of activities at the level of atoms and molecules that have applications in the real world. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, that is, about 1/80,000 of the diameter of a human hair, or 10 times the diameter of a hydrogen atom. and technology development at the atomic, molecular or

macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1-100 nanometer

2.2 .what is Nanotechnology?

Nanotechnologyhow big or small? If a definition of technology is "the application of science and scientific knowledge for industrial or commercial objectives," then in its most simplistic form, nanotechnology might be specifically defined as "the application of science and scientific knowledge, at the nanoscale, for industrial or commercial objectives." In order to understand the size of material/matter involved at the nanoscale level, one needs to trace down the units of measurement, commencing with an ant (at the milliscale) and ending at the very bottom, at the nanoscale. The nanoscale is far from the smallest unit of measurementit is however the smallest scale at which matter can be manipulated. Figure 1 illustrates where the nanoscale fits in with relation to other scales.

NANOTECHNOLOGY: IS IT REAL?

For the uninitiated, Nanotechnology might seem somewhat cartoonish, simply because of the funny word nano. But, rest assured, nanotechnology is very realand its definitely not a cartoon. Understanding nanotechnology and nanoscience means learning how to think small very small. This paradigm is a 180-degree turnaround from a world that up until now was built on thinking big. In the battle of the telescope versus the microscope, the stars always win out over the atoms. Afterall, we can see the stars with our own eyes. It takes tremendous imagination to see what something might look like at the molecular level. Well, nanotechnology takes place at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1-100 nanometer range. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. Forget your average lab microscope. Molecules consist of one or more atoms. So, how big is an atom? To get us there, our imaginations can start with one cubic inch of air, which consists of an estimated 500 billion molecules.

2.3 The Objectives Of Nano technology

PC's billions of times faster then today Safe and affordable space travel Virtual end to illness, aging, death No more pollution and automatic cleanup of existing pollution

6 End of famine and starvation Superior education for every child on Earth Reintroduction of many extinct plants and animals Terraforming Earth and the Solar System Get essentially every atom in the right place. Make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics that we can specify in molecular detail. Have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and energy

WHY DO WE NEED THIS TECHNOLOGY? To evaluate new ideas and new concepts filtering out the emotional biases and confusion that seems to inevitably surround our perceptions of them. Production of smaller, less expensive highly integrated components in less time. Better and faster technology.

CHAPTER 3
3.1 Nano scale building blocks

Atoms
If an atom were of the size of a small marble, a fairly complex molecule would be of the size of your fist. This makes a useful mental image, but atoms are really about 1/10,000 the size of bacteria, and bacteria are about 1/10,000 the size of mosquitoes. An atomic nucleus however is about 1/10,000 the size of the atom itself. All machines use clumps of atoms as parts. These atoms will bond together and form molecules. These molecules will be assembled like the components of an erector set; and well-bounded parts will stay put. Just as ordinary tools can build ordinary machines from parts, so molecular tools will bond molecules together to make tiny gears, motors, levers, and castings and assemble them to make complex machines.

8 Nano structure is a particle of nanometer size. This designation has various meanings like cluster, big molecule, nano crystal embedded in a matrix etc. Nano meter scale structures are topologically closed and hollow. They typically form tabular or spherical morphologies. It is especially the case for carbon, which presents a renewable diversity of structure on the nanometer scale. E.g.: Graphite and hexagonal boron nitrite (H-BN) (The nearest neighbor distances (0.144&0.142 nm), the inter layer spacing (C/2=0.33&0.335 nm)) are almost identical.

