Combinatorics

2015 to 2020

Prashant Jain
PRASHANT JAIN
IIT Bombay

Mentor of 20000+ students in last 5 years

AIR 42, JEE 2008
B Tech, IIT Bombay
INCHO Gold Medalist
NTSE Qualified
National Author, Pearson Education
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UPCOMING BATCHES
 Combinatorics

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 Example
E.g. Each student in a small school has to be a member of at least one of THREE school
clubs. It is known that each club has 35 members. It is not known how many students
are members of two of the three clubs, but it is known that exactly 10 students are
members of all three clubs. What is the largest possible total number of students in the
school? What is the smallest possible total number of students in the school?
UGMATH2020

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 Example
E.g. A fair die is thrown 100 times in succession. Find probabilities of the following events.
(i) 4 is the outcome of one or more of the first three throws.
(ii) Exactly 2 of the last 4 throws give an outcome divisible by 3 (i.e., outcome 3 or 6).
UGMATH2020

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 Example
E.g. For a positive integer n, let D(n) = number of positive integer divisors of n. For example,
D(6) = 4 because 6 has four divisors, namely 1, 2, 3 and 6. Find the number of 𝑛 ≤ 60
such that D(n) = 6. UGMATH2020

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 Example
E.g. You are given an 8 × 8 chessboard. If two distinct squares are chosen uniformly at
random find the probability that two rooks placed on these squares attack each other.
Recall that a rook can move either horizontally or vertically, in a straight line.
UGMATH2019

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 Example
E.g. A broken calculator has all its 10 digit keys and two operation keys intact. Let us call
these operation keys A and B. When the calculator displays a number n pressing A
changes the display to n + 1. When the calculator displays a number n pressing B
changes the display to 2n. For example, if the number 3 is displayed then the key
strokes ABBA changes the display in the following steps 3 → 4 → 8 → 16 → 17.
If 1 is on the display what is the least number of key strokes needed to get 260 on the
display? UGMATH2019

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 Example
E.g. Let 𝜋 = 𝜋1 𝜋2 … 𝜋𝑛 be a permutation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, …, n. We say 𝜋 has its first
ascent at position k < n if 𝜋1 > 𝜋2 … > 𝜋𝑘 and 𝜋𝑘 < 𝜋𝑘+1 . If 𝜋1 > 𝜋2 > ⋯ > 𝜋𝑛−1 >
𝜋𝑛 we say 𝜋 has its first ascent in position n. For example when n = 4 the permutation
2134 of has its first ascent at position 2.
The number of permutations which have their first ascent at position k is . . . . . . .
UGMATH2019

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 Example
E.g. How many non-congruent triangles are there with integer lengths 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 such that
a + b + c = 20? UGMATH2018

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 Example
E.g. An alien script has n letters b1, …, bn. For some k < n/2 assume that all words formed by
any of the k letters (written left to right) are meaningful. These words are called k-
words. A k-word is considered sacred if:
(i) no letter appears twice and,
(ii) if a letter 𝑏𝑖 appears in the word then the letters 𝑏𝑖−1 and 𝑏𝑖+1 do not appear. (Here
𝑏𝑛+1 = 𝑏1 and 𝑏0 = 𝑏𝑛 .)
For example, if n = 7 and k = 3 then b1b3b6, b3b1b6, b2b4b6 are sacred 3-words. On the
other hand b1b7b4, b2b2b6 are not sacred. What is the total number of sacred k-words?
Use your formula to find the answer for n = 10 and k = 4. UGMATH2018

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 Example
E.g. Find the volume of the solid obtained when the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = −𝑥
and the line x = 9 is revolved around the x-axis. (It may be useful to draw the specified
region.) UGMATH2017

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 Example
E.g. Find all complex solutions to the equation:
𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0. UGMATH2017

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 Example
E.g. Let g be a function such that all its derivatives exist. We say g has an inflection point at
x0 if the second derivative g’’ changes sign at x0 i.e., if 𝑔′′ 𝑥0 −∈ × 𝑔′′ 𝑥0 +∈ < 0 for
all small enough positive ∈.
(a) If 𝑔′′(𝑥0 ) then g has an inflection point at x0. True or False?
(b) If g has an inflection point at x0 then 𝑔′′ 𝑥0 = 0. True or False? UGMATH2017

