Analysis of Algorithms
Recurrences
Instructor: Dr. Ahmad Qawasmeh
Note: Slides were written by Dr. Monica Nicolescu at University of Nevada, Reno
Recurrent Algorithms
BINARY – SEARCH
• for an ordered array A, finds if x is in the array A[lo…hi]
Alg.: BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
if (lo > hi) 2 3 5 7 9 10 11 12
return FALSE
mid (lo+hi)/2 mid
lo hi
if x = A[mid]
return TRUE
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x)
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x)
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Example
• A[8] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11}
– lo = 1 hi = 8 x = 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 4, lo = 5, hi = 8
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 6, A[mid] = x
Found!
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Example
• A[8] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11}
– lo = 1 hi = 8 x=6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 4, lo = 5, hi = 8
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 6, A[6] = 7, lo = 5, hi = 5
1 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 mid = 5, A[5] = 5, lo = 6, hi = 5
NOT FOUND!
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Analysis of BINARY-SEARCH
Alg.: BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, hi, x)
if (lo > hi) constant time: c 1
return FALSE
mid (lo+hi)/2 constant time: c2
if x = A[mid] constant time: c 3
return TRUE
if ( x < A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, lo, mid-1, x) same problem of size n/2
if ( x > A[mid] )
BINARY-SEARCH (A, mid+1, hi, x) same problem of size n/2
• T(n) = c + T(n/2)
– T(n) – running time for an array of size n
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Recurrences and Running Time
• Recurrence: an equation or inequality that
describes a function in terms of its value on
smaller inputs.
• Recurrences arise when an algorithm contains
recursive calls to itself
• What is the actual running time of the algorithm?
• Need to solve the recurrence
– Find an explicit formula of the expression (the generic
term of the sequence)
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Example Recurrences
• T(n) = T(n-1) + n Θ(n2)
– Recursive algorithm that loops through the input to
eliminate one item
• T(n) = T(n/2) + c Θ(lgn)
– Recursive algorithm that halves the input in one step
• T(n) = T(n/2) + n Θ(n)
– Recursive algorithm that halves the input but must
examine every item in the input
• T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 1 Θ(n)
– Recursive algorithm that splits the input into 2 halves
and does a constant amount of other work
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Methods for Solving Recurrences
• Iteration method
• Substitution method
• Recursion tree method
• Master method
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The Iteration Method
T(n) = c + T(n/2)
T(n) = c + T(n/2) T(n/2) = c + T(n/4)
= c + c + T(n/4) T(n/4) = c + T(n/8)
= c + c + c + T(n/8)
Assume n = 2k
T(n) = c + c + … + c + T(1)
k times
= clgn + T(1)
= Θ(lgn)
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Iteration Method – Example
T(n) = n + 2T(n/2) Assume: n = 2k
T(n) = n + 2T(n/2) T(n/2) = n/2 + 2T(n/4)
= n + 2(n/2 + 2T(n/4))
= n + n + 4T(n/4)
= n + n + 4(n/4 + 2T(n/8))
= n + n + n + 8T(n/8)
… = in + 2iT(n/2i)
= kn + 2kT(1)
= nlgn + nT(1) = Θ(nlgn)
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Iteration Method – Example
T(n) = n + T(n-1)
T(n) = n + T(n-1)
= n + (n-1) + T(n-2)
= n + (n-1) + (n-2) + T(n-3)
… = n + (n-1) + (n-2) + … + 2 + T(1)
= n(n+1)/2 - 1 + T(1)
= n2+ T(1) = Θ(n2)
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The substitution method
1. Guess a solution
2. Use induction to prove that the
solution works
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Substitution method
• Guess a solution
– T(n) = O(g(n))
– Induction goal: apply the definition of the asymptotic notation
• T(n) ≤ d g(n), for some d > 0 and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(k) ≤ d g(k) for all k < n
• Prove the induction goal
– Use the induction hypothesis to find some values of the
constants d and n0 for which the induction goal holds
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Example: Binary Search
T(n) = c + T(n/2)
• Guess: T(n) = O(lgn)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ d lgn, for some d and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ d lg(n/2)
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = T(n/2) + c ≤ d lg(n/2) + c
= d lgn – d + c ≤ d lgn
if: – d + c ≤ 0, d ≥ c
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Example 2
T(n) = T(n-1) + n
• Guess: T(n) = O(n2)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ c n2, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n-1) ≤ c(n-1)2
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = T(n-1) + n ≤ c (n-1)2 + n
= cn2 – (2cn – c - n) ≤ cn2
if: 2cn – c – n ≥ 0 c ≥ n/(2n-1) c ≥ 1/(2 – 1/n)
– For n ≥ 1 2 – 1/n ≥ 1 any c ≥ 1 will work
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Example 3
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n
• Guess: T(n) = O(nlgn)
– Induction goal: T(n) ≤ cn lgn, for some c and n ≥ n0
– Induction hypothesis: T(n/2) ≤ cn/2 lg(n/2)
• Proof of induction goal:
T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n ≤ 2c (n/2)lg(n/2) + n
= cn lgn – cn + n ≤ cn lgn
if: - cn + n ≤ 0 c ≥ 1
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Changing variables
T(n) = 2T( n ) + lgn
– Rename: m = lgn n = 2m
T (2m) = 2T(2m/2) + m
– Rename: S(m) = T(2m)
S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m S(m) = O(mlgm)
(demonstrated before)
T(n) = T(2m) = S(m) = O(mlgm)=O(lgnlglgn)
Idea: transform the recurrence to one that you
have seen before
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The recursion-tree method
Convert the recurrence into a tree:
– Each node represents the cost incurred at that level
of recursion
– Sum up the costs of all levels
Used to “guess” a solution for the recurrence
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Example 1
W(n) = 2W(n/2) + n2
• Subproblem size at level i is: n/2i
• Subproblem size hits 1 when 1 = n/2i i = lgn
• Cost of the problem at level i = (n/2i)2 No. of nodes at level i = 2i
• Total cost: lg n−1 2
n lg n−1
1
i
1
i
2 2 2
1
W (n) = lg n
+ 2 W (1) = n
2 2
+nn2
+ O(n) =n + O(n) = 2n 2
i=0
i
i=0 i=0 1− 1
2
W(n) = O(n2)
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Readings
• Chapter 4
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