Nano Tubes:
Tabular forms of carbon, commonly called Nano tubes, are known since the development of high resolution TEM. For instance, there were already described by A.Oberlin & M.Endo as early as 1976. Tubes are cylinders of concentric hexagonal layers (one to several tens of layers), with diameter in the order of the nanometer. Tube lengths are macroscopic, so that the aspect ratio (length/diameter) can be up to 105. For energy considerations, tubes are believed to be several concentric layers rather than one of spiraling layer. Boundary limits after one rotation around the axis constraint a limited number of choices for the helicity of the hexagonal layer relatively to tube axis. Indeed there must be a continuity of hexagons on the cylinder. This limits the number of possible choices for helicity. Any vector joining two equivalent atoms in a grapheme plane can form the circumference

9 of a tube. (Of course, this only has a physical meaning. If the diameter of the tube is neither too small nor too big) then the axis of the tube is defined perpendicular to this vector. Each vector in the graphene plane defines one helicity of the tube around its axis. There are two specific cases of helicity. 1. When the vector is perpendicular to the border of one hexagon (Arm chair type). 2. When the vector crosses two atoms opposed in the hexagon (Zigzag type). The nanotubes are of two kinds. 1. Multiwall Nanotubes 2. Single walled Nanotubes

Nano layers /Onions (typically 10 to 300 nm):

Onions are particles roughly rounded, constituted of atomic layers piled as onion. Morphologies are various. Often an onion is closed by facets and angles, rather than by a continuous curvature, forming a nano-polyhedron. Onions are often irregular and full of defects. This is because such structure difficultly accommodates the inter layer constraints in case of spherical curvatures. Onions probably feature disorder piling of layers (turbostratic). Highly disordered onions are known to exist in common carbon soot. The carbon fullerene family is a group of molecules, with chemical formula C 2n, (20<n<50). Amongst those, a C60 molecule, shaped as a football ball, 1nm in diameter is the most symmetrical and the most stable structure.

Quantum Dots:
As the name implies, are tiny crystals composed of periodic groups of II-IV, III-V, are IV-VI materials that range in size from 2 to 10 nanometers or roughly the size of 10 to 50

10 atoms in diameter. Due to the extremely small size of the nano-particles, the optical, electronic, and chemical properties of the quantum dots are dominated by physical size and the chemistry of their surface. These are called QUANTUM CONFINEMENT effects. This quantum confinement results in a controlled blue shifting of the bulk energy band gap so that properties such as absorption onset and peak photoluminescence wavelength are size dependent. In quantum dots strong absorption occurs at specific photon energies, at the expense of reduced absorption at other energies. The quantum confinement can effectively enhance many non-linear effects due to a concentration of the oscillator strength into narrow wavelength bands. These include nonlinear refractive index, nonlinear absorption, Stark effect, Electro-magneto optic effects. Colloid ally prepared nanocrystal quantum dots are free floating and can be coupled to a variety of molecules via metal coordinating functional groups. This ability greatly increases the flexibility and application in which quantum dots can be used.

Phase II:
All the above said Nano particles when assembled together forms nano structures. For all our advances in arranging atoms, we still use primitive methods. But today there is molecular technology MACHINE by which we can assemble the molecules into nano structures.

Assemblers:

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11 These are nano machines, which will serve as improved devices for assembling molecular structures. The machine, which can be able to bond atoms together in virtually any stable pattern, according a few at a time to the surface of a work piece until a complex structure is complete is called an ASSEMBLER. They will let us build almost anything that the laws of nature allow to exist. There are two well-known architectural designs for assemblers. 1. Von Neumanns architecture (Two-dimensional 2D). 2. Drexlers architecture. (Three-dimensional 3D)

The Von Neumann architecture for a general manufacturing system:

Von Neumanns proposal consisted of two central elements: a universal computer and a universal constructer (see fig 1). The universal computer contains a program that directs the behavior of the universal constructor. The universal constructer, in turn, is used to manufacture both another universal computer and another universal constructor. Once construction is finished the program contained in the original universal computer is copied to the new universal computer and program execution is started.

UNIVERSAL COMPUTER

UNIVERSAL CONSTRUCTOR

The Von Neumann architecture for a self-replicating system. Von Neumann worked out the details for a constructor that worked in a theoretical two dimensional cellular automata world. An important point to notice is that self-replication, while important, is not by itself an objective. A device able to make copies of itself but unable to make anything else would not be very valuable. Von Neumanns proposals centered around the combination of a universal constructor, which could make anything it was directed to make, and a

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12 universal computer, which could compute anything it was directed to compute. It is this ability to make anyone of a broad range of structures under flexible programmatic control that is of value. The ability of the device to make copies of itself is simply a means to achieve low cost, rather than an end in itself.