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 Example
E.g. We want to construct a nonempty and proper subset S of the set of non-negative
integers. This set must have the following properties. For any m and any n,
if 𝑚 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 then 𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 and if 𝑚 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝑚 + 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 then 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆.
(i) 0 must be in S.
(ii) 1 cannot be in S.
(iii) There are only finitely many ways to construct such a subset S.
(iv) There is such a subset S that contains both 20152016 and 20162015. UGMATH2016

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 Example
E.g. Out of the 14 students taking a test, 5 are well prepared, 6 are adequately prepared
and 3 are poorly prepared. There are 10 questions on the test paper. A well prepared
student can answer 9 questions correctly, an adequately prepared student can answer
6 questions correctly and a poorly prepared student can answer only 3 questions
correctly. For each probability below, write your final answer as a rational number in
lowest form.
(a) If a randomly chosen student is asked two distinct randomly chosen questions from
the test, what is the probability that the student will answer both questions
correctly?
Note: The student and the questions are chosen independently of each other.
“Random” means that each individual student/each pair of questions is equally
likely to be chosen.
(b) Now suppose that a student was chosen at random and asked two randomly
chosen questions from the exam, and moreover did answer both questions
correctly. Find the probability that the chosen student was well prepared.
UGMATH2016
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 Example
E.g. Consider all finite letter-strings formed by using only two letters A and B. We consider
the usual dictionary order on these strings. See below for the formal rule with
examples.
Formal rule: To compare two strings w1 and w2, read them from left to right. We say
“w1 is smaller than w2" or “w1 < w2" if the first letter in which w1 and w2 differ is A in w1
and B in w2 (for example, ABAA < ABB by looking at the third letters) or if w2 is
obtained by appending some letters at the end of w1 (e.g. AB < ABAA).
For each of the statements below, state if it is true or false. Write your answers as a
sequence of three letters (T for True and F for False) in correct order.
(a) Let w be an arbitrary string. There exists a unique string y satisfying both the
following properties: (i) w < y and (ii) there is no string x with w < x < y .
(b) It is possible to give an infinite decreasing sequence of strings, i.e. a sequence
𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , … , such that 𝑤𝑖+1 < 𝑤𝑖 for each positive integer 𝑖.
(c) Fewer than 50 strings are smaller than ABBABABB. UGMATH2015

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 Example
10 10 𝑖
E.g. (i) By the binomial theorem 2+1 = 𝑖=0 𝐶𝑖 2 , where 𝐶𝑖 are appropriate
constants.
𝑖
Write the value of 𝑖 for which 𝐶𝑖 2 is the largest among the 11 terms in this sum.
𝑛
(ii) For every natural number n, let 2+1 = 𝑝𝑛 + 2 𝑞𝑛 , where pn and qn are
𝑝𝑛 10
integers. Calculate lim . UGMATH2015
𝑛→∞ 𝑞𝑛

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 Example
E.g. The format for car license plates in a small country is two digits followed by three
vowels, e.g. 04 IOU. A license plate is called “confusing" if the digit 0 (zero) and the
vowel O are both present on it. For example 04 IOU is confusing but 20 AEI is not. (i)
How many distinct number plates are possible in all? (ii) How many of these are not
confusing? UGMATH2015

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 Example
E.g. There are four distinct balls labelled 1,2,3,4 and four distinct bins labelled A,B,C,D. The
balls are picked up in order and placed into one of the four bins at random. Let 𝐸𝑖
denote the event that the first 𝑖 balls go into distinct bins. Calculate the following
probabilities.
(i) Pr [𝐸4] (ii) Pr 𝐸4 𝐸3 (iii) Pr 𝐸4 𝐸2 (iv) Pr 𝐸3 𝐸4
Notation: Pr[X] = the probability of event X taking place. Pr[X|Y] = the probability of
event X taking place, given that event Y has taken place. UGMATH2015