Drexlers architecture for an assembler:

Drexlers assembler follows the Von Neumann kinetic architecture, but is specialized for dealing with systems made of atoms. The essential components in Drexlers assembler are shown in fig 2.The emphasis here (in contrast to Von Neumanns proposal) is on small size. The computer and constructor both shrink to the molecular scale, while the constructer takes on additional detail consistent with the desire to manipulate molecular structures with atomic precision. The molecular constructor has two major sub systems: 1. A positional capability and 2. The tip chemistry. The Drexlers architecture for an Assembler is shown in the figure:

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Molecular Computer

Molecular Constructor

Molecular Positional Capability

Tip Chemistry

The positional capability might be provided by one or more small robotic arms, or alternatively might be provided by anyone of a wide range of devices that provide positional control. The emphasis, though, is on a positional device that is very small in scale: perhaps 0.1 microns (100 nanometers) or so in size. The tip chemistry is logically similar to the ability of the Von Neumann universal constructor to alter the state of a cell at the tip of the arm, but now the change in state corresponds to a change in molecular structure. That is, we must specify a set of welldefined chemical reactions that take place at the tip of the arm, and the set must be sufficient to allow the synthesis of the structures of interest. It is worth nothing that current methods in computational chemistry are sufficient to model the kinds of structures that will appear in a broad class of molecular machines, including all of the structures and reactions needed for some assemblers

There are two concepts commonly associated with Nanotechnology: 1)POSITIONAL ASSEMBLY POSITIONAL ASSEMBLY: 13 2)SELF REPLICATION

14 This positional assembly aims to place the right molecular parts in the right place.The need for positional assembly implies an interest in molecular robotics.e.g.,robotic devices that are molecular both in their size and precision. These molecular scale positional devices are likely to resemble very small versions of their everyday macroscopic counterparts.Positional assembly is frequently used in normal macroscopic manufacturing today,and provides tremendous

advantages.Imagine trying to build a bicycle with both hands tied behind your back! The idea of manipulating and positioning individual atoms and molecules is still new and takes some getting used to.however as Feynman said The principles of physics,do not against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom. We need to apply at the molecular scale the concept that was demonstrated its effectiveness at the macroscoping scale:making parts go where we want by putting them where we want! SELF REPLICATION: The remarkably low manufacturing cost comes from self replication.Molecular machines can make more molecular machines,which can make yet more molecular machines.While the research and development costs for such systems are likely to be quite high,incremental manufacturing costs of a system able to make systems like itself can be very low. Self replication is at the heart of many policy discussions.The only self replicating systems most of us are familiar with are biological. We automatically assume that nanotechnological selfreplicating systems will be similar. The machines people

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15 make bear little resemblance to living systems and molecular manufacturing systems are likely to be just as dissimilar. The artificial self replicating systems are being proposed for molecular manufacturing are inflexible and brittle.It is difficult enough to design a system able to self replicate in a controlled environment,let alone designing one that can approach the marvelous adaptibility that hundreds of millions of years of evolution have given to living systems.Designing a system that uses a single source of energy is both much easier to do and produce a much more efficient system.Artificial self replicating systems will be both simpler and more efficient if most of this burden is offloaded:we can give them the odd compounds and unnatural molecular structures that they require in an artificial feedstock rather than forcing the device to make everything itself-a process that is both less efficient and more complex to design. The mechanical designs proposed for Nanotechnology are more reminiscent of a factory than of a living system.Molecular scale robotic arms able to move and position molecular parts would assemble rather rigid molecular products using methods more familiar to a machine shop than the complex brew of chemicals found in a cell.Although we are inspired by living systems,the actual designs are likely to owe more to design constraints and human objectives than to living systems. Selfreplication is but one of many abilities that living systems exbhit. Copying that one ability in an artificial system will be challenge enough without attempting to emulate their many other remarkable abilities.The engineering effort required to design systems of such complexity will be significant,but shouldnot be greater than

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computers,airplanes etc. THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE FOR A SELF REPLICATING SYSTEM

UNIVERSAL

UNIVERSAL

COMPUTER

CONSTRUCTOR

Fig.vonneumann architecture of a self replicatingsystem Vonneumanns proposal consisted of two central elements:a universal computer and a universal constructer see in above figure. The universal computer contains a program that directs the behavior of the universal constructor.The universal constructor inturn,is used to manufacture both another universal computer and another universal constructor. Once Construction is finished the program contained in the original universal computer is copied to the new universal computer and progarm execution is started.The constructor had an arm which it could move about and which could be used to change the state of the cell at athe tip ,it was possible to create objects consisting of regions of the two dimensional cellular automata world which were fully specified by the program that controlled the constructor. The vonneumanns kinematic constructor has had perhaps a greater influence,for it is a model of general manufacturing which can more easily be adapted to the three dimensional world in which we live.The robotic arm of constructor is moved in three space and which grasped parts from a sea of parts around it. These parts were then assembled into another kinematic constructor and

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17 its associated control computer. An important point to notice is that self

replication,while important,is not by itself an objective.A device able to make copies of itself but unable to make anything else wouldnot be very valuable.Vonneumanns proposals centered around the combination of a universal constructor,which could make anything it was directed to make,and a universal computer ,which could compute any thing it was directed to compute.It is this ability to make any of a broad range of structures under flexible programatic control that is of value.The ability of the device to make copies of itself is simply a means to achieve low cost rather than end in itself . BROADCAST ARCHITECTURE: Molecular Constructor Macroscopic Computer Molecular Constructor

Molecular Constructor

In the Vonneumanns architecture,Drexlers assembler and in living systems the complete set of plans for the system are carried internally in some sort of memory.

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18 This is not a logical necessity in a general manufacturing system. If we separate the constructor from the computer and allow many individual constructors to receive broadcast instructions from a single central computer then each constructor need remember the plans for what it is going to construct:it can simply be told what to do as it does it as shown in above figure.This approach not only eliminates the requirement for a central repository of plans with in the constructor,it can also eliminate almost all of the mechanisms involved in decoding and interpreting those plans.The advantages of the broadcast architecture are : (1)It reduces the size and complexity of the self replicating component (2)It allows self replicating component to rapidly redirect to build something noval. (3)If the central computer is macroscopic and under our direct control, the broadcast architecture is inherently safe in that the individual constructors lack sufficient capability to function autonomously.

3.2APPLICATIONS 3.2.1 Robotics

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19 Robotic surgical systems are being developed to provide surgeons with unprecedented control over precision instruments. This is particularly useful for minimally invasive surgery. Instead of manipulating surgical instruments, surgeons use their thumbs and fingers to move joystick handles on a control console to maneuver two robot arms containing miniature instruments that are inserted into ports in the patient. The surgeons movements transform large motions on the remote controls into micro-movements on the robot arms to greatly improve mechanical precision and safety. A third robot arm holds a miniature camera, which is inserted through a small opening into the patient. The camera projects highly magnified 3-D images on a console to give a broad view of the interior surgical site. The surgeon controlling the robot is seated at an ergonomically designed console with less physical stress than traditional operating room conditions.