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 Example
50!
E.g. What is the smallest positive integer n for which is not an integer?
24𝑛
UGMATH2014

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 Example
E.g. Let x be a real number such that 𝑥 2014 − 𝑥 2004 and 𝑥 2009 − 𝑥 2004 are both integers.
Show that x is an integer. (Hint: it may be useful to first prove that x is rational.)
UGMATH2014

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 Example
E.g. Let S be a circle with center O. Suppose A, B are points on the circumference of S with
∠AOB = 120°. For triangle AOB, let C be its circumcenter and D its orthocenter (i.e., the
point of intersection of the three lines containing the altitudes). For each statement
below, write whether it is TRUE or FALSE.
(a) The triangle AOC is equilateral. (b) The triangle ABD is equilateral.
(c) The point C lies on the circle S. (d) The point D lies on the circle S.
UGMATH2013

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 Example
E.g. There are 8 boys and 7 girls in a group. For each of the tasks specified below, write an
expression for the number of ways of doing it. Do NOT try to simplify your answers.
(a) Sitting in a row so that all boys sit contiguously and all girls sit contiguously, i.e., no
girl sits between any two boys and no boy sits between any two girls
(b) Sitting in a row so that between any two boys there is a girl and between any two
girls there is a boy
(c) Choosing a team of six people from the group
(d) Choosing a team of six people consisting of unequal number of boys and girls
UGMATH2013

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 Example
E.g. Consider the quadratic equation x2 + bx + c = 0, where b and c are chosen randomly
from the interval [0,1] with the probability uniformly distributed over all pairs (b, c). Let
p(b) = the probability that the given equation has a real solution for given (fixed) value
of b. Answer the following questions by filling in the blanks.
(a) The equation x2 + bx + c = 0 has a real solution if and only if 𝑏 2 − 4𝑐 is
1
(b) The value of 𝑝 , i.e., the probability that x2 + x2 + c = 0 has a real solution is
2
(c) As a function of b, is p(b) increasing, decreasing or constant?
(d) As b and c both vary, what is the probability that x2 + bx + c = 0 has a real solution?
UGMATH2013

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 Example
E.g. The number of subsets of {1, 2, 3, … , 10} having an odd number of elements is
(A) 1024 (B) 512 (C) 256 (D) 50
BSTAT2020

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 Example
E.g. A group of 64 players in a chess tournament needs to be divided into 32 groups of 2
players each. In how many ways can this be done?
64! 64 62 4 2
(A) (B) …
32!232 2 2 2 2
64! 64!
(C) (D) 64 BSTAT2020
32!32! 2

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 Example
E.g. Shubhaangi thinks she may be allergic to Bengal gram and takes a test that is known to
give the following results:
• For people who really do have the allergy, the test says “Yes" 90% of the time.
• For people who do not have the allergy, the test says “Yes" 15% of the time.
If 2% of the population has the allergy and Shubhaangi's test says “Yes", then the
chances that Shubhaangi does really have the allergy are
(A) 1/9 (B) 6/55
(C) 1/11 (D) Cannot be determined form the given data
BSTAT2020

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 Example
E.g. If the word PERMUTE is permuted in all possible ways and the different resulting words
are written down in alphabetical order (also known as dictionary order), irrespective of
whether the word has meaning or not, then the 720th word would be:
(A) EEMPRTU (B) EUTRPME (C) UTRPMEE (D) MEETPUR
BSTAT2020

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 Example
E.g. Let 𝑆 = {1, 2, … , 𝑛}. For any non-empty subset A of S, let l(A) denote the largest
number in A. If 𝑓 𝑛 = 𝐴⊆𝑆 𝑙(𝐴), that is, f(n) is the sum of the numbers l(A) while A
ranges over all the nonempty subsets of S, then f(n) is
(A) 2𝑛 (𝑛 + 1) (B) 2n 𝑛 + 1 − 1 (C) 2n (𝑛 − 1) (D) 2𝑛 𝑛 − 1 + 1
BSTAT2020