3.2.2 NANOROBOT DESIGN

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20 Virtual Reality was considered a suitable approach for nanorobot design and for the use of macro- and micro-robotics concepts given certain theoretical and practical aspects that Focus on its domain of application. The nanodevice design must be robust enough to operate in an aqueous environment with movement having six-degrees of freedom .The nanorobot design is derived from biological models and is comprised of components such as molecular sorting rotors and a robot arm (telescoping manipulator) . The nanorobot exteriors considered in our design assumes a diamondoid material to which may be attached an artificial glycocalyx surface that minimizes fibrinogen(and other bloodProtein) adsorption and bioactivity, thus ensuring sufficient biocompatibility for the nanorobot to avoid immune system attack Different molecule types are distinguished by a series of chemotactic sensors whose binding sites have a different affinity for each kind of molecule .Some concepts provided from underwater robotics were assumed for nanorobot locomotion. The nanorobot kinematic response can be predicted using state equations, positional constraints, inverse kinematics and dynamics, while some individual directional component performance can be simulated using control system models of transient and steady state response.

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Nanorobots sensing obstacles

Nanorobot obstacle avoidance

MANUFACTURING OF NANOROBOTS
Molecular nanotechnology (MNT), the umbrella science of nanomedicine, envisions nanorobots manufactured in nanofactories no larger than the average desktop printer. The nanofactories would use nano-scale tools capable of constructing nanorobots to exacting specifications. Design, shape, size and type of atoms, molecules, and computerized components included would be task-specific. Raw material for making the nanorobots would be nearly cost-free, and the process virtually pollution-free, making nanorobots an extremely affordable and highly attractive technology.

3.2.3 WORKING
The nanorobots use a macro transponder navigational system, which may allow high positional accuracy in each nanorobots orientation. Such a system might involve externally generated signals from beacons placed at fixed positions outside the skin. Nanorobots will possess at least rudimentary two-way communication; will respond to acoustic signals; and will be able to receive power or even re-programming instructions from an external source via sound waves. A network of special stationary nanorobots might be strategically positioned throughout the body, logging each active nanorobot as it

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passes, and then reporting those results, allowing an interface to keep track of all of the devices in the body. By using the nanorobots local perception as much as possible and by sending the fewest possible messages to other nanorobots, unnecessary communication between the agents is reduced, thus minimizing energy consumption by the nanorobots.A doctor could not only monitor a patients progress but change the instructions of the nanorobots in vivo to progress to another stage of healing... Nanorobots satisfy their energy requirements via the chemical combination of oxygen and glucose, both of which are plentiful in the human body. Glucose or natural body sugars and oxygen might be a source for propulsion, and the nanorobot will have other biochemical or molecular parts depending on its task. When the task is completed, the nanorobots would be flushed from the body.

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3.3. CARBON NANOTUBES

The combination of remarkable mechanical properties and unique electronic properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) offers significant potential for revolutionary applications in electronics devices, computing and data storage technology, sensors, detectors, nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), as tip in scanning probe microscopy (SPM) for imaging and nanolithography and a number of other applications. Thus the CNT synthesis, characterization and applications touch upon all disciplines of science and engineering. This tutorial will provide an overview of the following topics: CNT properties, growth techniques particularly CVD and plasma CVD, patterned growth,

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24 vertical alignment, applications in nanoelectronics, sensors, field emission, microscopy and others.

Development of Silicon Carbide Nanotubes (SiCNT) for Sensors and Electronics

The objective of this task is to evaluate multiple approaches to synthesize and characterize the highest performing SiCNTs for high temperature & high radiation conditions. Also to develop sophisticated modeling and simulation technologies that will facilitate the research and development of various chemical techniques for SiC-based nanotube (SiCNT) fabrication and to further expedite the design and prototyping of more complicated assemblies and devices made from SiCNTs. Multiple synthetic approaches are planned which parallel the direct CNT formation as well as an indirect approach involving derivatization of a CNT to a SiCNT. One indirect approach that may be envisioned to produce a SiCNT, which can be thought of as a chemical derivative of a CNT, starts with a CNT that is modified by chemically attaching different Siliconcontaining functional groups to the CNT (functionalizing). This derivatized-CNT is then pyrolyzed in an appropriate environment to yield a SiCNT. A more direct approach would employ Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) using reduced partial-pressures of reactants and trace amounts of catalysts to directly obtain SiCNTs . This more direct fabrication attempt would rely on high temperature (2000C) CVD using a catalytic (trace metal) substrate.