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 Example
𝑛 𝑟
E.g. Let n be a positive integer and 𝑡 ∈ (0, 1). Then 𝑛𝑟=0 𝑟 𝑡 1−𝑡 𝑛−𝑟
equals
𝑟
(A) 𝑛𝑡 (B) (𝑛 − 1)(1 − 𝑡)
(C) 𝑛𝑡 + (𝑛 − 1)(1 − 𝑡) (D) 𝑛2 − 2𝑛 + 2 𝑡 BSTAT2020

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 Example
E.g. You are given a 4 × 4 chessboard, and asked to fill it with five 3 × 1 pieces and one 1 ×
1 piece. Then, over all such fillings, the number of squares that can be occupied by the
1 × 1 piece is
(A) 4 (B) 8 (C) 12 (D) 16
BSTAT2019

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 Example
E.g. A brand called Jogger’s Pride produces pairs of shoes in three different units that are
named U1,U2 and U3. These units produce 10%, 30%, 60% of the total output of the
brand with the chance that a pair of shoes being defective is 20%, 40%, 10%
respectively. If a randomly selected pair of shoes from the combined output is found to
be defective, then what is the chance that the pair was manufactured in the unit U3?
(A) 30% (B) 15%
3
(C) × 100% (D) Cannot be deternimed from the given data
5
BSTAT2019

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 Example
E.g. A particle is allowed to move in the XY -plane by choosing any one of the two jumps:
1. move two units to right and one unit up, i.e., (𝑎, 𝑏) ⟼ (𝑎 + 2, 𝑏 + 1)
or
2. move two units up and one unit to right, i.e., (𝑎, 𝑏) ⟼ (𝑎 + 1, 𝑏 + 2).
Let P = (30, 63) and Q = (100, 100). If the particle starts at the origin, then
(A) P is reachable but not Q (B) Q is reachable but not P
(C) both P and Q are reachable (D) neither P nor Q is reachable BSTAT2019

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 Example
E.g. A school allowed the students of a class to go to swim during the days March 11th to
March 15, 2019. The minimum number of students the class should have had that
ensures that at least two of them went to swim on the same set of dates is :
(A) 6 (B) 32 (C) 33 (D) 121
BSTAT2019

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 Example
E.g. Three children and two adults want to cross a river using a rowing boat. The boat can
carry no more than a single adult or, in case no adult is in the boat, a maximum of two
children. The least number of times the boat needs to cross the river to transport all
five people is
(A) 9 (B) 11 (C) 13 (D) 15
BSTAT2019

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 Example
E.g. An examination has 20 questions. For each question the marks that can be obtained
are either −1 or 0 or 4. Let S be the set of possible total marks that a student can score
in the examination. Then, the number of elements in S is
(A) 93 (B) 94 (C) 95 (D) 96
BSTAT2019

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 Example
𝑛 𝑛+1
E.g. The number of integers n ≥ 10 such that the product ∙ is a perfect square
10 10
is:
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3
BSTAT2019

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 Example
1
E.g. Let 0 < 𝑥 < be a real number. When a certain biased dice is rolled, a particular face F
6
1 1
occurs with probability − 𝑥 and its opposite face occurs with probability + 𝑥; the
6 6
1
other four faces occur with probability . Recall that opposite faces sum to 7 in any
6
dice. Assume that the probability of obtaining the sum 7 when two such dice are rolled
13
is .
96
Then, the value of x is:
1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
8 12 24 27
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. An office has 8 officers including two who are twins. Two teams, Red and Blue, of 4
officers each are to be formed randomly. What is the probability that the twins would
be together in the Red team?
1 3 1 3
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 7 4 14
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. Suppose Roger has 4 identical green tennis balls and 5 identical red tennis balls. In how
many ways can Roger arrange these 9 balls in a line so that no two green balls are next
to each other and no three red balls are together?
(A) 8 (B) 9 (C) 11 (D) 12
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. The number of permutations σ of 1, 2, 3, 4 such that |σ(i) − i| < 2 for every 1 ≤ i ≤ 4 is
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. A number is called a palindrome if it reads the same backward or forward. For
example, 112211 is a palindrome. How many 6-digit palindromes are divisible by 495?
(A) 10 (B) 11 (C) 30 (D) 45
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. An up-right path is a sequence of points a0 = (x0, y0), a1 = (x1, y1), a2 = (x2, y2), . . . such
that ai+1 − ai is either (1, 0) or (0, 1). The number of up-right paths from (0, 0) to (100,
100) which pass through (1, 2) is:
197 100 197 197
(A) 3 ∙ (B) 3 ∙ (C) 2 ∙ (D) 3 ∙
99 50 98 100
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. Let 10 red balls and 10 white balls be arranged in a straight line such that 10 each are
on either side of a central mark. The number of such symmetrical arrangements about
the central mark is
10! 10!
(A) (B) 10! (C) (D) 2 ∙ 10!
5!5! 5!
BSTAT2018