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25 Compared with theoretical SiCNT modeling results. The electrical properties include investigations into potential semiconductor properties that could be extended to higher (than CNT) temperatures. Once fabricated, the SiCNTs electrical and mechanical properties would be characterized and Electrical activity of SiCNTs could also be studied as a function of adsorbates, which could ultimately lead to applications such as nano-gassensors for harsh environments. Mechanical properties to be studied include tensile and compressive stress for structural components (e.g. actuators) and also their effect on SiCNT electrical properties. Knowledge gained from these fabrication results and empirical investigations can be incorporated into the models of the simulation environment to improve fidelity.

3.4. NANOMEDICINE
3.4.1The Promise of Nanomedicine The ultimate promise of nanomedicine is the eradication of disease. To accomplish this goal requires the convergence of nanotechnology and biotechnology. In turn, nanomedicine is the convergence of many disciplines: biology, chemistry, physics, engineering and material science.
The

eradication of disease involves in three subgoals

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26 1) Using nano-robots, nano-machines or other methods at the molecular level to search and destroy disease-causing cells 2) Same as above for the purposes of repairing damaged cells 3) Using pumps or similar technology at the molecular scale as a means of drug delivery Nanotechnology involves the creation and use of materials and devices at the level of molecules and atoms. As life itself creates and uses molecular materials and devices, nanoscience will provide great insights in life science concepts, such as how molecular materials self-assemble, self-regulate, and self-destroy. Nanomedicine eventually will infiltrate virtually every field of medicine, if not every realm of human endeavor. Nano medicine may be defined as the monitoring, repair, construction and control of human biological systems at the molecular level, using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures. A sample list of areas covered by and converged with nanomedicine include: Biotechnology, Genomics, Genetic Engineering, Cell Biology, Stem Cells, Cloning, Prosthetics, Cybernetics, Neural Medicine, Dentistry, Cryonics, Veterinary Medicine, Biosensors, Biological Warfare, Cellular Reprogramming, Diagnostics, Drug Delivery, Gene Therapy, Human Enhancement, Imaging Techniques, Skin Care, Anti-Aging.

3.4.2 Nanomedical Issues

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27 Other nanomedical issues include sensory feedback, control architectures, cellular repair and destruction, replication, safety, biocompatibility, environmental interaction, genetic analysis, diagnosis and treatment. Treatment covers the full range of illness and disease, from cardiovascular to trauma, amputations to burns, brain, spinal and other neural injuries/diseases, nutrition, sex and reproduction, cosmetics and aging.

3.5. Devices
Nanodevices will supplement current micro devices, which includes microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidics, and microarrays. Examples of medical applications include biosensors and detectors to detect trace quantities of bacteria, airborne pathogens, biological hazards, and disease signatures, microfluidic applications for DNA testing and implantable fluid injection systems and MEMS devices which contain miniature moving parts for pacemakers and surgical devices. MEMS stands for Micro Electronic Mechanical Systems, a technology used to integrate various electro-mechanical functions onto integrated circuits. A typical MEMS device combines a sensor and logic to perform a monitoring function.

3.6 OTHER APPLICATIONS

KILLING CANCER CELLS Given such molecular tools, we could design a small device able to identify and kill cancer cells. The device would have a small computer, several binding sites to determine the concentration of specific molecules, and a supply of some poison which could be selectively released and was able to kill a cell identified as cancerous.