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 Example
2
E.g. A bag contains some candies, of them are made of white chocolate and the remaining
5
3 1
are made of dark chocolate. Out of the white chocolate candies, are wrapped in red
5 3
2
paper, the rest are wrapped in blue paper. Out of the dark chocolate candies, are
3
wrapped in red paper, the rest are wrapped in blue paper. If a randomly selected candy
from the bag is found to be wrapped in red paper, then what is the probability that it is
made up of dark chocolate?
2 3 3 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
3 4 5 4
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. A party is attended by twenty people. In any subset of four people, there is at least one
person who knows the other three (we assume that if X knows Y , then Y knows X).
Suppose there are three people in the party who do not know each other. How many
people in the party know everyone?
(A) 16 (B) 17
(C) 18 (D) Cannot be determined from teh given data
BSTAT2018

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 Example
E.g. Let 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒}. How many functions 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 are there
such that for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, there is one and exactly one 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 with 𝑦 ≠ 𝑥 and
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)?
(A) 450 (B) 540 (C) 900 (D) 5400
BSTAT2017

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 Example
E.g. Consider all the permutations of the twenty six English letters that start with z. In how
many of these permutations the number of letters between z and y is less than those
between y and x?
(A) 6 × 23! (B) 6 × 24! (C) 156 × 23! (D) 156 × 24!
BSTAT2017

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 Example
E.g. The sum of all distinct four digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5, each digit appearing at most once, is
(A) 399900 (B) 399960 (C) 390000 (D) 360000
BSTAT2016

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 Example
E.g. The coefficient of a3b4c5 in the expansion of (bc + ca + ab)6 is
12! 6 6
(A) (B) 3! (C) 33 (D) 3
3!4!5! 3 3
BSTAT2016

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 Example
E.g. Let n be a positive integer. Consider a square S of side 2n units with sides parallel to the
coordinate axes. Divide S into 4n2 unit squares by drawing 2n – 1 horizontal and 2n – 1
vertical lines one unit apart. A circle of diameter 2n – 1 is drawn with its centre at the
intersection of the two diagonals of the square S. How many of these unit squares
contain a portion of the circumference of the circle?
(A) 4𝑛 − 2 (B) 4𝑛 (C) 8𝑛 − 4 (D) 8𝑛 − 2
BSTAT2016

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 Example
E.g. Let 𝑆 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 . The number of possible pairs of the form (A, B) with 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 for
subsets A and B of S is
𝑛 𝑛
(A) 2𝑛 (B) 3𝑛 (C) 𝑛𝑘=0 (D) 𝑛! BSTAT2016
𝑘 𝑛−𝑘

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 Example
E.g. The number of maps f from the set 1, 2, 3 into the set 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 such that
𝑓 𝑖 ≤ 𝑓(𝑗) whenever 𝑖 < 𝑗 is
(A) 60 (B) 50 (C) 35 (D) 30
BSTAT2016

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 Example
E.g. Consider three boxes, each containing 10 balls labelled 1, 2, . . . , 10. Suppose one ball
is drawn from each of the boxes. Denote by 𝑛𝑖 , the label of the ball drawn from the
𝑖 − 𝑡ℎ box, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3. Then the number of ways in which the balls can be chosen such
that 𝑛1 < 𝑛2 < 𝑛3 is
(A) 120 (B) 130 (C) 150 (D) 160
BSTAT2016

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