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28 The device would circulate freely throughout the body, and would periodically sample its environment by determining whether the binding sites were or were not occupied. Occupancy statistics would allow determination of concentration. Today's monoclonal antibodies are able to bind to only a single type of protein or other antigen, and have not proven effective against most cancers. The cancer killing device suggested here could incorporate a dozen different binding sites and so could monitor the concentrations of a dozen different types of molecules. The computer could determine if the profile of concentrations fit a pre-programmed "cancerous" profile and would, when a cancerous profile was encountered, release the poison. CONTROL OF POLLUTION THROUGH NANOTECHNOLOGY Nanotechnologies have the potential to produce plentiful consumer goods with much lower throughout of materials and much less production of waste, thus reducing carbon dioxide buildup and reducing global warning. They also have the potential to reduce waste, especially hazardous waste, converting it to natural materials, which do not threaten life. Molecular manufacturing processes will rearrange atoms in controlled ways, and can neatly package any unwanted atoms for recycling or return to their source. This technology can also be used in the control of pollution due to orbital and nuclear wastes, cleansing soil and water, cleansing the atmosphere. Nanotechnology can help with the cleanup of these pollutants. Living organisms clean the environment, when they can, by using molecular machinery to break down toxic materials. Systems built with nanotechnology will be able to do likewise, and to deal with compounds that arent biodegradable.

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29 New imaging technologies will provide high quality images not currently possible with current devices. This allows greater surgical precision and targeted treatment. Chasing cancerous cells or removing tumors can result in severely damaged normal tissue or the loss of abilities like hearing and speech as in the case of brain tumors. Nanotechnology can offer new solutions for the early detection of cancer and other diseases. Nanoprobes can be used with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Nanoparticles with a magnetic core are attached to a cancer antibody that attracts cancer cells. The nanoparticles are also linked with a dye, easily seen on an MRI. The nanoprobes latch onto cancer cells and once detected by MRI, can then emit laser or low dosage killing agents that attack only the diseased cells. Miniature devices are also implantable for imaging not possible currently. A pill, for instance, can contain a miniature video system. When the pill is swallowed, it moves through the digestive system and takes pictures every few seconds. The entire digestive system can be assessed for tumors, bleeding, and diseases in areas not accessible withcolonoscopies and endoscopies.

3.7 LIMITATIONS
Nano technology can be disadvantageous as all things are. Researchers have demonstrated that small systems behave dramatically, differently from large breaking the second law of thermodynamics and posing a major challenge for those developing nanotechnology. The second law of thermodynamics states that closed systems remain the same or have an increase in entropy over time. A hot cup of coffee, for example, won't get hotter without intervention. But while this has proven true at the macro level, chemical physicists have shown it doesn't hold at the micro level, suggesting nanotechnology will be difficult to develop as anything modelled on large systems could sometimes run backwards .Also with nanotechnology destructive objects such as atomic bomb grenades,nuclear weapons, robotic killers designed to kill humans etc.,can be made which can dump humanity in danger..

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TO HIT THE ROAD AHEAD

Progress in the 21st century will be 1000 times greater than in the 20th century in terms of technical change. Around 2030, we should be able to flood our brains with Nanobots that can be turned off and on, and which would function as experience beamers that allow us to experience the full range of other peoples sensory experiences too boring, we will have access to archives where more interesting experiences are stored. By 2030, non-biological thinking will be trillion of times more powerful than biological thinking. Desktop molecular computers could have the computational power of a million human brains in terms of switching operations per second. Humanity will be faced with a powerful, accelerated social revolution as a result of nanotechnology. In the near future a team of scientists will succeed in constructing the first nanosiezed robot capable of self replication. Within a few short years and five billion trillion nano-robots later, virtually all the present industrial processes will be obsolete, along with our contemporary concept of labour. Consumer goods will become plentiful, inexpensive, smart and durable. Medicine will take a quantum leap forward. Space travel and colonization will become safe and affordable. For these and other reasons, global lifestyles will change radically and human behaviour will be drastically impacted. The world is on the brink of a new technological revolution beyond any human experience. A new, more powerful industrial revolution capable of bringing wealth, health and education, without pollution, to every person on the planet is just around the corner. No longer need will forest to be cut or smoke spewed into the air. This is the promise of Nanotechnology.

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CONCLUSION
We can nevertheless to say our coming age will be a nanotechnology. Adding programmed positional control existing methods gives us greater control over the material world and improved our standards of living.

REFERENCES
1.Nano technology by Drexler 2.www.nanoword.net 3.www.nanotechbook.com

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